A Impact of Processing on the Stability and ... Impact of processing Dufour 20… · The cassava...
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Ingrid Aragón 1 , Dominique Dufour 2,3 , Andrés F. Escobar 2 , Fernando Calle 2 , Hernán Ceballos 2 , Mario G. Ferruzzi 1,4 1 Dept of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 2 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Palmira, Colombia, 3 Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France, 4 Dept of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA. Abstract Introduction Conclusions References Materials & Methods Objective Carotenoid content in cassava roots has been increased through biofortification programs as a strategy to combat vitamin A deficiency. However, incorporation of biofortified cassava into both traditional and industrial food processing has yet to be fully assessed. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of fermentation and thermal processing on the stability and bioaccessibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids from distinct biofortified cassava roots. Unfermented (UF) and fermented (F) flours were produced from 10 biofortified cassava cultivars (Table 1 & Figure 2). Gari (G) flours were produced by toasting two of the fermented cultivars above at 150-160ºC during 15-20 min. Test porridges were prepared with UF, F and G (22.2% W/V) in boiling water for 5 min. Bioaccessibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids was then evaluated from finished products using a three-stage in vitro digestion model (Figure 3). Overall, cassava cultivars contained 23.1-42.7 μg of β-carotene equivalents (β-CE) / g on dry weight bases (DW). β-CE retention after fermentation was 72.5-96.6%; after oven-drying were 18.3-77.5% and 45.8-80.4% for UF and F roots, respectively; after toasting in Gari preparation was 67.3-69.2%; after cooking in porridge preparations were 42.5-74.5%, 20.7-77.3% and 87.2-115.3% for UF, F and G flours, respectively (Figure 4 & 5). Cassava flours, which involved fermentation showed higher β-CE retention (p=0.007) during oven-drying compared with UF flours. However, no significant differences were found in β-CE retention during porridge preparation (p=0.905). Test porridges made from UF, F and G flours ranged from 39-309, 58-343 and 223-323 μg β-CE / 100 g FW, respectively. Bioaccessibility ranged widely from 3.3-56.9 μg β-CE / 100 g FW with bioaccessible content among the cultivars within the porridges groups ranging from 3.3-43.4, 3.66-21.4 and 20.3-56.9 μg / 100 g FW for UF, F and G flours, respectively (Figure 6). In general, bioaccessible β-CE content from porridges prepared with UF and F flours were similar with levels of 14.5 ±4.2 and 12.7 ±1.8 μg / 100 g FW, (p = 0.700). Select cassava cultivars showed improved bioaccessibility of β- CE content with the fermentation process, these results suggest that genotype factor and/or another factors in the matrix merit further investigation as they may play a significant role in facilitating bioaccessibility of carotenoids from biofortified cassava products. Figure 2. Cassava root processing 6 The specific objective of this study was to examine the impact of fermentation and thermal processing on the stability and bioaccessibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids from a selected group of biofortified cassava roots. •Around 80% of the β-carotene equivalents are retained during fermentation of grated biofortified cassava roots. •Fermented cassava showed higher β-carotene equivalents retention after oven-drying (p=0.007) in comparison to unfermented cassava. However, no significant difference (p>0.05) was observed between oven-drying and toasting of fermented cassava roots. •No significant difference (p>0.05) in the total β-carotene equivalent retention was observed between fermented and unfermented biofortified cassava roots when they were processed into porridges. Gari processing however, seems to promote higher retention