A Level Irish History timeline 1798

23rd May: Wolfe Tone’s Rising

The rising was carried out by the united Irishmen, a revolutionary group that had been formed in 1791 – calling for Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform.

In 1793, they had allied with revolutionary France – planning a revolution in Ireland supported by a French invasion.

By 1797, they had an estimated 100,000 active supporters.

1795 – the Orange Order was formed as an opposing group

The rebellion itself was largely a series of small separate uprisings rather than a concerted plan.

It was seen by some members of the Protestant Ascendency as a Catholic uprising against Protestantism

The rising was brutally suppressed by the British government at the time. One can draw parallels between the treatment of this and the 1916 Easter Rising – both rebellions were met with violence and the leaders were executed.

Although it lasted barely a month, around 30,000 people were killed.

The rising revealed all too clearly the weaknesses of the existing system and plans were put forward for a legislative union between Britain and Ireland.

November: Wolfe Tone dies

Because of his work with the united Irishmen, he is seen as a hero for Irish Nationalism for generations

1799

Irish Parliament first rejects the prospect of a Union with Britain.

Irish Parliament first debates the issue in January.

A group of Ascendency members strongly opposed the Act of Union – Grattan’s Patriots, the Patriots being a group of Irish MPs that had formed in the 1750s.

In the end, the proposal for a Union was narrowly defeated.

Arguments in Favour:

Geography - Ireland as the weak Link in Britain’s Imperial defence, current system of government encouraged divisions, the fate of the ascendency, economic benefits for Ireland, Roman Catholics becoming a minority within the population of GB as opposed to a majority in Ireland.

Arguments Against:

Emotional – the vague feeling of a sense of Irish nationality – a separate society with its own needs and interests that could still bear allegiance to the crown, the good track record of the Irish parliament, the members of the Ascendency with national pride who had helped defeat the rebellion of 1798.

Fears of French invasion re-surface

1800

Act of Union passed

Helped by the position of Pitt as PM – no prospect of n anti-Unionist government coming to power in Britain – unassailable!

Castlereagh – bribery, pressure and influence on a huge scale induced a number of anti-Unionist Irish MPs to vote in favour – passed by 158 to 115.

Removed the Irish parliament in Dublin, gave Ireland 100 MPs at Westminster and 32 Peers in the House of Lords, unified the CofE & CofI, free trade established between the countries, equal commercial privileges, Ireland to contribute 2/17ths to the expenditure of the United Kingdom, financial systems to remain separate, legal systems and laws remained as they were.

The Viceroy remained and continued to exert significant influence in Ireland.

It is important to remember that Catholic emancipation was originally proposed as Part of the Act of Union, but the King refused to allow it.

The bill achieved Ascent in August.

1801

Act of Union becomes LAW

Consequences: hopes of supporters of the union largely unfulfilled – political integration only half-hearted, Viceroy remained, Chief Secretary deals with all Irish affairs, PA continue to control Ireland as they had previously. Pitt’s plan for emancipation foiled by George III, causing Pitt’s resignation. The Economic advantages proclaimed were not realised – Irish industries had no chance of competing with the far more developed English ones. Ireland not seen as a good investment – rather than England-> Ireland traffic, the reverse occurred – large-scale emigration from Ireland to England and Scotland.

1803

Failed uprising in Dublin

Led by Robert Emmet, who was inspired by the United Irishmen.

Aimed to overthrow the Act of Union and establish an Irish republic.

Emmet wanted to capture Dublin Castle, leading to a national revolution.

An explosion at an arms dump a week before the planned revolt and conspirators' pamphlets which were seized by the British government gave Emmet's intentions away.

Only 300 men rose up (he had planned for 2,000) and it only lasted a matter of hours - didn't get near the Castle and followers piked the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland to death.

Over 30 people died.

Emmet disapproved and went into hiding, but he was arrested outside the Castle.

He was arrested and executed, and his speech from the docks became part of nationalist literature in the period - 'Let no man write my epitaph...When my country takes her place among the nations of the earth, then, and not till then let my epitaph be written.'

1807

Upsurge of agrarian outrages and crime

Prompts Sir Arthur Wellesley (Chief secretary) to insist that Ireland “must be considered the enemy’s country”

1811

O’Connell sets up the Catholic Board

Leader of the radical wing

1813

O’Connell proclaims his long term aim

“it is the repeal of the Union and the restoration to Old Ireland of her independence”

1817

Famine

This famine was well dealt with – avoiding the sort of mass starvation seen in the great famine of 1845-50.

1821

Catholic Emancipation bill rejected by Lords

‘Thank God!’ thought the Tories.

1823

Daniel O’Connell founds the Catholic Association

A constitutional organisation for the achievement of Catholic civil and political rights.

Aimed for emancipation, much like the Old Catholic Board.

Also wanted to embrace a wide range of issues, such as electoral reform, reform of the Church or Ireland, tenants’ rights and economic development.

The Catholic Church was a key part of the organisation.

Methods:

Run from Dublin, directing regional and local activity.

Organisation of great open-air meetings.

O’Connell as a brilliant orator spoke at these meetings.

Policy of brinkmanship.

Press and public posters.

1824

Catholic Association expanded

It only became a prominent organisation when the Catholic rent was introduced

One penny per month membership for all supporters, instead of the high subscription originally proposed.

This enabled the organisation to become truly national, with strong roots among the peasantry – transformed the CA into “the crusade of an irresistible mass movement”.

Very successful – collected £20,000 in the first 9 months

1826

Election

CA intervenes!

(It called upon the catholic votes in certain counties to support only pro-Emancipation candidates, whether they were Whigs or Tories.

Urging the 40-shilling freeholders to disobey their Protestant landlords, & many did!

