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-N)-Photogrammetric record of blacksmith shop. (Photo by B. Chapman)

A Frontier Fur Trade Blacksmith Shop1796 -1812

John D. Light and Henry Unglik

REVISED EDITION

Tinker, Trader, Soldier, Smith

Metallographic Study of Axes

Examination of Slag and Iron

John D. Light

Henry Unglik

Henry Unglik

3

51

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Revised Edition

Studies in ArchaeologyArchitecture and History

National Historic Parks and SitesEnvironment Canada - Parks

©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1984, 1987.

Available in Canada through authorized bookstore agents and otherbookstores, or by mail from the Canadian Government PublishingCentre, Supply and Services Canada, Hull, Quebec, Canada KIA OS9.

En francais ce nurnero s'intitule Forge d'un poste de traite sur lafrontiere, 1796-1812 (nO de catalogue R6l-2/9-l8F). En vente auCanada par l'entremise de nos agents libraires agrees et autreslibrairies, ou par la poste au Centre d'edition du gouvernement duCanada, Approvisionnements et Services Canada, Hull, Quebec,Canada KIA OS9.

Price Canada: $7.45Price other countries: $8.95Price subject to change without notice.

Catalogue No.: R6l-2/9-l8E-1987EISBN: 0-660-12400-9ISSN: 0821-1027

Revised edition published under the authorityof the Minister of the Environment,Ottawa, 1987.

Editing, layout and design: Paula Irving.

The opinions expressed in this report are those of the author and notnecessarily those of Environment Canada.

Parks Canada publishes the results of its research in archaeology,architecture and history. A list of titles is available from ResearchPublications, Parks Canada, 1600 Liverpool Court, Ottawa, OntarioKIA lG2.

Cover: Adapted from a drawing by Danielle Dupont (NationalMuseum of Man).

Tinker, Trader, Soldier, Smith:A Frontier Fur Trade Blacksmith Shop,

Fort St. Joseph, Ontario, 1796-1812

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John D. Light

4 Abstract4 Acknowledgements5 Introduction6 Shop Layout12 Identification of Shop13 Description of Artifacts14 Ceramic16 Glass17 Pipes18 Building Hardware20 Tools20 Files21 Axes24 Tools Other than Files and Axes24 Farriering26 Coopering26 General Domestic Repair27 Traps29 Weapons and Weapon Hardware31 Tinkering36 Faunal Remains38 Conclusion40 Appendix A. Identification of Work Areas in the

Fort St. Joseph Smithy43 Appendix B. Documentary Evidence for the Ownership

of the Blacksmith Shop46 Appendix C. Terms of Agreement Between Spenard,

Fields, Varin and Pelladeau and Tousaint Pothier47 Appendix D. Artifacts from Operation IH4849 References

3

4

ABSTRACT

This report deals with a fur trade blacksmith shop excavatedduring the summer of 1978 which operated at Fort St. Joseph beforethe War of 1812. The artifacts are examined to determine the shoplayout, the ownership of the shop, and the kinds of activities inwhich the smith engaged. Accordingly, a plan of the shop is givenand it is determined that the smithy belonged to fur traders ratherthan to the military or the Indian Department. The activities of thesmith are shown to include farriering and tinkering as well asgeneral blacksmithing. Appendices dealing with the history of theshop and a related structure are included.

Submitted for publication 1979, by John D. Light, National HistoricParks and Sites, Parks Canada, Ottawa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In this report I have had the unstinting assistance of manypeople, notably Robert Allen, Jean Brathwaite, Dennis Carter­Edwards, Stephen Cumbaa, Dorothy Griffiths, Charles Hanson, OliveJones, Karlis Karklins, Ted MacDonald, George Miller, MaryO'Donnell, Peter Priess and Ron Whate. These people have eitherprovided me with valuable information or pointed me encouraginglyin the right direction.

I would like, however, to thank especially Les Ross, NationalHistoric Parks and Sites Branch, Parks Canada; Ellen Lee, who dugthe site for Ontario Region; and the late Per Guldbeck, ChiefConservator for Parks Canada, Ontario Region, who not only pro­vided me with an endless stream of details about the technicalitiesof blacksmithing 200 years ago, but who did it in a competent,friendly and extremely humorous manner.

This type of analysis is possible only when complete structuresare excavated. No system of test-trenching, no matter how cleverlydevised and statistically viable, can yield synthetic information.Thanks are therefore due to the planners and archaeologists at ParksCanada who are conscious of the many and varied exigencies ofresearch and who have kept the ultimate purposes of troweling everin mind.

INTRODUCTION

The blacksmith shop described in this report was located onthe east side of Old Fort St. Joe Point on St. Joseph Island, Ontario.The point was occupied from 1796 to 1828, although the British fortwas burned by an American force in 1814. After the war of 1812­14, only a minor British force remained on the point, the main forcehaving moved to Drummond Island in 1815. The blacksmith shop wasoutside the fort precincts (Figs 39, 40).

Although the exact date of construction is unknown, it isreasonably certain that the building was in use before 1810. Theshop was a wooden building on a stone foundation which lay directlynorth of an unexcavated semi-subterranean structure with which itmay be associated. As no superstructural remains were found duringexcavation, and as there was no evidence of burning, likely thesmithy was removed, possibly to Drummond Island. The maximumdimensions of the irregularly shaped shop are 16.0 ft east-west and18.7 ft north-south. Apparently it had a dirt floor resting on a baseof rounded boulders, rather than a wooden floor. There was a forgelocated against the interior northern wall of the structure, a basefor the anvil located in the centre of the building, and a lowmasonry wall of irregular shape and unknown function located in thesouthwest corner of the shop.

Post-excavation research has been concerned with twoproblems: the layout of the shop and identification of work areaswithin it; and the attempt to associate the smithy with one of thethree social components at the site, the military, the IndianDepartment and the trading community.