and bioaccessibility of β-carotene equivalents. •Selected cassava cultivars showed higher bioaccesibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids following the fermentation process, suggesting that genotypic and/or another factors merit further investigation for their role in facilitating carotenoid stability and bioaccessibility from biorfortified cassava products. Table 1: Cassava root cultivars * 1) WHO. (2009). Global Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in population at risk:1995-2005. WHO global database on vitamin A deficiency., Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization. ISBN 978 92 4 159801. 2) Sommer A., West K. P. Jr. (1996). Vitamin A deficiency: Health, survival, and vision. New York, Oxford University Press. 3) Muzhingi T. et al. (2011). Yellow maize with high β-carotene is an effective source of vitamin A in healthy Zimbabwean men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94 (2), 510-9. 4) Mayer JE. et al. (2008). Biofortified crops to alleviate micronutrient malnutrition. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 11:166-170. 5) Ceballos H. et at. (2013) Rapid cycling recurrent selection for increased carotenoids content in cassava roots. Crop Science, 53, 2342-51. 6) Nweke F. et al. (2002). The cassava transformation: Africa’s best kept secret. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture. Michigan, Michigan State University Press. 7) Lipkie T. et al. (2013). Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from transgenic pro-vitamin A biofortified sorghum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 61, 5764-5771. A Acknowledgments Funding provided by Colciencias and the Purdue University Agricultural Research Programs. Extraction and carotenoids analysis: Extraction 5 and quantitation 7 were based on previously reported methods. Briefly, cassava samples were extracted with 10 mL petroleum ether and 10 mL acetone (X3). Then, collected organic extracts were washed with saline solution (0.1 M NaCl), dried under a stream of nitrogen, solubilized in 1:1 methanol:ethyl acetate, and then analyzed by HPLC with diode array detection using a YMC C30 3 μm 2.0 mm × 150 mm column. Pro-Vitamin A carotenoid concentration (β-carotene equivalents) 7 : was calculated by sum of all-E-β-carotene + 1/2(β-cryptoxanthin) + α- carotene + Z-β-carotene isomers (9, 13, 15)). Relative bioaccessibility (Micellarization efficiency) 7 : !"#$%#&’(&)"# )# (+,%",- .)$%//(’ 0’($&)"# (23) !"#$%#&’(&)"# )# )#&%-&)#(/ 5)6%-&( (78) 100% Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) affects approximately 190 million preschool-age children and 19 million pregnant women globally. 1 VAD is the principal cause of blindness in children, as well as stunting of growth and contributing to morbidity and mortality in these populations. 2,3 Biofortification of staple crops is one of the strategies proposed to address VAD along other strategies such as supplementation and fortification. Biofortification is a strategy focused on developing of micronutrient dense staple crops (e.g.: increased pro-vitamin A carotenoids content) that can be leveraged as cost-effective alternative to combat vitamin A deficiency. 4 This strategy is reliant on the ability to incorporate biofortified staple crops into traditional and industrial food preparations. Insights into acceptability by consumers as well as recovery/bioavailability of pro-vitamin A carotenoids in these food products is lacking. Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) is a staple crop consumed for more than 70 million people in developing countries and has been included into biofortification programs with the goal of increasing its pro-vitamin A carotenoid content. 5 Cassava roots are traditionally subjected to both thermal and fermentative processes in order to minimize cyanogen content, extend shelf-life and facilitate marketing of cassava products in urban areas. 