Meticulous organisation, combined with help of the local priests, achieved some success – four pro-Emancipation candidates were returned.

1828

February: Tests and Corporations Acts* repealed

Made it difficult for the Tories to ignore the issue of Catholic emancipation

*1661/1673 – excluded Roman Catholics, Protestant dissenters and Jews from office.

July: Daniel O’Connell elected as MP for County Clare

Vesey Fitzgerald was appointed President of the Board of Trade and as such had to seek re-election.

In an act of supreme audacity, O’Connell decides to stand against him.

With backing of the CA and local Priests – he wins!

Triggers a constitutional crisis – unable to take his seat in the HoC without a change in the law – in effect, Catholic Emancipation. **The alternative? Oppose his right to enter, which runs the risk of widespread public disorder and violence in Ireland.

1829

Catholic Emancipation Act

Granted virtually full political and civil rights to Catholics

Alongside it was a gesture of political spite: the franchise qualification was raised from 40 shillings freehold to £10 Household suffrage. This cut the Irish electorate by 5/6ths.

Argued by many historians as more important that 1800’s AoU – “1829 proved a more important turning point in the history of modern Ireland than 1800” – J. C. Beckett

HOWEVER, change was slow – Catholics were still discriminated against.

Marked a key point in the identification of Catholicism with Irish Nationalism.

1830

Anti-Tithe Campaign begins

An acceleration of rural crime in protest against the Tithes – religious taxes payable to the CofI.

Forcible and generally unsuccessful attempts by the authorities to collect the tithe.

Virtual breakdown of Law and Order in Ireland.

Was to last until 1838.

General Election

30 Irish O’Connellite MPs returned to the HoC – an influential 3rd Party!

1832

Great Reform Act

Disappointing for the Irish – the vote was not restored to the 40-shilling freeholders and Ireland obtained just 5 new MPs.

1833

Coercion Act

One of the toughest pieces of Law and Order legislation to affect Ireland in the 19th Century.

Gave the authorities powers of arbitrary arrest and imprisonment and control of public meetings.

Success in terms of diminishing the amount of violent crime, agitation etc and hence got some support from Irish bishops.

O’Connell denounces it; “the base, brutal and bloody Whigs”

General Election

39 O’Connellite MPs returned – the largest bloc of Irish MPs in the HoC

Irish Church Act

This reformed the unrepresentative Church of Ireland

Abolished the 10 sees (Bishops’ areas of authority or seats) including 2 archbishoprics and suggested that the confiscated church funds obtained from this be used for secular purposes.

1834

Poor Law Act

Set up a central authority for Poor Relief – in Ireland a workhouse system was established – Lord John Russell as Home Secretary attempting to place English Law into Ireland.

1835

Litchfield House Compact

An alliance between the Whigs and the O’Connellites

Opposition worked together to defeat Peel’s first ministry

1838

Tithes Commutation Act

A compromise solution to the Tithe issue

The tithe became a fixed additional rent charge payable by the landlord.

In reality, it did little to correct the situation – rents were simply raised. However, it took away the hand-to mouth aspect of the payment, lessening the agrarian outrages.

1839

Daniel O’Connell founds the National Repeal Association

Works in much the same way as the Catholic association, relied on the Catholic church to collect a low ‘repeal rent’

Forced the English to accept the reality of Irish opposition to the Union – however it was often attributed to the ‘irrationality or Irish character’ or linked to the common perception of the Irish as ‘uncivilised’

1840

Corporations Act

This act reformed Local government, and was introduced in 1835 in England and Wales.

It established a system of local government through the election of unpaid local councillors every 3 years to a municipal corporation to represent the local community, voted in by all those who had paid rates for 3 years or more.

However, in Ireland it was much narrower – the elections still being based on the £10 householder suffrage and gave the local councils much more limited powers.

In addition, it abolished 58 Irish corporations.

1841

Daniel O’Connell elected Lord Mayor of Dublin

This had huge significance because it was the highest office achieved by a Catholic – worrying for the Protestants and a huge Victory for O’Connell.

It was the first time that the office had been held by a Catholic since the reign of James II.

Young Ireland founded

Radical nationalist movement arguing on the basis of cultural nationalism – Irish language (Gaelic) as a means of developing nationalism in Ireland and achieving independence.

Violent agitation made it a revolutionary nationalist rather than constitutional nationalist group.

1842

O’Connell declares:

“I want every Irishman to be convinced of this truth, that there is nothing worth looking for, save the power of governing ourselves”

1843

Key year for the repeal campaign

Vast mobilisation of Catholics, around 3-4million attend the monster meetings

The failure of the National Repeal Association

Peel was in a strong position – his government commanded a large majority and was united in opposition to repeal.

In autumn 1843, Peel banned the planned monster meeting at Clontarf.

O'Connell accepted the government ban of the monstor meeting at Clontarf, much to the dismay of supporters of the Repeal Movement. His failure to adopt violent measures was viewed as a sign of weakness by both his former supporters and proponents of the Union.

Why did the Repeal Movement fail?

Unlike the Catholic Emancipation, the Repeal Movement had little support amongst the Middle Classes.

English politicians feared that an independent Ireland could become vulnerable to a Jacobinist revolution.

1844

Peel submits his plan for Irish reform to the Cabinet

Very wide ranging; covered the areas of franchise, landlord-tenant relations and the education of Catholics.

Not very successful – A proposed franchise bill based on the £5 householder was dropped, a further bill for providing compensation to evicted Irish tenants, for improvements made to their holdings, was rejected.

The end of O’Connell

In May, he was arrested on charges of incitement to violence and was subsequently arrested.

Although his conviction was quashed, physically and mentally the events took their toll – O’Connell’s political career was over.