5

6 LIGHT

SHOP LAYOUT

The excavation revealed the remains of theforge and a hole containing the remnants of aspruce stump (Fecteau 1979) which served asthe anvil base. The stump had been held inposition with several large rocks and thenpacked with earth, small stones and scrap iron.The forge, constructed of limestone blockswhich were apparently dry laid, measures5.5-6 ft east-west and 4.5 ft north-south.Only one to two courses of stone of the outershell of the forge remained, although a largescatter of limestone found around the forgeappears to have been a part of it. The corewas filled with cobbles and earth.

The exact height of the forge is unknown,although it must have been approximately 3 ftto allow the smith to stand comfortably whileworking. The tuyere, the nozzle throughwhich air is forced into the furnace, was notfound, although one piece of clinker had afragment of the pipe embedded in it (Fig. lb).This was found, upon analysis, to have beenmade of ferrous metal. It was originallythought that Figure lb represented a bottomtuyere, but the viscous flow of the slag/clinkeris such that an open bottom pipe would beclogged in a short time. A discussion of thetechnology of this type of forge may be foundin Light 1987.

Besides the presence of the side tuyere,examination of the clinker also revealed thatforging was done in a charcoal fire set on asand fire bed. The presence of glass in theclinker and small particles of sand andcharcoal adhering to the underside of theclinker led to these conclusions. The forgewould therefore have been a rectangular boxfilled with rubble over which a sand fire bedwas laid and through which the tuyere protrud­ed. The charcoal fire was then laid on thesand. A thorough metallurgical analysis of theclinker by Henry Unglik producing a morecomplete picture of the forging process thattook place in this smithy accompanies thisreport.

The charcoal was kept in an outside binlocated on the northwest corner of thebuilding (Fig. 2). Keeping the fuel outside toprevent spontaneous or accidental combustionwas a common practice. The charcoal samplesanalyzed had all been produced from hardwood

species which can be found locally. Either thesmith had no choice or he was indiscriminatein his choice of fuel, for the species repre­sented in the shop are ash, sugar maple, whiteelm, birch, poplar, willow, red maple, beechand red oak (Fecteau 1979, p. 19). Ash, birchand beech, however, dominate the sampletaken, and these are good fuels.

Figure 1. Clinker showing side tuyere, Thebottom portion of the pipe remains in speci­men b. (Photo by R. Chan)

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 7

Figure 2. Known layout of shop. Thecomposition of the numbered piles is asfollows: 1) clinker, copper alloy and ferrousscrap; 2) probably an extension of no. 1,contains the same type of material; 3) clinker,copper alloy and ferrous scrap; 4) clinker, thepile is not evenly distributed, the majority ofthe material being on the north side; 5)ceramic and glass; 6) glass. See Figures 3 and4. (Drawing by P. Handy)

Besides the forge, the anvil base and thefuel bin, excavation also revealed several con­centrations of waste material from the smithy(Fig. 2). The largest and most heterogeneouspile of material was found outside thesoutheast corner of the building, and extendedalong both the south and east walls of thestructure. This pile consisted of clinker fromthe forge, scrap iron and copper alloy waste,as did the small pile in the southeast interiorcorner; however, because the earth wall of thesemi-subterranean building to the south of thesmithy rises quite sharply, this pile wasprobably deposited in its present location byerosion after the building wall was removed.Another pile containing the same kinds ofmaterial was found inside the northeast cornerof the building. It was also in this corner thatthe bellows were probably located. Becausebellows are, of necessity, elevated, it iscommon to find scrap beneath them.

"'N

Generally, one expects the type of scrap foundinside a shop beneath a bellows to be reusablein some way, and an exterior pile of scrap tobe worthless. In this instance, however, thereappears to be no significant differencebetween the type or size of the scrap in eitherthe pile beneath the bellows or the pile at thesoutheast corner of the building. Unfor­tunately, the remains of the bellows supportposts were not found and therefore the loca­tion of the bellows cannot be conclusivelydemonstrated. Because, however, the otherpossible location at the other end of the forgewould place the bellows both outside the shopand above the fuel pile, the location shown ismore logical.

An additional dump was found along thewest side of the building (Fig. 2). Because itconsists almost entirely of clinker (Table 1),the smith apparently used to fill his fuelbucket with clinker whenever the quantitieswarranted it and dump the clinker at the backof the shop before refilling it with fuel for theforge. In this same area was found the base ofa sheet metal pail and one side of a sheetmetal pail with a lug attached. These twosections and the accompanying severalhundred pieces of scrap sheet metal may bepart of the same pail. Also, this pail may haveserved as the smith's fuel bucket, althoughthere is nothing other than its location andsize to support this hypothesis.

The two remaining piles of scrap materialconsist of items probably broken within theshop. The smaller of the two, found againstthe exterior north wall of the fuel bin, con­tained exclusively glass, whereas theremaining dump at the northwest corner of theshop consisted of both glass and ceramic.

The location and approximate extent of thevarious disposal dumps and of the variousfeatures discussed to this point are shown inFigure 2. The northern wall of the fuel binprobably extended farther than is shown in thedrawing, for the charcoal deposit extends in arough line west of the existing wall, but as nofoundation was found in this location it wasomitted from the drawing.