6 However, the impact of such processes on retention of provitamin A in biofortified cassava cultivars is not well understood. Figure 1. Pro-Vitamin A Carotenoids found in biofortified cassava roots : GM 4414-5 GM 4571-3 GM 5194-5 GM 5194-13 GM 5212-6 SM 3757-75 SM 3758-43 SM 3762-15 SM 3767-84 SM 3774-21 Cassava Root (Fresh) Washed Peeled Grated (Pellet) Grated (dough) Spontaneous Fermentation, ~30 °C, 2d Dried 40ºC, 2d Milled Unfermented Flour (UF) Toasted 150ºC, 15-20 min Pressed Sieved 30 mesh Fermented Flour (F) Sieved 30 mesh Dried 40ºC, 2d Sieved 30 mesh Gari Flour Milled Milled Figure 3. Three stages in vitro digestion 7 Oral Phase 5% canola oil, α-amylase, pH 6.5, 37ºC, 10 min Gastric Phase Pepsin, pH 2.5, 37ºC, 60 min Intestinal Phase Pancreatin, lipase, bile extract, pH 6.5, 37ºC, 120 min Micellarization Centrifugation at 10000 g, 4ºC, 60 min Porridges (22.2% W/W): Unfermented, fermented flours: Boiled and mixed during 5 min. Gari flours: boiling water added and mixed. * All germoplasms were provided by CIAT. Results HO β-Carotene β-Cryptoxanthin -Carotene 17.6 ± 3.9 14 ± 3.9 12.4 ± 3.9 15.3 ± 4.7 10 ± 2.9 11.4 ± 3.5 21.3 ± 1.7 9.1 ± 0.2 8.1 ± 0.3 6.5 ± 6.5 5.6 ± 0.3 7.8 ± 0.1 ND 14.9 ± 2.7 14.7 ± 1.9 ND 9.4 ± 1.8 13.4 ± 1.9 ND 13.9 ± 2.8 12.9 ± 2.1 ND 10.1 ± 2.2 12.7 ± 2.2 ND 11.4 ± 5.7 8.7 ± 5.9 19.7 ± 0.7 8.7 ± 3.2 10.2 ± 3.3 ND 11.9 ± 2.2 11.5 ± 1.6 ND 7.6 ± 0.7 11.7 ± 1.1 ND 12.3 ± 0.2 10.2 ± 0.2 ND 7.6 ± 0.2 9 ± 0.2 18.6 ± 0.7 10.1 ± 1.6 9.8 ± 1.2 14.8 ± 1.5 6.5 ± 1 9.8 ± 1.3 15 ± 1.6 6.6 ± 1.4 5.6 ± 1.6 10.3 ± 3.4 3.7 ± 1 4.8 ± 1.2 18.8 ± 1.9 11.9 ± 2 10 ± 1.6 13.6 ± 1.6 8.7 ± 2 10.5 ± 2.1 ND 20.6 ± 5.9 16.7 ± 4.6 17.7 ± 4.2 16.5 ± 4.8 18 ± 5.1 26.7 ± 2.7 21.9 ± 4.5 20.4 ± 3.2 24.9 ± 4.8 16.5 ± 4 19.1 ± 4.6 ND 9.1 ± 0.8 8.1 ± 0.4 13 ± 2 4.3 ± 0.3 8.4 ± 0.8 ND 9.8 ± 0.1 9.7 ± 1.1 ND 4.4 ± 1 8.9 ± 0.3 19.1 ± 1.8 12.7 ± 2.8 13.9 ± 2.5 18.3 ± 1.2 8.6 ± 1.9 13.5 ± 2.5 18.9 ± 2 15.6 ± 2.5 13.7 ± 2 13.5 ± 1.9 13.7 ± 2.5 14.3 ± 2.6 14.1 ± 1.2 9.8 ± 2.4 8.6 ± 2.4 13.7 ± 1.3 5.7 ± 2.1 8.3 ± 2.4 ND 16 ± 2.1 20.2 ± 5.3 23.7 ± 3.3 12.8 ± 1.6 17.3 ± 1.7 22.9 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 1.4 9.9 ± 1.6 19.5 ± 1.9 5.3 ± 0.8 12.4 ± 2 ND 13.9 ± 2.7 11.6 ± 2.6 16.6 ± 1.8 9.2 ± 2.4 13.2 ± 2.2 17.5 ± 2.9 10 ± 1.2 8.9 ± 0.8 15.5 ± 3.1 6.8 ± 1.0 8.6 ± 1.3 13.3 ± 2.6 12.1 ± 0.8 11.2 ± 1.1 12.6 ± 1.3 9 ± 1.0 11.1 ± 1.4 Micellarization Efficiency (%) β-CRP 15-Z-β-C 13-Z-β-C α-C All-E-β-C 9-Z-β-C DG Fraction AQ Fraction Stability of β-Carotene Equivalents during Processing (g/g DW) Cultivar Raw Fermentation Oven-Drying Porridges 17.5 + 0.1 SM 3757-75 23.6 + 1.0 8.2 + 0.2 18.0 + 0.6 5.6 + 1.1 6.0 + 0.3 2.5 + 0.1 SM 3758-43 27.1 + 0.3 15.1 + 0.0 26.2 + 0.3 19.8 + 0.5 8.7 + 2.9 13.6 + 0.3 SM 3774-21 28.1 + 2.6 21.8 + 1.7 12.4 + 0.0 10.1 + 0.7 8.3 + 0.0 31.1 + 2.4 15.8 + 0.4 28.0 + 0.4 24.1 + 0.4 3.3 + 1.6 17.2 + 1.2 GM 4414-5 GM 4571-3 GM 5194-5 GM 5194-13 GM 5212-6 23.1 + 0.7 15.2 + 0.4 19.4 + 1.7 5.4 + 0.0 9.7 + 0.7 2.3 + 0.1 26.0 + 0.5 14.5 + 0.6 18.8 + 1.0 7.9 + 0.1 10.2 + 0.0 4.6 + 0.2 27.7 + 0.3 15.8 + 0.4 22.3 + 0.2 5.1 + 0.1 9.5 + 0.3 3.8 + 0.1 42.7 + 0.4 27.3 + 0.4 34.2 + 1.7 25.6 + 1.0 21.1 + 0.7 18.0 + 0.2 SM 3762-15 SM 3767-84 24.9 + 0.1 16.1 + 0.0 12.3 + 0.1 11.9 + 0.6 9.1 + 0.4 18.6 + 0.8 23.9 + 0.4 16.1 + 0.2 28.48 + 3.45 13.5 + 0.2 5.3 + 0.2 6.9 + 0.5 2.9 + 0.1 13.0 + 1.7 21.53 + 0.38 14.9 + 0.4 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 # Figure 4. Stability of β-carotene equivalents during processing ( g/g DW) and micellarization efficiency (%). Data represent mean ± SEM for 3 replicate of cassava extractions detectedby HPLC with values representing sum of all carotene species with pro-vitamin A activity. Different color in the oven-drying column means that those samples were toasting (Gari) instead of oven-dried. C=Carotene, CRP=Cryptoxanthin.ND=No detectable. Figure 6: Bioaccessible β-carotene equivalents ( g/100g FW) from cassava porridges. Data represent mean ± SEM for unfermented (UF), fermented (F) and Gari porridges from 10 cassava cultivars. Different letters represent statistically significant differences (p<0.05). F= Fermented, UF= Unfermented. 