1845

Maynooth Grant increased

Maynooth was a training college for Catholic priests

It was facing clear financial difficulties by the 1840s, and therefore Peel decided to support a bill increasing its grant

It was cynically with a political aim that he made the decision – he wanted to encourage the rise of a more respectable, less politicised class of Parish clergy.

Colleges Bill

Established 3 non-denominational colleges at Cork, Belfast and Galway where Catholics could be educated

Not very successful – condemned by the Catholics as Godless Colleges

Great Famine begins

Irish population around 8 million

First failure of the potato harvest caused by potato blight

In addition, an issue with the Irish land system of tenure – 64% of holdings were less than 15 acres (24% less than 5 acres, cottiers), and only about 7% over 30 acres.

Meant that starvation was a threat even without famine.

1846

Repeal of the Corn Laws

Possibly influenced by the famine in Ireland, Peel repealed the Corn Laws allowing for total free trade with cereals.

In reality, it did not affect the situation very much – prices did not fall.

Young Ireland group split from O'Connell

The doctrinaire nationalists of the Young Ireland group resented O’Connell’s constitutional methods.

They also wanted religion kept out of the repeal campaign.

They came out in favour of the possible use of force, directly opposing O’Connell’s wish for peaceful agitation.

Over this issue, they were either expelled from or left the NRA.

Labour Rate Act

Made Irish hunger relief and creation of jobs the responsibility of Irish local taxation.

Lay the burden with landowners to help the situation

‘Hopelessly inadequate’

1847

O’Connell dies

He spoke for the last time in the HoC in February, and aware of his failing health, he set off for Italy, determined to spend his final days in Rome.

However, he never made it and died in Genoa on the 15th May.

Public works projects and Labour Rate Act abandoned

Free distribution of food via soup kitchens introduced in a desperate attempt to help the situation in Ireland.

Young Ireland newspaper founded

United Irishmen after Wolfe Tone’s movement

Fintan Lalor, Gavan Duffy, William Smith O’Brien and James Dillon aided Mitchel; all of whom were middle class literary and professional men.

1848

Young Ireland Rising

The death of O’Connell paved the way for the emergence of a more extreme group of Irish nationalists

John Mitchel=key figure

The rebellion was encouraged by the Chartist movement (radical campaigners for parliamentary reform)

July: The rebellion started. Several problems with it including poor leadership, bad organisation, lack of mass support, opposition from the Roman Catholic Church.

Was knocked down in a few weeks – ‘Widow McCormack’s cabbage patch’

tragic-comic affray between a handful of peasants and the police at a remote farmhouse

Dillon escaped, O’Brien tried and transported

“romantic idealism totally out of touch with the world of reality” – F. S. L. Lyons

However, two important ideas arise from it

Ideal of an independent Irish republic to be fought and/or died for

the notion of a land war – tenants versus landlords as a fundamental part of liberation – foreshadowing the grim reality of the 1870s

Worst years of famine

Vast numbers starving

Mass emigration to America – around 230,000 that year alone

1849

Encumbered Estates Act

This allowed the sale of estates in Ireland.

It was intended that English investors would buy the properties, but this was not the case.

Large numbers of estates were sold to speculators – middlemen with an overarching objective of profit.

Thousands of smallholders were evicted as land was turned over to grazing.

Gladstone: “its effect was disastrous”

1850

Irish Tenant League founded

The Irish tenant league emerges partly in response to the evictions that were being carried out by some landlords

Also as an expression of power on the part of the larger farmers that were emerging in Ireland at the time

Demanded tenant rights – fair rents and compensation from the landlords for improvements made to plots if the tenant was evicted.

Several small locals groups combining formed the All-Ireland Tenant League.

Second Reform Act

Increased the franchise

1852

The beginnings of the IPP

A small group of Irish MPs of all political persuasions emerges, calling themselves the Irish Parliamentary Party.

Initially supported the tenant rights movement.

1858

James Stephens founds Irish Republican Brotherhood

Linked with the Fenian movement in America

Republicanism

It was intended to be an oath-sworn secret organisation

Widely denounced by the British press, the establishment, the Catholic Church and the Irish political elite. Tories launched a wide propaganda campaign against them.

Fenian Brotherhood founded in America

Closely linked with the Irish group, this formed largely amongst the immigrant community who had fled Ireland during the Great famine and its aftermath

1867

Fenian Outrages

Two large events:

September: two Fenians were rescued from a prison van in Manchester, but in the course of the events a policeman was killed

December: Fenians blew up part of the wall of Clerkenwell Prison in London, with the loss of about a dozen innocent lives.

The events were greeted with horror and anger in England – yet in Ireland the 3 Fenians who were arrested and executed for the murder of the Manchester policeman became known as the ‘Manchester Martyrs’

Gladstone: “they brought home to the popular mind...the vast importance of the Irish controversy”.

3rd Reform Act

The Irish version of the Act was passed a year later than the one applicable to England and Wales.

Increased the franchise; no change to Ireland’s representation at Westminster.

1868

General election: Gladstone forms his 1st ministry

The Liberals swept into power with a majority of over 100

Gladstone famously says, “My mission is to pacify Ireland.”

Perhaps his renewed interest in Ireland was a result of the Fenian outrages of the previous year.

Political advantages of Irish reform: a means of re-uniting the Liberal party after the divisions of Parliamentary reform 2 years previously. Also regaining the political initiative from Disraeli.

1869

Irish Church Act

Had played an important part in the Liberals’ election campaign.

Virtually unanswerable case for reform – the CofI had never represented more than a tiny minority of Irish people – less than 0.75 million of a population of 5.75 million.

This legislation both disestablished and disendowed the Church of Ireland

Disestablishment: the link between Church and State was severed and CofI was to become a separate, voluntary organisation.