Figure 2 shows as well the windows, thedoor, the workbench and the vise, the loca­tions of which were determined by artifactdistribution as no structural remains werefound. Two concentrations of pane glass indi­cated the relative location of the windows

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8 LIGHT

(Table 2), and the fact that the area betweenthe windows was almost entirely devoid ofartifacts, as an area of heavy traffic shouldbe, indicated the presence of a door. Therelative locations of the forge, the semi­subterranean building and the various dumpsalmost preclude the possibility of a door beingin any other location, although a door in thewest wall is not impossible. The door is shownopening inward as is generally the case (TedMacdonald 1979: pers. corn.), As well asallowing for a storm door, this arrangementfacilitates securing the door and protectingthe opening against the vicissitudes ofweather. Where archaeological evidence onthis point exists at Fort St. Joseph, it wasfound that the doors open inward (Karklins1978: n.p.), The final feature shown in Figure2, the workbench and on it the vise, waslocated by means of soil analysis (Appendix A).The presence of scale from metal workingindicates the general location of the vise, but

Table 1. Clinker (slag) distribution.

as the vise must be mounted on a workbench,the location of both items can be determinedby soil analysis. The location of the windowsupports this conclusion because good lightingis necessary to facilitate manipulation of thesmall objects normally worked on the vise.This is substantiated by the fact that themajority of objects of a size to be worked onthe vise, such as gun parts, are indeed found inthe northeast corner of the shop. It is notknown whether the vise was a leg vise or abench vise, although a proper blacksmith's legvise seems more probable because it issturdier.

Figure 2 shows only those features aboutwhich knowledge is either certain or highlyprobable. By' contrast, Figures 3 and 4 repre­sent hypothetical arrangements of the interiorof the smithy and should be viewed compara­tively. Given the information contained inFigure 2, together with additional clues fromthe material assemblage and a knowledge ofthe tools required by the blacksmith, it ispossible to recreate a plausible layout of theshop. Two drawings have been provided to

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emphasize the uncertainty of some of theinformation.

In addition to the items shown in Figure 2,a grindstone is shown in the southeast interiorcorner of both alternative drawings. From thequantity of axes found in the shop it is knownthat axe repair was one of the smith's majoractivities (Table 8) and this presupposes theexistence of a grindstone in the shop. It isknown as well that the Indian Departmentblacksmith at the fort, if this was he,possessed a grindstone (PAC, RG8, I, Vol. 254,pp. 57-59). The grindstone is pictured in thislocation because of the availability of lightfrom the window.

A table is shown against the southern wallin both floor plans. This was probably thedomestic areas of the smithy as almost all theobjects related to eating or relaxation werefound along the interior southern wall of theshop. The only eating utensils (two knives anda spoon) found during excavation were foundhere, as were the only folding knife, candlesnuffer, musical instrument part (harmonicareed) and all but one of the functional smokingpipes (Fig. 5). In addition, the ceramic table­ware not associated with the dump outside theshop all came from along the southern wall.

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 9

Figure 4. Another possible layout of shop.(Drawing by P. Handy)

Most of this ceramic consists of miscellaneoussherds, implying this was an area of primarydeposition. The only apparent exception tothe general pattern in the material foundalong the southern wall involves containerwares, both glass and ceramic, and these aremore closely associated with the area aroundthe workbench and forge, although some con­tainer glass does appear along the southernwall. Although the domestic area of thesmithy was along the southern wall, it was notshown in Figure 2 because the size, shape andtype of table is unknown and the exact loca­tion or extent of the area is indeterminable.

All of the remaining objects represented inFigures 3 and 4 are shown in different loca­tions. Because the western side of the shopwas almost devoid of artifacts, this wasprobably the section of the shop reserved forgeneral storage. Therefore the stock, themandril and the swage are shown to the westof the forge. Although this blacksmith pos­sessed stock (Fig. 6), the quantities availableto him were probably minimal because there isabundant evidence of the reuse of metal, bothsteel and iron. The smith was using both files(Fig. 15) and trap springs (Fig. 28) as sourcesof steel stock, and he was also hammering up

10 LIGHT

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Figure 5. Articles from the domestic area of the smithy: a) knife blade, IH5IA2-13; b) knifeblade fragment, IH5IB2-38; c) folding knife with pewter inlay, IH5IA4-16; d) pewter spoon,IH5IB2-14; e) shank-bowl juncture of white clay pipe, "WG" on spur, IH5IC2; f) shank-bowljuncture of white clay pipe, IH5IA4; g) shank fragment of steatite aboriginal pipe, IH5IB2-15; h)harmonica reed, two pieces, IH5IB2-30; i) candle snuffer, wick trimmer - the plate has beenbrazed back on the shank, IH5IC2-18. (Photo by R. Chan)

scrap iron for stock (Fig. sa), For these rea­sons, and because there were only six rem­nants of iron stock found, all in the immediatearea of the anvil, the amount of stock pic­tured on the floor plan is slightly unrealistic.

The smith might have had neither a swage

nor a mandril or he might have had one orboth, but neither tool is used to the sameextent as the anvil or vise and they aretherefore placed in locations both out of theway and yet available. The same reasoningapplies to the tool rack, although again the

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 11

c

a

to a different location within the shop, thereshould be, in the barrel strapping, a clearindication of its presence. Unfortunately, al­though barrel strapping appeared to the eastof the forge, its exact location was not re­corded, and there is no guarantee that thestrapping is not associated with the depositedmaterial in the northeast corner. The slacktub is nevertheless shown in the northeastcorner in Figure 3. In Figure 4 it is shown tothe west of the forge because barrel strappingnotwithstanding, it appears too large for thecorner. If this specific problem had beenrealized before excavation, all barrel strap­ping within an arbitrary limit of approximately3 ft from the forge could have been mappedinto the grid and the location of the quenchingtub determined, if it remained in the smithy.