0 20 40 60 80 100 F UF Gari F UF Gari F UF Gari Fermentation Oven-drying Toasting Porridges Total Retention Retention of β-BCE through processing/preparation steps (%) Figure 5. Retention of β-carotene equivalents through processing steps of raw cassava roots. Data represent mean ± SEM for 10 cassava cultivars. Different letters represent statistically significant differences (p<0.05). F= Fermented, UF= Unfermented. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 UF F Gari Bioaccessible β-CE ( g/100g FW) Overall Processing Effect ab 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bioaccessible BCE ( g/100g FW) Processing Effect by Cassava Cultivars UF F Gari a a b b a a a a b a a b b* c c bc bc c c bc a bc c bc bc c bc bc c bc a* c c Impact of Processing on the Stability and Bioaccessibility of Pro-Vitamin A Carotenoids in Biofortified Cassava Roots ( Manihot esculenta, Crantz)
Transcript of A Impact of Processing on the Stability and ... Impact of processing Dufour 20… · The cassava...
Ingrid Aragón1, Dominique Dufour2,3, Andrés F. Escobar2, Fernando Calle2, Hernán Ceballos2, Mario G. Ferruzzi1,4
1Dept of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 2 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Palmira, Colombia, 3Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France, 4Dept of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
Abstract
Introduction
Conclusions
References
Materials & Methods
Objective
Carotenoid content in cassava roots has been increased through biofortification programs as astrategy to combat vitamin A deficiency. However, incorporation of biofortified cassava into bothtraditional and industrial food processing has yet to be fully assessed. The objective of this study wasto examine the impact of fermentation and thermal processing on the stability and bioaccessibility ofpro-vitamin A carotenoids from distinct biofortified cassava roots. Unfermented (UF) and fermented (F)flours were produced from 10 biofortified cassava cultivars (Table 1 & Figure 2). Gari (G) flours wereproduced by toasting two of the fermented cultivars above at 150-160ºC during 15-20 min. Testporridges were prepared with UF, F and G (22.2% W/V) in boiling water for 5 min. Bioaccessibility ofpro-vitamin A carotenoids was then evaluated from finished products using a three-stage in vitrodigestion model (Figure 3). Overall, cassava cultivars contained 23.1-42.7 μg of β-caroteneequivalents (β-CE) / g on dry weight bases (DW). β-CE retention after fermentation was 72.5-96.6%;after oven-drying were 18.3-77.5% and 45.8-80.4% for UF and F roots, respectively; after toasting inGari preparation was 67.3-69.2%; after cooking in porridge preparations were 42.5-74.5%, 20.7-77.3%and 87.2-115.3% for UF, F and G flours, respectively (Figure 4 & 5). Cassava flours, which involvedfermentation showed higher β-CE retention (p=0.007) during oven-drying compared with UF flours.However, no significant differences were found in β-CE retention during porridge preparation(p=0.905). Test porridges made from UF, F and G flours ranged from 39-309, 58-343 and 223-323 μgβ-CE / 100 g FW, respectively. Bioaccessibility ranged widely from 3.3-56.9 μg β-CE / 100 g FW withbioaccessible content among the cultivars within the porridges groups ranging from 3.3-43.4, 3.66-21.4and 20.3-56.9 μg / 100 g FW for UF, F and G flours, respectively (Figure 6). In general, bioaccessibleβ-CE content from porridges prepared with UF and F flours were similar with levels of 14.5 ±4.2 and12.7 ±1.8 μg / 100 g FW, (p = 0.700). Select cassava cultivars showed improved bioaccessibility of β-CE content with the fermentation process, these results suggest that genotype factor and/or anotherfactors in the matrix merit further investigation as they may play a significant role in facilitatingbioaccessibility of carotenoids from biofortified cassava products.