Meant that tithes no longer had to be paid to the church and that Irish Anglican Archbishops and Bishops would no longer sit in the House of Lords.

Disendowment: Caused considerable controversy – What to do with the properties belonging to the Church? Anglicans wanted the money to be used to help dispossessed members of the Church; Catholics wanted most of the money used for secular purposes.

£10million was to be granted to the Church of Ireland for pensions to their clergy and compensation for loss of office; £13million was granted for secular purposes.

In order to bring the other Churches in line with the new status of the CofI, the state grants to Maynooth and the Presbyterian Church were abolished.

A further significant clause facilitated the purchase of lands of the Church of Ireland by their tenants – about 6000 farmers took advantage of this.

In practice, made little difference to the lives of most ordinary Irish people.

1870

First Irish Land Act

The complexity of the Irish land system made this a difficult question – wide range of interests and demands to be met.

Three major parts to the bill:

The Ulster Custom – In the north of Ireland, there was an informal agreement known as the Ulster Custom – tenants could not be evicted so long as they continued to pay their rent. Furthermore, tenants possessed the right of free sale – if a tenant gave up his holding, he had the right to sell his interest in the land to an acceptable incoming tenant by claiming compensation for the work he had put into it.

Eviction – Tenants who were evicted were to be compensated by their landlord for the improvements that they had made to their holdings. A tenant was to be compensated in similar fashion if he was evicted for any reason other than non-payment of rent.

Land purchase – ‘John Bright clauses’ after the radical minister who proposed them. Enabled a tenant wishing to purchase his holding from his landlord to obtain two-thirds of the price as a grant from the state.

A one-off, distinctly Irish measure with no implications for the rest of the United Kingdom. Therefore, not regarded as an attack on the rights of property.

Intended to make Irish landlords more like their English counterparts – personal familiarity and sympathy in landlord-tenant relations.

Passed through both houses of Parliament with virtually no opposition.

Not very successful – problem of defining legally the Ulster custom, Bright clauses offered the Landlord no incentives to sell and few tenants could afford the 1/3 purchase price, eviction clauses had little impact as controlling rents was ignored and tenants on long leases were outside the Act’s provisions.

F. S. L. Lyons: “symbolic significance” of the act – a blow against the power of the ascendency.

1873

Isaac Butt founds the Home Rule League

The Home Rule Association, which had been founded in 1870, is replaced by a more distinctly political organisation.

Programme included popular issues such as tenant right.

Built up widespread support amongst the Irish electorate.

Irish Universities Bill defeated

University reform widely acknowledged to be needed – Catholics had no major degree-awarding institutions of their own.

The non-denominational colleges were denounced by the Catholic Church, and Trinity College Dublin was an Anglican foundation.

The bill proposed the establishment of a national, nondenominational University of Dublin.

Defeated in Commons by 3 votes – Gladstone resigned; Disraeli refused to take office, Gladstone back into power.

1874

General Election

Disraeli comes to power.

60 Home Rule MPs elected

Isaac Butt and his followers form themselves into an Independent Home Rule Party.

Were to have little impact in the House of Commons or English public opinion in general.

Isaac Butt proved to be a weak leader – he was often away from commons pursuing his legal career.

1875

Charles Stewart Parnell elected MP for County Merth

Enabled him to sit in Commons.

A young Protestant landowner.

Isaac Butt’s leadership challenged

J.C. Biggar and John O’Connor Power, both Fenians, started using the tactic of obstruction in HoC.

They were joined by the more charismatic Charles Stewart Parnell

1877

Parnell becomes President of the Home Rule Confederation of Great Britain

A bitter blow to Butt’s prestige – his power was clearly waning.

Parnell had private contacts with a number of leading Fenians, and prepared to co-operate with them.

An impressive leader: “He has many of the qualities of leadership, and time will give him more” – a colleague.

1879

Michael Davitt founds the Land League

An agricultural depression was starting to hit Ireland by the end of the 70s:

slump in food prices

lack of opportunities of migratory work in England

non-payment of rents leads to the eviction of around 1000 families.

Gave ammunition for a popular agrarian movement to be founded, with organisation and leadership on a national scale.

Land War began, Davitt being a key figure. He was a Fenian but unlike the hard-liners, believed in co-operation with the Constitutional nationalists. John Devoy had similar views and encouraged Davitt to campaign for land reform and Irish self-government.

Spoke several times in County Mayo, where he had grown up, to voice opposition to evictions and in favour of tenants’ rights and land reform.

Parnell, as the up-and-coming leader of the IPP, was encouraged to support the agitation. He did so likely as a political gesture rather than any true support – he believed it might help his Home Rule campaign.

Campaigned for the Three Fs:

Fair rents, Free sale, Fixity of tenure

Aims of the Land League:

Put an end to rack-renting, eviction and landlord oppression. Effect radical change in the land system of Ireland.

Tactics of the Land League:

Urged tenants to offer landlords lower or no rents, helped tenants who had been evicted, cared for the families of the imprisoned.

Boycott campaign: against farmers who attempted to take over the holding of an evicted tenant; against the evicting landlords themselves.

Famously against Captain Boycott, a land agent in County Mayo left without servants, mail delivery or service in shops as a result of the Land League’s activities – his name became used to denote the practice.

The New Departure

Parnell, Devoy and Butt meet in Dublin in June.

Symbolising Radicalism, Revolutionary and Constitutional Nationalism, they came to an informal agreement in support of the tenants’ demands and Irish Self Government.

1880

General Election

Parnell returned from America to fight the election in April.

Outstanding victory for the Liberals – formation of Gladstone’s 2nd ministry.

61 Home Rulers returned to Commons.

May: Parnell elected as leader of the IPP – after only 5 years in Politics and aged just 34.