Figure 7 shows the north and east walls ofthe smithy in three dimensions. Although nostructural remains of the chimney have beenfound, it is shown on the west side (the shorterside) of the forge because a forge chimneyneed not be large. It is unlikely too that thechimney was built on the east side of the forgewhere it could not be backed against the wall.The quenching tub is shown in the same loca­tion as in Figure 3 because of the barrelstrapping and because it is closer to the vise inthat location. The vise is shown as a leg visebecause although it is not unknown for ablacksmith to use a bench vise, the leg vise ismore usual because it is sturdier. Thewindows are depicted as 12 pane windowsbecause this seems to have been the mostusual arrangement for the period (d. the illus­trations in Bealer and Ellis 1978), and the dooris shown as two layers of board running inopposite directions simply because doors foundduring excavation of other buildings on thesite have been constructed in this manner(Karklins 1978: n.p.),

This blacksmith shop manifests a patternthat should prove to be universally applicableto all smithies that are not mere appendagesof other structures. Any blacksmith shop,large or small, should have at least threeclearly recognizable functional areas within it,although some may be overlapping and theywill vary in their size, complexity and spatialrelationships. The most important area iswhat may be called the working area of theforge, which will include the bellows, the anviland workbench and vise. In larger, more

_ eM

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b

Figure 6. Wrought-iron stock fragments: a)stock made from scrap metal, probablyhammered up by the smith, IH5IL3-15; b)round stock, IH51E3-24; c) square stock,IH5IE3-24. (Photo by R. Chan)

smith might not have had one, preferring in­stead to mount his tools on the forge.Although no evidence of a stove was found inthe forge, one was included on the floor planbecause the forge itself could not provideenough heat for the shop in winter, one of thesmith's busiest seasons.

Aside from the stools, the only remainingobject shown on the drawings is the quenchingor slack tub. This is a necessary item in asmithy and it is always located near the forge.If it was not removed from the shop or moved

12 LIGHT

\- --.

Figure 7. Artist's reconstruction of north and east walls of smithy. (Drawing by P. Handy)

complex shops, it may also include a carriagebay where wagons in need of repair can betemporarily housed close to the forge. Therewill also be at least one general storage areawhere such things as stock, seldom used tools,mandrils and swages are kept. Finally, therewill be a domestic area where the smith andhis friends and clients eat and relax. Thepreferences of the smith, the architecture ofthe structure and the available space within it,as well as the complexity and type of theoperation will determine how these threeareas are arranged and what overlapping mayoccur.

IDENTIFICATION OF SHOP

The second major problem was to deter­mine to whom the shop belonged. One of thesocial components, the military, can beeliminated because except for a 41st Regi­ment button, a cannon carriage tire stud, acannon carriage bolt head, and an incompleterear sling swivel which is probably military,there are no artifacts that can be associateddefinitely with the military in the smithy. Itis more difficult, however, to determine

whether the shop belonged to the IndianDepartment or to the fur trade community.

The physical location of the building doesnot help solve this problem. Although thereare numerous references to the Indian Depart­ment blacksmith at the fort, there are nonereferring to the location of his smithy, andthere is no general or specific military direc­tive commanding the Indian Department smithto locate his forge within the fort. Inaddition, all our archaeological and historicalinformation to date leads to the conclusionthat any buildings owned by the Indian Depart­ment were located outside the fort precincts.The fact that the shop is located close tobuildings located outside the fort is thereforepossibly irrelevant. If there is a solution tothis problem, it must come from the materialassemblage.

In general, the kinds of items found in thesmithy could point either to the Indian Depart­ment or to a fur trade blacksmith. Parts ofaxes, copper kettles, traps and trade guns arenumerous, and clearly the principal activitiesof the smith involved repair of these items.Although both smiths repaired such items, theIndian Department smith was also engaged inthe manufacture of axes (PAC, RG8, I, Vol.250, p, 422), and there is no evidence of eitherthe waste that accrues from axe manufacturein this smithy (L. Ross 1979: pers, corn.) orany significant amount of stock. In addition,the farriering activities of this smith point tohis employment by Europeans although anIndian Department official like John Askincould have employed the smith in this regard.

The two arguments that, however, appearconclusive in attributing this smithy to the furtrade community are that none of the items inthe shop are marked with a broad arrow at atime when it was the normal practice to markIndian Department goods in this manner (PAC,RG8, C, Vol. 253, p, 153), and that the buildingdoes not appear to have been burned by theAmericans in 1814. According to the histori­cal record, the only buildings to escape thefire were those of the South West Company(Vincent 1975: n.p.).

It may be possible to identify the shop notjust with the fur trade, but with a fur tradingcompany. The trading community at Fort St.Joseph was diverse, there being the NorthWest Company, the South West Company andseveral independants at the post. The smithy

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 13

might have belonged to anyone of them. It isnoteworthy, however, that between the deathof Louis Dufresne, the Indian Departmentblacksmith in November 1805, and the adventof John Johnson as Indian Department smith inDecember 1806, the independent company ofMessrs. Spenard, Fields, Varin and Pelladeaufurnished a blacksmith to the Indian Depart­ment for four months (Vincent 1975: n.p.).This same James Fields had brought, in thesummer of 1804, a charge of illegal tradingagainst Louis Dufresne (PAC, RG8, I, Vol. 254,p. 223). Because the firm appears to haveoperated from the post on St. Joseph Island,and because they had a blacksmith, possiblythis shop belonged to Messrs. Spenard, Fields,Varin and Pelladeau and there was more toFields's charge against Dufresne than realized.

There is nothing among the artifacts tosuggest ownership by this firm, and it is ofcourse not possible on the basis of theevidence to be definitive about the ownershipof the shop, but the fact the firm could supplya smith to the Indian Department on relativelyshort notice does mean that Messrs. Spenard,Fields, Varin and Pelladeau should be givenprime consideration in future research(Appendices B, C).

DESCRIPTION OF ARTIFACTS

The decisions about the layout of the shopand its ownership by a fur trade company havebeen based almost exclusively on a long andcareful study of the artifacts. Therefore I willdescribe these artifacts to explain in moredetail the reasoning that led to these conclu­sions. The artifacts are described accordingto artifact classes and with reference to theactivities of the smith. Because provenancesare referred to frequently, a simplifieddrawing of the shop showing suboperations isincluded (Fig. 8).

Only one artifact (a twentieth centurybullet) was intrusive. All other artifacts inthe blacksmith shop fit the historic period ofthe occupation of the point.

14 LIGHT

Figure 8. Floor plan of blacksmith shopshowing layout of archaeological grid.