Figure 2. Cassava root processing6
The specific objective of this study was to examine the impact of fermentation and thermal processingon the stability and bioaccessibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids from a selected group of biofortifiedcassava roots.
•Around 80% of the β-carotene equivalents are retained during fermentation of grated biofortified cassava roots.
•Fermented cassava showed higher β-carotene equivalents retention after oven-drying (p=0.007) in comparison to unfermented cassava. However, no significant difference (p>0.05)was observed between oven-drying and toasting of fermented cassava roots.
•No significant difference (p>0.05) in the total β-carotene equivalent retention was observed between fermented and unfermented biofortified cassava roots when they were processedinto porridges. Gari processing however, seems to promote higher retention and bioaccessibility of β-carotene equivalents.
•Selected cassava cultivars showed higher bioaccesibility of pro-vitamin A carotenoids following the fermentation process, suggesting that genotypic and/or another factors merit furtherinvestigation for their role in facilitating carotenoid stability and bioaccessibility from biorfortified cassava products.
Table 1: Cassava root cultivars*
1) WHO. (2009). Global Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in population at risk:1995-2005. WHO global database on vitamin A deficiency., Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization. ISBN 978 92 4 159801.2) Sommer A., West K. P. Jr. (1996). Vitamin A deficiency: Health, survival, and vision. New York, Oxford University Press. 3) Muzhingi T. et al. (2011). Yellow maize with high β-carotene is an effective source of vitamin A in healthy Zimbabwean men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94 (2), 510-9. 4) Mayer JE. et al. (2008). Biofortified crops to alleviate micronutrient malnutrition. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 11:166-170.5) Ceballos H. et at. (2013) Rapid cycling recurrent selection for increased carotenoids content in cassava roots. Crop Science, 53, 2342-51.6) Nweke F. et al. (2002). The cassava transformation: Africa’s best kept secret. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture. Michigan, Michigan State University Press.7) Lipkie T. et al. (2013). Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from transgenic pro-vitamin A biofortified sorghum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 61, 5764-5771.
A
AcknowledgmentsFunding provided by Colciencias and the Purdue University Agricultural Research Programs.
Extraction and carotenoids analysis: Extraction5 and quantitation7
were based on previously reported methods. Briefly, cassava sampleswere extracted with 10 mL petroleum ether and 10 mL acetone (X3).Then, collected organic extracts were washed with saline solution (0.1M NaCl), dried under a stream of nitrogen, solubilized in 1:1methanol:ethyl acetate, and then analyzed by HPLC with diode arraydetection using a YMC C30 3 μm 2.0 mm × 150 mm column.
Pro-Vitamin A carotenoid concentration (β-carotene equivalents)7:was calculated by sum of all-E-β-carotene + 1/2(β-cryptoxanthin) + α-carotene + Z-β-carotene isomers (9, 13, 15)).
Relative bioaccessibility (Micellarization efficiency)7:!"#$%#&'(&)"#)#(+,%",-.)$%//('0'($&)"#(23)
!"#$%#&'(&)"#)#)#&%-&)#(/5)6%-&((78) 𝑋100%
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) affects approximately 190 million preschool-age children and 19 millionpregnant women globally.1 VAD is the principal cause of blindness in children, as well as stunting ofgrowth and contributing to morbidity and mortality in these populations. 2,3 Biofortification of staplecrops is one of the strategies proposed to address VAD along other strategies such as supplementationand fortification. Biofortification is a strategy focused on developing of micronutrient dense staple crops(e.g.: increased pro-vitamin A carotenoids content) that can be leveraged as cost-effective alternative tocombat vitamin A deficiency.4 This strategy is reliant on the ability to incorporate biofortified staple cropsinto traditional and industrial food preparations. Insights into acceptability by consumers as well asrecovery/bioavailability of pro-vitamin A carotenoids in these food products is lacking.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) is a staple crop consumed for more than 70 million people indeveloping countries and has been included into biofortification programs with the goal of increasing itspro-vitamin A carotenoid content.5 Cassava roots are traditionally subjected to both thermal andfermentative processes in order to minimize cyanogen content, extend shelf-life and facilitate marketingof cassava products in urban areas.6 However, the impact of such processes on retention of provitaminA in biofortified cassava cultivars is not well understood.