1881

Coercion Act

Parnell and his followers opposed the bill for 41 hours by using the tactic of obstruction.

Speaker stopped them by using the guillotine – for the first time ever. This became accepted practice and obstruction became almost impossible afterwards.

The Act granted exceptional powers of arrest and imprisonment – suspending Habeas Corpus enabling those suspected of committing an offence to be detained without trial.

Davitt arrested under it, causing uproar in HoC and resulting in the expulsion of 36 Irish MPs, including Parnell.

Helped to unify and strengthen the IPP.

Second Irish Land Act

Introduced the 3 Fs – success for the Land League!

‘Fair Rents’ for tenants, fixed for 15 years by land courts.

‘Fixity of Tenure’ throughout Ireland – tenants could not be evicted if they paid their rents.

‘Free Sale’ – the recognition of the tenant’s interest in his holding and the right to compensation if he relinquished it.

Also included a land purchase scheme – Raised the state’s proportion of the purchase price to ¾ from the 2/3 it had been set at previously.

“less economic policy...than a political stroke” – economic historians – destroy the raison d’être of the Land League and remove the necessity for violence in Ireland.

Saw a 20% reduction in rents over the next few years, good for tenants, not for landowners. Serious consideration within the landowning classes in Ireland of selling up, however many tenants still didn’t want to buy.

Parnell imprisoned

On the grounds that Parnell was deliberately working against the implementation of the Land Act, Foster had him arrested and imprisoned in Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin.

This turned Parnell into a martyr for the cause, so politically it was a fortunate thing to happen

1882

Kilmainham Treaty

Parnell’s arrest ironically led to improved relations between him and the British government.

With Parnell having personal reasons to wish for his release and Gladstone needing ‘the uncrowned king of Ireland’ to help solve the law and order issue, conditions were right for an agreement to be made.

Joseph Chamberlain, a radical in the government, and Captain O’Shea (Parnell’s mistress’ husband!) acted as intermediaries in what became known as the Kilmainham Treaty.

The terms stated that in return for the government releasing Parnell, amending the Land Act to include those in arrears and relaxing the Coercion Act, Parnell was to use his influence to dissuade the Irish from violence and accept and support the recent Land Act and the Land Courts. He also agreed to support the Liberal Party in ‘forwarding Liberal principles and measures of general reform.’

Phoenix Park Massacre

The brutal murders of Lord Frederick Cavendish (Irish secretary) and T.H. Burke (the under-secretary) in Phoenix Park, Dublin, on May 6th by and Irish revolutionary group known as ‘The Invincibles’ (linked to the IRB)

Parnell’s shock horror reaction was received well in HoC and he was persuaded to abandon his intention of giving up politics.

There was uproar against Political violence in both England and the United States, and new security measures were imposed.

George Boyce: “For better or for worse, for richer or for poorer, the Home Rule Party was synonymous with nationalist Ireland.”

National League replaces Land League

After the Land League was banned by British authorities, it all but collapsed.

The National League was a more political organisation, intending to win support across the whole of Irish society, not just with the farmers.

It was effectually the electoral arm of the IPP, having over 1000 branches across Ireland.

1884

Reform Act

Extended the franchise to virtually all working males of fixed abode.

Applied to the whole of Great Britain and Ireland.

Meanwhile...

Parnell’s National League and IPP formed an alliance with the Catholic Church – the Church lending its support to Home Rule in return for the IPP pursuing the demands for education.

However, the relations between the two were not particularly close.

1885

Gladstone is converted to Home Rule

There is historical consensus that it was at this time that Home Rule took root in Gladstone’s mind – particularly after the results of the general election.

As Parnell and the IPP transferred their votes to the Conservative party, Gladstone was out-voted because of several Liberal abstentions – reflecting the growing divisions within the Liberal party.

Salisbury as PM until the result of the general election was known.

General Election

IPP won every seat in Ireland south of Eastern Ulster apart from Trinity College Dublin, with 86 seats.

The Liberals won 335 seats, with the Conservatives on 249.

Parnell had destroyed the Liberal Party in Ireland, and more importantly, neither Party could govern without his support. Parnell held the balance of power – a very good position indeed, when it came to achieving his aim of Home Rule.

Parnell backed the Conservatives.

Ashbourne [Land Purchase] Act

Set up a £5 million fund to aid any tenant who wanted to buy land. One could take a loan from the government and pay it back in monthly instalments.

The loans would be paid back over the course of 48 years at a rate of 4% per annum.

1886

Parnell switches the IPP to the Liberal side

This resulted in the formation of Gladstone’s 3rd ministry.

First Home Rule Bill

Despite Gladstone’s earlier optimism about the Irish situation, it became apparent that his programme of religious and agrarian reform had not been altogether very successful.

The reality of Irish nationalism was also starting to hit home – the results of the general election showed without doubt the strength and influence that it possessed.

When it became clear that the Conservatives had no intention of supporting Home Rule, Gladstone once again became Prime Minister and introduced the First Home Rule Bill.

The first bill proposed the establishment of a bi-cameral Irish legislature, consisting of 2 orders that would sit and vote together – the first being a sort of upper house and the second being much like the HoC. There was to be an Irish executive drawn from the legislature, but the Lord Lieutenant would remain as the Queen’s representative.

The parliament would have power over domestic affairs, but notably excluded were defence, foreign and international policy and trade, customs and excise and the Irish police.

The second bill consisted of a Land purchase scheme by which the British treasury would buy out the landlords at a cost of £50million. Gladstone believed this to be essential to prevent the new Irish legislature from being burdened by the land system.

It was, however, abandoned when it became apparent that there was no support for it anywhere in the House.

He only very briefly touched on the Ulster problem, and didn’t treat it seriously.