Ceramic (Table 3)

The total vessel count for operation lH51is ten objects of which eight are tableware orteaware, one is a food or liquid storage vesseland one is a food preparation vessel. Althoughthe latter vessel is present in the shop, it isunlikely that food was being prepared in thesmithy. The shape-function of an object is notnecessarily its use-function and as there areno other objects of any kind to indicate thatthe building might have been a domicile aswell as a shop, we must assume that the smithlived elsewhere, perhaps in the semi­subterranean building next door, and broughthis food to the shop to eat.

The eight tableware objects include thefollowing: one cream ware hollowware object,possibly a cup; one press-moulded pearlwarehollowware object, probably a teapot, andprobably painted; three plates - one plaincreamware, one pearlware shell edged, andone transfer printed pearlwarej and threepearl ware bowls - one fluted polychromepainted (Fig. 9), one under glaze blue painted(Fig. 10) and one probably painted. All ofthese objects were made likely before 1810.

Table 3. Ceramic distribution of ware type.*A single object.

WareProvenance She<<b typ" De:scription Ii. comments

IH51A2 1 PW blue shell edge, possible mend with lH51M3-2IH51A2 1 ew undiagnostic, probably flatwareIH5JA4 , PW undiagnostic, probably flatwaretH51B2 1 PW undiagnostic, probably flatwareIH5lB2 1 PW burnt, possible mend with IH51F2~18

lH51B2 1 PW flatwareIH51B2 1 ew flatware, brink sherdIH51Bl-44 z- PW flatware, blue transfer printIH51C2-22 I" ew hollowwarelH51F2-18 7" PW burnt, bowl, base_14 em or 5.5 in. diamj

design missing or none; includes 2 pes. burntPW from lH51C2 (dump)

IH51G2-29 z- Stoneware salt glaze, Lambeth, storage container or jugIH51G2-30 I" ew flatware, undiagnostic ef. IH5IA2, IH51B2IH5lG4 1 PW flatware, possible mend with IH51M3-2IH51J3-1 44" PW small slop bowl, UG blue painted chinoiserie

(dump)IH51K2-4 ," PW press moulded, probable teapot, outside bldgIH5IM3M} 77" PW fluted slop bowl, polychrome painted (dump)IH51M3-2 64' PW shell edge muffin, blue UG (dump)IH51M3-7 ,. CEW-RED container, probable milk pan or mixing bowl,

Four objects, representing 86 per cent ofthe ceramic sherds found in the operation,were found in the scrap pile labeled 5 inFigure 2. One additional object, slightlyburnt, was found with the pile of clinkerlabeled 4 in Figure 2. Together they representhalf the objects and 89 per cent of the cera­mic sherds from the operation. One object,the teapot, was found outside the building inthe northeast corner of the operation, and wasan isolated find, unrelated to anything in theshop. The stoneware container was associatedwith the workbench area. The remainingobjects and undiagnostic sherds are eitherfrom or associated with the domestic area ofthe shop. Some of the sherds found along theinterior south wall of the shop either mend orprobably mend with ceramic found outside thewest wall of the smithy, thus indicating thatthe area along the south wall was an area ofprimary deposition, and that the dump at thenorthwest corner contained material from theshop.

According to George Miller's system ofclassification and economic scaling of cera­mics in which the prices of various types ofceramic are related to the price of plaincream ware as a base, this assemblage, cumu­latively, has an index value of approximatelytwo (Miller 1980). Although the number ofvessels in the shop is too small, given thepossible date range of the shop, to apply thissystem rigidly, had the purchaser of theceramic bought entirely cream ware, he mighthave expended less than half the cost.Furthermore, because this is a work area,dishes of lesser quality than normal domestictableware should theoretically have been used.

Figure 9. Fluted pearlware under glaze polychrome painted bowl,made ca. 1785-1805, English, IH51M3-1. (Photo by R. Chan)

Figure 10. Pearlware underglaze cobalt blue painted bowl with chinoiseriesdesign, made ca. 1785-1805, English, IH51J3-1. (Photo by R. Chan)

15

Table 4. Container and table glass distribution.

IH51M3 91IH51M3 80

IH51M3-8 39·

IH51M3-9 24*

IH51M3-10 7*

• A single object.

16 LIGHT

The social status of a blacksmith at thistime and in this place was middle to upper­middle class (R. Allen 1979: pers. corn.) andthe ceramic assemblage from the shop reflectsthis. It would, however, be necessary to applyMiller's scaling system to all the civilianstructures on the site to produce a relativesocial ranking. Which of the civilian struc­tures, for example, are likely to have belongedto the Askin social circle and which to theaverage fur trader? How do the assemblagesin the houses compare- with those in the shopsand other facilities? Unfortunately, only 2 of15 civilian structures, 13 of 26 semi­subterranean buildings and only 1 tradesman'sshop have been excavated.

Glass (Table 4)

A rrururnurn number of 15 vessels, of whichtwo were table glass, two liquor, three patentmedicines, and eight dried food containers,were found in the excavation of the smithy.Most of the recovered sherds (70%) and a highpercentage of objects (40%) came from twodumps at the northwest exterior corner of thebuilding. These two dumps are labeled 5 and 6in Figure 2. Some glass from these dumps hadbeen scattered along the exterior north wall ofthe structure.

The majority of the table glass or possibletable glass sherds (83%) were found either inthe two dumps at the northwest corner of thebuilding or scattered along the north wall ofthe structure. One object, a possible wineglass which represents 9 per cent of the tableglass sherds, was found in the southern part ofsuboperation D and may be associated with thedomestic area of the shop. The rest of thetable glass was scattered about the shop in noapparent order, except that in suboperation Eonly two glass sherds were found. The use ofthe table glass is unclear. No area of primarydeposition was determined as the glass waswell scattered within the shop and no crossmends were found. Possibly the completeobjects were used either as tableware or assecondary containers, but without intensivecross mending it is impossible to answer thisquestion. It does seem, however, that thewine glass at least was being used as such.