Figure 1. Pro-Vitamin A Carotenoids found in biofortified cassava roots :
GM 4414-5 GM 4571-3 GM 5194-5 GM 5194-13 GM 5212-6
SM 3757-75 SM 3758-43 SM 3762-15 SM 3767-84 SM 3774-21
Cassava Root (Fresh)
Washed
Peeled
Grated (Pellet) Grated (dough)
Spontaneous Fermentation, ~30 °C, 2d
Dried40ºC, 2d
Milled
Unfermented Flour (UF)
Toasted 150ºC, 15-20 min
Pressed
Sieved30 mesh
Fermented Flour (F)
Sieved30 mesh
Dried40ºC, 2d
Sieved30 mesh
Gari Flour
Milled Milled
Figure 3. Three stages in vitro digestion7
Oral Phase5% canola oil, α-amylase, pH 6.5,
37ºC, 10 min
Gastric PhasePepsin, pH 2.5, 37ºC, 60 min
Intestinal PhasePancreatin, lipase, bile extract, pH 6.5,
37ºC, 120 min
MicellarizationCentrifugation at 10000 g,
4ºC, 60 min
Porridges (22.2% W/W): Unfermented, fermented flours: Boiled and mixed during 5 min. Gari flours: boiling water added and mixed.
*All germoplasms were provided by CIAT.
Results
HO
β-Carotene
β-Cryptoxanthin
𝛼-Carotene
17.6 ± 3.9 14 ± 3.9 12.4 ± 3.9 15.3 ± 4.7 10 ± 2.9 11.4 ± 3.5
21.3 ± 1.7 9.1 ± 0.2 8.1 ± 0.3 6.5 ± 6.5 5.6 ± 0.3 7.8 ± 0.1
ND 14.9 ± 2.7 14.7 ± 1.9 ND 9.4 ± 1.8 13.4 ± 1.9
ND 13.9 ± 2.8 12.9 ± 2.1 ND 10.1 ± 2.2 12.7 ± 2.2
ND 11.4 ± 5.7 8.7 ± 5.9 19.7 ± 0.7 8.7 ± 3.2 10.2 ± 3.3
ND 11.9 ± 2.2 11.5 ± 1.6 ND 7.6 ± 0.7 11.7 ± 1.1
ND 12.3 ± 0.2 10.2 ± 0.2 ND 7.6 ± 0.2 9 ± 0.2
18.6 ± 0.7 10.1 ± 1.6 9.8 ± 1.2 14.8 ± 1.5 6.5 ± 1 9.8 ± 1.3
15 ± 1.6 6.6 ± 1.4 5.6 ± 1.6 10.3 ± 3.4 3.7 ± 1 4.8 ± 1.2
18.8 ± 1.9 11.9 ± 2 10 ± 1.6 13.6 ± 1.6 8.7 ± 2 10.5 ± 2.1
ND 20.6 ± 5.9 16.7 ± 4.6 17.7 ± 4.2 16.5 ± 4.8 18 ± 5.1
26.7 ± 2.7 21.9 ± 4.5 20.4 ± 3.2 24.9 ± 4.8 16.5 ± 4 19.1 ± 4.6
ND 9.1 ± 0.8 8.1 ± 0.4 13 ± 2 4.3 ± 0.3 8.4 ± 0.8
ND 9.8 ± 0.1 9.7 ± 1.1 ND 4.4 ± 1 8.9 ± 0.3
19.1 ± 1.8 12.7 ± 2.8 13.9 ± 2.5 18.3 ± 1.2 8.6 ± 1.9 13.5 ± 2.5
18.9 ± 2 15.6 ± 2.5 13.7 ± 2 13.5 ± 1.9 13.7 ± 2.5 14.3 ± 2.6
14.1 ± 1.2 9.8 ± 2.4 8.6 ± 2.4 13.7 ± 1.3 5.7 ± 2.1 8.3 ± 2.4
ND 16 ± 2.1 20.2 ± 5.3 23.7 ± 3.3 12.8 ± 1.6 17.3 ± 1.7
22.9 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 1.4 9.9 ± 1.6 19.5 ± 1.9 5.3 ± 0.8 12.4 ± 2
ND 13.9 ± 2.7 11.6 ± 2.6 16.6 ± 1.8 9.2 ± 2.4 13.2 ± 2.2
17.5 ± 2.9 10 ± 1.2 8.9 ± 0.8 15.5 ± 3.1 6.8 ± 1.0 8.6 ± 1.3
13.3 ± 2.6 12.1 ± 0.8 11.2 ± 1.1 12.6 ± 1.3 9 ± 1.0 11.1 ± 1.4
Micellarization Efficiency (%)β-CRP 15-Z-β-C 13-Z-β-C α-C All-E-β-C 9-Z-β-C
DG Fraction
AQ Fraction
Stability of β-Carotene Equivalents during Processing (𝜇g/g DW)Cultivar Raw Fermentation Oven-Drying Porridges