The bill was bitterly attacked by the Conservatives and many leading liberals. They had 3 major criticisms:

First – that Irish self-government would lead inevitably to complete separation and the break-up of the United Kingdom.

Second – there was doubt as to whether the members of the future Irish legislature could be trusted to protect the lives and property of all Irishmen, especially Protestants.

Third – Irish nationality and unity (the rock on which Gladstone had rested his case) could be said to exist when all classes in Protestant Ulster were so violently opposed to Home Rule.

The Liberal anti-Home Rulers decided to vote against the bill. Thus, when the vote was taken on the Second Reading, the Bill was defeated by 313 to 343.

General Election

The Conservatives, united against a split Liberal Party, worked with the Unionist Liberals to ensure the election of Unionist candidates.

The result was a resounding victory for the Unionists, who won 394 seats, of which 316 were Conservative and 78 Liberal Unionist.

Gladstone Liberals were reduced to just 191 MPs.

So began the Era of Conservative domination.

Anti-Repeal Union founded

In Ulster, a group of influential Protestants – landowners, businessmen, and clergy – formed this movement against Home Rule.

The movement grew rapidly and gained the support of the Conservative MP Lord Randolph Churchill – playing the Orange Card. Famous saying: “Ulster will fight, and Ulster will be right”.

They were effectively a political organisation wing of the Orange Order.

1887

The beginning of the end for Parnell

The Times printed a series of articles entitled ‘Parnellism and Crime’, accusing the Irish leader of complicity in violence in Ireland and approval of the Phoenix Park Massacre.

Within a year, Parnell’s personal reputation and political career were virtually in ruins.

1889

Ashbourne Act is extended

See above

1890

O’Shea divorce

Captain O’Shea filed for Divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent on the grounds of his adulterous behaviour with Kitty. Parnell offered no defence and the divorce was granted.

Although initially there were no political repercussions, Gladstone found issue with the fact that a large proportion of his supporters wouldn’t accept alliance with a party whose leader was a confessed adulterer.

As a result, Gladstone sent a letter to Justin McCarty, Parnell’s second in command, spelling out his position and urging the Irish to dispatch with Parnell as their leader.

Parnell was furious when the letter was published in the press in November, and refused to resign the leadership even temporarily. He reacted by personally attacking Gladstone and denouncing the alliance with the Liberal Party.

Faced with a dilemma – Parnell or Parnellite principles, the IPP split. 45 MPs, lead by MacCarthy, repudiated Parnell’s leadership, whilst 35 stood by him.

A few days later, the Catholic clergy called upon the Irish people to repudiate him – another nail in his coffin.

1891

October: Parnell dies

Having fought a series of by-elections, all of which he had lost; Parnell became ill and died in the arms of his wife, Kitty. He was just 45.

The IPP descended into warring factions following this.

Balfour [Land Purchase] Act

£33 million was advanced for land purchase and tenants were again lent the whole of the purchase price over 49 years at 4%.

A further 47,000 tenants bought between 1891 and 1903.

1892

General election

Formation of Gladstone’s 4th ministry.

1893

Second Home Rule Bill

Gladstone remained firmly committed to Home Rule, and after his election for a final time the previous year, introduced another Home Rule bill.

It differed significantly from the previous bill – financial provisions made were more favourable to the Irish, and it was agreed that 80 Irish MPs would be retained at Westminster.

Gladstone did consider the Ulster problem more carefully, yet still made no special arrangements for the province.

The second home rule bill was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by a massive majority in the House of Lords – 419 to 41.

Gaelic league founded

A cultural nationalist group, which aimed to keep up the usage of the traditional Irish language.

Founded by the Protestant Douglas Hyde.

1895

General Election

Conservatives win

1898

Local Government Act

This act established a system of Local government in Ireland similar to that of England.

Part of Salisbury’s ‘killing Home Rule with kindness’ plan.

The creation of the local councils had a significant impact in Ireland – allowing local people to take decisions affecting themselves.

The enfranchisement of local electors in particular had a large impact – it created a new political class in Ireland, which was important in the development of Sinn Fein later on in the period.

It destroyed the power of the landed gentry throughout the country, and handed more power to the middle class unionists in Ulster and their Nationalist counterparts in the South.

1900

General Election

Conservatives win

IPP reunited

After the split some years earlier, the IPP factions stop squabbling and reunite, becoming once more a united political force.

However, with the founding of Sinn Fein a few years later, their might was destroyed.

1903

Wyndham’s[Land Purchase] Act

Again, part of ‘killing Home Rule with kindness’.

Named after the Irish Secretary of the time, the Act more or less solved the land problem in Ireland by organising the buying out of landlords by the state at an acceptable price, and allowing tenants to purchase their lands through state loans at a low rate of interest extended over a long period.

1904

Proposed devolution scheme

This was produced behind the scenes by the Conservatives, and suggested giving the control of some important Irish internal affairs, such as finance, to a representative Irish Council.

Denounced by Ulster Unionists as ‘Home Rule by instalments’

Caused increasing distrust of the government, even though the scheme was repudiated by Prime Minister A.J. Balfour.

1905

Formation of the Ulster Unionist Council

A democratically elected body based in Belfast which represented every strand of Ulster Unionism – the Unionist clubs, the Orange Order, the Protestant Church and Ulster members of the Commons and Lords.

It became the directing force of Ulster Unionism, speaking with one, powerful voice for Ulster.

Even more portentously, it meant that Ulster now possessed the framework of an independent governmental organisation, which could be summoned into life as and when the political situation demanded.

1906

General election

Liberals win – the end of the era of Conservative domination.

A Landslide victory – 400 MPs and an overall majority of 270.

Campbell-Bannerman as PM – a ‘step by step’ approach to the Irish question; Irish reform, YES. However, commitment to Home Rule, NO.