Provenance

IH51A2IH51A2IH51A3IH51A4IH51C2IH51C2-23

IH51C2-24

IH5IDI

IH51D2-38

IH51D2-39

. IH51G2IH5IG2-31

IH51G3-44

IH51G4IH51G4-14

IH51G5IH51HIIH51H2IH51H2-30

IH51JIIH51J2

IH5iJ2-8

IH51J3IH51J4

IH51J5-9

IH51K2IH51K2-10

IH51K4IH51L2IH51L2-2

IH51L3IH51L3

IH51M2

IH51M2

IH51M3

Shercls

I3I2I

26*

3*

1*

20*

514*

15*

241*

2I42*

22*

8*

85*

21

11*

1714

27

26

22

Description &: comments

colourless, lead glass, undiagnosticlight green container glass, undiagnosticcolourless, lead glass, undiagnosticIlght green, probably container, burntcolourless, lead glass, undiagnosticdark green container, liquor; probable

location outside in dump; may representmore than one bottle. Possible mends:C2(I3), D2(2), F2(7), F4(I), G4(I), J4(1),K5(l). No X-mends. Only dark greencontainer glass in shop. No duplicateshapes.

dried food container, colourless, squarelead glass, indented chamfers

colourless container, lead glass, undiag­nostic

colourless container, lead glass, shoul­der, probably medicine vial

colourless lead glass, table glass, pos­sible wine glass; mends: D 1(2), E2(2)

colourless lead glass, undiagnosticdried food or mustard container, light

green lead glass, probably secondaryuse; x-mends: 82(1), 02(0, GUZ),G2(6), G4(I), G5(1), K4(2)

colourless lead glass, Turlington's Balsamof Life bottle, fiddle shaped, secondaryuse; x-mends: A5(6), 82(2), C3(6), H2(J)about 1/3 of bottle remains

colourless lead glass, undl agnosticgreen, octagonal, dried food or medicine

container. Secondary use. X-mendsD2(2), G2(2I), G4(8). Blowpipe ponti!.

colourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead glass rim, undiagnosticcolourless lead glass, undiagnosticlight green dried food container; second­

ary usecolourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead container glass, undiag­

nosticlight green container, lead glass, indent­ed chamfers, secondary use. X-mends]2(6), J5(6), M2(6), M3(4). From dump.

colourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead table glass, I rim, I

affected by fire, undiagnosticcolourless lead container glass. Square

bottle, flat chamfers. Dump.colourless lead glass, undiagnos ticessence of peppermint, colourless lead

glass, secondary usecolourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead glass, undiagnosticamber container glass, liquor or spa

water. Vertical striations on neck pro­duced by a primary mould. Secondarymould was dip mould. Probably Frenchor Continental. Highly patinated.

colourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead container glass. Includes

two sherds with folded-out flat-sidedlips. Undiagnostic.

colourless lead glass, undiagnostic;mend: lH51K2(I), dump

colourless lead container glass. IncludesI folded-out, flat-sided lip. Undiagnos­tic. Dump.

table glass rims, colourless lead glass.Total circurnference of rims greaterthan circumference of tumbler base (cf ,IH51D2-39 and IH5IM3-10). Undiag­nos tic. Includes I pc. lH51K2 and I pc.IH5lL3 as possible mends. X-mends:IH5ILJ(2). Dump.

colourless lead glass, undiagnosticcolourless lead container glass. one

flanged lip frag. Undiagnostic. Dump.colourless lead dried food container.

Square bottle with flat chamfers.Dump.

colourless lead dried food container. In­dented chamfers. Dump.

tumbler base, lead glass, ponti! mark andpush up. Base diam. 6.8 em. Dump .

The area of the workbench and the forgehas associated with it 18 per cent of thesherds and 33 per cent of the objects. The ob­jects are either dried food containers orpatent medicine bottles. These bottles wereprobably not being used for dried food or med­icine, but for lubricants, fluxes and acids.This secondary usage is hypothesized partlybecause of the nature of the building, partlybecause of the high quantity of these vessels(73% of the objects in the shop were eitherdried food containers or patent medicines) andpartly because of the location of the objects.The tiny medicine bottles were probably usedfor acids like He I or tannic acid for cleaningmetal, or for bluing or browning or for fluxes.They may also have been used for lubricantslike whale oil. The larger containers, however,probably contained powders like borax forwelding or oils like Neet's foot oil for leather.Lamp black for stoves is another possibility.They also may have been used for compoundslike varnish, shellac or linseed oil used in woodfinishing, but as there were no traces of thesetenacious substances that is unlikely (PerGuldbeck 1979: pers, com.),

One of the "liquor" bottles was unusal. Itwas made of poor quality amber glass and hadvertical striations on a champagne neck (Fig.II), Only one other example, from FortBeausejour, is known in the Parks Canadacollection. The bottle was probably of con­tinental origin, possibly from France, and maywell have contained spa water rather thanliquor (0. Jones 1979: pers. com.), It is notknown whether this or the other liquor bottlehad a secondary use.

Outside the building in the extremesouthwest corner of the operation were foundtwo objects, a liquor bottle and a dried foodcontainer, which may be associated with asimilar dump behind the semi-subterraneanbuilding to the south of the smithy. The typeof glass, as well as its location, point to thisconclusion. Suboperation F to the west of theshop contained only eight pieces of glass, andthese were all dark green container glasssherds found in the southern part of the sub­operation. Any link between the objects insuboperation C and those in suboperation Jthus seems tenuous. In addition, the west endof the semi-subterranean building waspartially excavated just before the blacksmithshop was exposed, and several glass objects

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 17

Figure II. Amber container glass withchampagne neck and vertical striations fromprimary mould, possibly French, lH5lL2-2.(Photo by J. Light)

were recovered. Among them were a darkgreen liquor bottle and a colourless lead glassdried food container of the same type as thosefound in suboperation C of the blacksmithshop. Although there were no duplicateshapes, cross mending of the glass in the twooperations proved inconclusive. If the semi­subterranean building is ever excavated, how­ever, it may be possible to demonstrate someconnection between the two buildings in thisregard (Appendix D).