17.5 + 0.1
SM 3757-75 23.6 + 1.08.2 + 0.218.0 + 0.6
5.6 + 1.1
6.0 + 0.3
2.5 + 0.1
SM 3758-43 27.1 + 0.315.1 + 0.026.2 + 0.3
19.8 + 0.5
8.7 + 2.9
13.6 + 0.3
SM 3774-21 28.1 + 2.621.8 + 1.7
12.4 + 0.0
10.1 + 0.7
8.3 + 0.0
31.1 + 2.415.8 + 0.428.0 + 0.4
24.1 + 0.4
3.3 + 1.6
17.2 + 1.2GM 4414-5
GM 4571-3
GM 5194-5
GM 5194-13
GM 5212-6
23.1 + 0.715.2 + 0.419.4 + 1.7
5.4 + 0.0
9.7 + 0.7
2.3 + 0.1
26.0 + 0.514.5 + 0.618.8 + 1.0
7.9 + 0.1
10.2 + 0.0
4.6 + 0.2
27.7 + 0.315.8 + 0.422.3 + 0.2
5.1 + 0.1
9.5 + 0.3
3.8 + 0.1
42.7 + 0.427.3 + 0.434.2 + 1.7
25.6 + 1.0
21.1 + 0.7
18.0 + 0.2
SM 3762-15
SM 3767-84
24.9 + 0.116.1 + 0.0
12.3 + 0.1
11.9 + 0.6
9.1 + 0.4
18.6 + 0.8
23.9 + 0.4
16.1 + 0.2
28.48 + 3.4513.5 + 0.2
5.3 + 0.2
6.9 + 0.5
2.9 + 0.1
13.0 + 1.7
21.53 + 0.38
14.9 + 0.410
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Figure 4. Stability of β-carotene equivalents during processing (𝜇g/g DW) and micellarization efficiency (%). Data represent mean ± SEM for 3 replicate of cassava extractions detected byHPLC with values representing sum of all carotene species with pro-vitamin A activity. Different color in the oven-drying column means that those samples were toasting (Gari) instead of oven-dried. C=Carotene, CRP=Cryptoxanthin. ND=No detectable.
Figure 6: Bioaccessible β-carotene equivalents (𝜇g/100g FW) from cassava porridges. Datarepresent mean ± SEM for unfermented (UF), fermented (F) and Gari porridges from 10 cassava cultivars. Different lettersrepresent statistically significant differences (p<0.05). F= Fermented, UF= Unfermented.
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Fermentation Oven-drying Toasting Porridges Total Retention
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Figure 5. Retention of β-carotene equivalents through processing steps of raw cassavaroots. Data represent mean ± SEM for 10 cassava cultivars. Different letters represent statistically significant differences(p<0.05). F= Fermented, UF= Unfermented.
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Overall Processing Effect
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Processing Effect by Cassava Cultivars
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Impact of Processing on the Stability and Bioaccessibility of Pro-Vitamin A Carotenoids in Biofortified Cassava Roots (Manihot esculenta, Crantz)