1907

Councils Bill

Merely another version of the 1904 proposals by the unionists.

Rejected out-of-hand by the IPP leader, John Redmond.

Griffith founds Sinn Fein

“ourselves alone”

Intended to be a militant but non-violent nationalist organisation.

1908

Asquith replaces Campbell-Bannerman as PM

Following this change, most of the government’s time and energy went into promoting the radical social welfare programme, their major achievement on the domestic front.

1909

Birrel [Land Purchase] Act

Introduced compulsory purchase – landlord were obliged to sell.

A further 61,000 tenants purchased their land.

Rejection of Lloyd George’s People’s Budget

The Lords disagreed with the income tax being proposed on incomes up to £3000, and in particular to the super-tax on incomes over this figure

By long constitutional practice, the Lords had no right to do this.

It made reform of the upper house inevitable.

1910

General Election – January

For the liberal leadership, the election was centred on ending the absolute veto power of the Lords.

Asquith made a definite commitment to introduce a Home Rule bill if elected, as well as promising to deal with the grievances of other disaffected groups whose claims had been rejected by the Lords.

The Liberals still won, but their majority was wiped out.

General Election – December

Effectively an election as a referendum on the Lords issue – results similar to January.

1911

Parliament Act

This introduced the rule that bills passed by commons can only be held up for a maximum of 2 years – therefore a home rule bill could eventually become law even if it was rejected by the upper house.

It ended the Lords’ power of absolute Veto.

1912

Third Home Rule Bill

This was a moderate measure, similar to Gladstone’s 1893 bill.

In particular, it was similar in that it proposed Home Rule for the whole of Ireland, but this time it was disregarding the newly hardened sectarian divisions between Catholics and Protestants, Southern Ireland and Ulster.

There was very little, if any discussion of the Ulster problem at any level.

The terms were:

an Irish parliament consisting of an upper and lower house

Executive responsible to parliament

The powers were to be limited even more than the proposition of 1893

Ireland would be represented at Westminster by 42 MPs

The Conservatives, lead by Bonar-Law, were determined to kill the bill – he was particularly sympathetic to the claims and outlook of the Ulster Unionists because of his background.

It was passed by commons but rejected by the Lords – there was to be a two-year wait before the bill could become law.

Ulster’s Solemn league and Covenant

Even before the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, the Ulster Unionist Council had begun to organise resistance.

Typical was the great protest demonstration in Belfast’s Balmoral grounds on Easter Tuesday.

An estimated 100,000 Ulstermen marched past the platform where Bonar Law and Carson were present as the main speakers, together with 70 British Conservative MPs.

28th September was nominated by the Council as ‘Covenant Day’ and a public holiday. The Solemn League and Covenant was signed by about 250,000 men – Carson signing first, and then the others.

Some men reportedly signed in their own blood; such was their dedication to the cause.

1913

Ulster Volunteer Force founded

A formalisation of the sporadic drilling of volunteer soldiers that had been taking place for some time.

It grew rapidly and was organised into county divisions and regiments throughout the province.

Made it clear that Ulster was prepared to use force to resist subjection to a Dublin parliament.

1914

March: Curragh Mutiny

Weakened the government’s position even further.

The government wanted to reinforce the army depots in Ulster – 23,000 men were in the UVF, but only 1000 members of the British Army were stationed there.

The war office was concerned about the loyalty of the officers stationed in Ulster and sent a message saying that, in the event of hostility, Ulster officers would be allowed to absent from duty and disappear from Ireland, but other officers who were not prepared to carry out orders would be dismissed.

57 officers of the cavalry brigade said that they preferred dismissal.

The British public were appalled by the ‘mutiny’, and it convinced Asquith that it would be impossible to take military action against Ulster.

April: Larne gun-running incident

On the night of 24-25th April, the UVF obtained 35,000 rifles and five million rounds of ammunition from Germany.

This defied the ban on the importation of arms, and was carried out right under the noses of the authorities.

Left the government demoralised – “It was no longer a question of coercing Ulster; it was a question of preventing Ulster from coercing us” – A Liberal minister.

Brought about the idea of partition – excluding Ulster from a self-governing Ireland.

Home Rule Bill Passed

The Home Rule Amending Bill, which proposed letting Ulster vote on a county-by-county basis whether to be part of an independent Ireland, was rejected.

July: Buckingham Palace Conference

All party leaders were invited to Buckingham palace to discuss the possibility of exclusion.

Though it was generally accepted that the 4 Protestant counties should be excluded, there was no consensus on the two with no clear-cut religious majority.

As a result, it broke up in failure without discussing any other problem.

July: Howth gun-running incident

The nationalist Volunteers carried out their own gun-running operation in broad daylight at Howth, near Dublin.

This was less successful than the UVF’s earlier incident, as troops were involved and clashed with the Volunteers.

August: Britain enters WWI

Upon entering WWI, Asquith placed the Home Rule Bill on the Statute book, but its provisions were to be suspended until the end of the war.

Redmond regarded it as a triumph for the nationalists, but this ended his political career as other nationalists wanted the law implemented NOW.

Nationalist Split:

Redmond’s suggestion that the Irish Volunteers serve abroad in the war was met with outrage from the more revolutionary elements of the group.

It caused a split – the vast majority remained with Redmond (180,000) and became known as the National Volunteers, but a small group (11,000) set themselves up as a separate organisation.

1915

Formation of the Asquith coalition

Unionists in HoC were outraged by his ‘double-dealing’, but acquiesced for the sake of national unity.

1916

Easter Rising

Revolutionary Irish Nationalists had opposed the war and the policies of the IPP from the start.

MacNeill’s group of Irish volunteers were prepared to go ahead with an armed rebellion, whatever the odds.