Pipes (Table 5)

The operation contained only 38 pipe frag­ments, all but one of which are white clay andall of which are consistent with the period1790-1830. The other pipe fragment was fromthe shank of an aboriginal pipe, which mayindicate that the smith was doing work forIndians. The complete assemblage representsonly four functional pipes: the aboriginal pipewhich is unique to the assemblage, and threewhite clay pipes as represented by the shank­bowl juncture. There was one manufacturedbite, and a bowl/stem ratio among the claypipes of 8:29. Thirteen white clay pipe frag­ments are known to have been found outsidethe walls of the smithy, and a total of eight ofthese were in the scrap piles labeled I and 5 in

18 LIGHT

Figure 2. Of the remainder, 36 per cent,including two functional pipes, were found inthe domestic area of the shop, but some ofthese may have been outside the shop as theywere discovered before the walls were foundand none of them were mapped into the grid.The only functional pipe not discovered alongthe south wall was found near the forge, andmay have belonged to the smith.

These figures generally confirm thedomestic area of the shop was along the southwall; however, the total number of fragmentsappears curiously low.

Although we do not know how long the shopwas occupied, the quantities of other materialassociated with the shop, notably 46 kg ofclinker, point to a well-used forge. Thenumber of pipes associated with the shop thenappears low, considering that a blacksmithshop, by reputation at least, resembled a con­temporary country garage. It was thewarmest place in town in winter, and therewas always someone chatting with the smithwaiting for the work to be completed. Thisanalogy apparently does not hold here becausethis may be the shop of Messrs. Spenard,Fields, Varin and Pelladeau. We know therewas an Indian Department smith at the fort,and there may have been a North West

Table 5. Smoking pipes (all pipe remains arefragmentary).

Company shop as well. If this was the case,then the shop of Spenard, Fields, Varin andPelladeau probably struggled for its economicexistence, and this may well be a source of theenmity James Fields obviously felt for LouisDufresne. A blacksmith would undoubtedlymake useful business contacts, but as Dufresnewas not legally empowered to trade with theIndians, his use of his position to indulge inillegal activities must have been sorelyresented by Fields, who was under no suchconstraint. It may also account for a relativepaucity of customers for Fields's shop andhence a small number of pipes. It may also be,of course, that the smith was not convivial andthat nobody stayed to chat while the work wasbeing done. Whatever the reason, the pipeswere few. They are also particularlyundistinguished.

Building Hardware (Table 6)

Except for a relatively large number ofbutt hinge fragments in the area of the work­bench, which may be from shutters attachedto the window above the workbench, thebuilding hardware yields no structural infor­mation about the shop. Bcause the buildingitself was probably removed from the site, this

Table 6. Building hardware distribution.

Provenance

lH51A2IH5L\4

lH511\2

lH'HB2-15

lH51C2

lH51C3lH51C4lH511)4lH511)5lH51EllH51E5lH51G2lH51G4lH51G5lH51H2

lH51H3lH51H5lH51J2lH51J4

lH51K2lH51K5lH51M2lH51M3

No. Description

sternsterns ( l manufactured bite)bowl (shank-bowl juncture, Fig.'j)stembowl (TD partial, on bowl)aboriginal pipe, carved and drilled stea­

tite, socket shank pipe, grey, decor a­tion, geometric abraded, frag. of shank(Fig. 5)

sternbowl (shank-bowl juncture with we on

spur) (Fig. 5)sternstern (reworked bi te, teeth marks)bowlsterns (t repair)sternsternsternbowl (smoking stains)sternssternsbowl (shank-bowl juncture with we onspur)

sternstemsternssternbowlssternsternsternsste.n

IH51A2-34IH51A2-36IH51A4-27IH51B2-39IH5ID2-26IH51EI-7IH51E2-40lH51E2-46lH51F2-1JlH51F2-14

lH51GI-17IH51G3-29IH51G3-30

IH51G3-31IH51G5-12IH51H2-21IH51H2-22IH51H2-25IH51J4-8

IH51K4-9IH51K4-14IH51K4-15IH51K5-20IH51K5-28IH51LJ-12IH51LJ-16

latch plate, incomplete, possibly from shutter 0.2 x 1.5 em)tear-drop strap hinge finial (1.8 x 3.9 em)butt hinge fragment; I knuckle (2.1 x 2.2 em)butt hinge fragment; I knuckle (2.3 x 2.4 em)stock lock escutcheon plate (6 x 4.3 em)shutter dog support post (I2.6 x 1.1 x .7 em)barrel bolt keeper 0.8 x 1.2 em)latch hook fragment 02.3 x 3.6 em)latch hook (8 em long)strap hinge finial fragment, 1I2 tear-drop finial probably fromdoor hinge

strap hinge finial fragment \4 x 3.8 em)hinge fragment, oval finialbutt hinge fragment, I complete side, 3 attachment holes (5.1 x

3.5 em)2 butt hinge fragments (2.2 x 2.3 em) 0.5 x 1.6 x 1.8 em)butt hinge, 2 knuckles and fixed pin (2.6 x 5.7 em)ward lock key 03.3 em long)lock guide, stock lock (4.5 x 2.6 em)latch hook (14.7 cm long)double strap hinge, fixed pin, 4 attachment holes each side

probably furniture hinge, complete, distorted (20.1 x 3.1 em}latch bar with rivet, incompleteward lock spring, incomplete (4.6 x 1.3 ern)key post guide plate (4.5 x 4.1 ern)lock bolt from ward lock, brazed (12.6 cm long)hinge pin with 2 fragments of knuckles (10.7 cm long)key blank (9.2 cm long)strap hinge eye and portion of shank, incomplete, broken, at thirdattachment hole, probably door hinge (13 x 3.2 x 2.3 ern)

is not remarkable. The hardware remnants inthe shop all come from latches, locks orhinges, either broken and awaiting repair or inthe midst of the repair process. Forty-fourper cent of the objects are in the northeastinterior corner of the building where the dumpis located, and fully 58 per cent are in theworking area of the forge. The objects inFigure 12 represent repairs to building hard­ware made by this smith, in this case in hiscapacity as locksmith.