Key figures were Tom Clarke, Sean MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly. They started planning a rebellion early in 1916.

A small group marched into central Dublin and took over the head Post office on Easter Monday, making it their headquarters. They proclaimed the birth of an Independent Irish Republic. By nightfall, most of Dublin’s key buildings were in the hands of rebels.

However, it was doomed from the start – confined to Dublin it was easy to tackle, and the lack of participation by provincial units of the Volunteers meant that they received no outside help.

They were outnumbered by soldiers and armed police, and within a week, it was over.

The rebels were hunted down and 90 were tried and sentenced to death, 15 of whom were executed in May, the remaining commuted to imprisonment.

The rebellion was condemned by the Catholic Church, denounced by Redmond and the moderate nationalists.

The harshness of the measures was widely condemned – especially the callousness of the executions.

Sinn Fein’s popularity increased dramatically as a result, whilst the IPP suffered considerable decline. De Valera elected leader of Sinn Fein.

Lloyd George becomes PM

1917

The rise of Sinn Fein

Early in the year, Sinn Fein won 2 by-elections in usually safe Redmondite seats.

Pressure from Woodrow Wilson after America entered the war in April lead Lloyd-George to release the Irish prisoners interred in Great Britain, providing new revolutionary recruits for Sinn Fein.

1918

Sinn Fein landslide in general election

When conscription was proposed for Ireland early in 1918, it considerably radicalised Southern Irish opinion. After the slaughter of the entire Ulster division at the Somme in 1916, they didn’t want anything to do with the war.

The agitation was very anti-IPP, so Sinn Fein gained at their expense.

Sinn Fein won 73 seats, with the IPP on just 6.

The enlarged electorate was no so swung as the number of seats makes it appear – Sinn Fein won 48% of votes, and 25% of their candidates were unopposed.

Now they dominated national as well as local politics.

Reform Act

Enfranchised all men over the age of 18, and women over the age of 30.

1919

First meeting of the Dail Eireann

After the election victory of 1918, Sinn Fein could legitimately claim itself to represent the majority of the Irish people.

As such, its MPs decided not to take their sets in Commons, opting instead to set up their own parliament – on the 21st January, all its MPs were summoned to Dublin and met for the first time.

Only 27 actually arrived – the rest were either in prison on involved elsewhere.

They issued a declaration of independence, demanded English withdrawal from Ireland, and set up a provisional government under de Valera.

In March, the British government released all of the Irish political prisoners, thus strengthening Sinn Fein’s hand.

The provisional government quickly established its authority, setting up law courts, collecting taxes and being backed up by the power of the Irish Republican Army (The IRA).

Michael Collins became the leader of the IRA, as it made the transition from being the Irish Volunteers.

The British government and the new Irish government both demanded the allegiance of the Irish people.

Anglo-Irish war begins

•*As a result of this confrontation, what was effectively a civil war began.

1920

Government of Ireland Act

Lloyd-George’s coalition government, consisting of the conservatives and several liberals totalling nearly 400 MPs, still needed to solve the Irish problem.

The new emphasis on national self-determination after WWI undoubtedly influenced the government, and they proposed the Government of Ireland Act, mindful of strong unionist presence in Commons.

It was essentially two separate Home Rule acts – one for Southern Ireland and one for Ulster.

The establishment of parliaments for both Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, consisting of an elected Commons and an upper house.

Elections to be held via proportional representation to safeguard the rights of minorities.

Powers restricted to internal affairs, so the Imperial government would retain considerable control.

The situation of the UK parliament would remain unchanged – they had supreme control over Ireland.

Boundaries for Northern Ireland established as the 4 majority Protestant counties plus the two borderline ones.

A council of Ireland, with representatives from both sides, would be established to deal with common problems.

Even the Ulster unionists came to see the advantages of these new proposals, particularly in light of the IRA’s violent campaign throughout Ireland.

The bill was passed easily through parliament and came into operation in 1921.

In the South, the Act was a dead letter; no elections were contested and 124 supporters of Sinn Fein returned unopposed out of 128 candidates.

Sinn Fein then boycotted the new parliament as they had done the Westminster one, and continued with their provisional government.

November: Bloody Sunday in Dublin

One of the worst episodes of the Anglo-Irish war.

On the 21st November, 11 English civilians shot dead by the IRA in their homes because they were supposedly working for British intelligence services.

The Black-and-Tans got their revenge in the afternoon – they invaded the sports ground of Croke Park and fired indiscriminately at the players and crowd, leaving 12 dead and 60 wounded.

December: Martial Law declared in Ireland

The violence had escalated to such an extent that extreme measures were needed.

1921

July: Anglo-Irish truce

When Lloyd-George put out peace feelers to de Valera, it proved a psychological victory for Sinn Fein.

King George V made an appeal to the Irish people in June at the opening of the Northern Irish parliament in Belfast on June 22nd

The loss of men and weapons on both sides was extreme and contributed to the backing down of them both.

Followed almost immediately by meetings between Lloyd-George and de Valera.

December: Anglo-Irish Treaty

Lloyd George proposed the granting of Dominion status to Ireland, meaning that it could have full control of its own domestic affairs, membership of the British Empire, and swore allegiance to the crown.

De Valera agreed to send a delegation to London to negotiate, however confusion surrounding their status gave the advantage to the Government.

In the end, the following terms were accepted:

Great Britain shall have 3 naval bases in Ireland

Ireland was reluctantly partitioned, with the ‘promise’ of a boundary commission that could change the border or integrate Northern Ireland into the republic if need be (this never happened).

Southern Ireland would be granted Dominion Status, and the oath of allegiance to the crown would be watered down.

Lloyd George threatened further war if it wasn’t signed – he was probably bluffing!