The nails from the building also provideminimal structural information. The majorityof nails were standard forged rose heads andwere evenly distributed around the walls ofthe structure. From the even distribution ofthese rose heads the structure was likelyweather-boarded but this conjecture cannot besubstantiated. The average size of the com­plete rose heads is compatible with this con­clusion.

Several extremely unusual nails (Fig. 13)were discovered in three locations, eitheraround the anvil or in the two scrap piles onthe east side of the shop. Apparently thesewere produced by the smith, but their use is

Figure 12. Building hardware repair: a) slidinglock bolt - the head has been brazed back onthe shank, IH51K5-20; b) key blank, IH51L3­12. (Photo by R. Chan)

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 19

unknown unless the nails with oversized headswere used for leather or as decorative nails.At least one nail, a common rose head with atwisted shank, was clearly the result of adiversion by the smith (Fig. 13d).

e

d

Figure 13. Nails: a) six T-head, square shanknails - all heads have been applied and allshanks are hot-cut, IH51E2-35; b) headless,rectangular-tapered, sharp-pointed nail,IH51A4-17; c) square, flat, oversize head,square to hot-cut round shank, IH51E2-33; d)rose head nail with twisted shank, IH51Dl-4;e) L-head, rectangular shank, sharp-pointednail, 1H5102-11; f) square, flat, oversize head,square shank, sharp-pointed nail, IH51A2-22.(Photo by R. Chan)

20 LIGHT

Tools

Files (Table 7)

The smithy contained 37 files or portionsof files, of which only one, a smooth, double­cut warding file, was complete. The rest wereeither broken or reworked. A wide variety oftypes are represented: either single-cut,double-cut, or rasp; smooth, second-cut,bastard, coarse, or rough; 3-square, flat, knife,or l/2-round.

Table 7. Files - overall dimensions are given.

Figure 14. Pry bar made from file, IH51G3­11. (Photo by R. Chan)

aIH51A4-4

lH51B2-6

lH51B2-7

IH51B2-35

lH51C2-2lH51C2-3lH51C2-4

lH51C3-3

lH51D2-4

lH51D2-5

lH51D2-6

lH51D2-7

lH51D2-3llH51E2-6

lH51E2-7

lH51E2-8

lH51E2-9

lH51E2-10

lH51E2-ll

lH51E2-47

lH51E3-4

lH51E3-5lH51E4-llH51F2-l2

lH51G2-2

lH51G3-1O

lH5JG5-llH51H5-l

lH51J2-l

lH51J4-l

lH51J4-2lH51L3-2lH51L3-3

lH51L5-l

flat rasp, bastard, single-cut rough edges, broken, 2.9 x 2.1 x.9 em

a-square, smooth, double-cut file, reworked into a punch, 4.9 x .7x .7 x .6 em (may have been knife file)

3-square, smooth, double-cut file with circular .polnt reworkedinto a punch, 3.5 x .7 x.7 x.7 em (mends with IH51C3-J)

two round files: 1) cut, tooth pattern indistinguishable, 3.8 x.5 em; 2) broken, tooth pattern indistinguishable, 3.4 x .5 em

1/2 round rasp, coarse reworked, 9.3 x 2.5 x .6 emflat, tapered, single-cut, bastard, reworked, 2.3 x 1.7 x .5 em3-square, smooth, double-cut file with tang; broken on blade;

11.8 x .9 x .9 x.9 em tang length, 5 emj-square, beveled corners, smooth, double-cut, reworked into a

punch, ends broken, 6.6 x .8 x .8 x .8 cm (mends with IH51B2-7)flat, tapered, double-cut, second-cut, hot-cut one end, brokenother end, 4 x 2.5 x .7 cm

flat, double-cut, second-cut tapered file; point and portion ofblade, broken; 5.5 x 1.7 x 5 cm

flat rasp, tapered, bastard, single-cut rough edges, broken, 3.5 x1.6 x.6 cm

flat, double-cut, second-cut file with tang, brazing on teeth andon broken end, 9.4 x 2.2 x .5 cm

two file tangs, hot-cuts 1) 6.5 x 1.6 x .8 cm; 2) 5.3 x 1.3 x .6 ern3-square, second-cut, double-cut, hot-cut one end, broken otherend, 6.1 x 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 em

flat file, reworked, tooth pattern indistinguishable, 10.2 x 2.6 x.6 cm

flat, single-cut, bastard file, reworked, distorted, 5.6 x 2.5 x.9 cm

knife, smooth, double-cut file, portion of blade, hot-cut, 2.3 x .8 x.8 x .7 cm

1/2 round, double-cut, bastard, reworked, distorted, 5.5 x 2.6 x.7 cm

two pieces of metal butt welded together, at least one of whichwas a file; tooth pattern indistinguishable; irregular shape; 8.4 x2.1 x .9 cm

3 flat tiles, all reworked: 1) 13.3 x 2 x .6 cm, tooth patternindistinguishable; 2) 9.3 x 2 x .8 cm, tooth pattern indistin­guishable; 3) coarse, double-cut, 2.5 x 2.1 x .6 cm

round, reworked, distorted, tooth pattern indistinguishable, 6.1 xlem

flat, double-cut, second-cut, broken, reworked, 3.8 x 2.7 x .7 cm1/2 round, coarse rasp, broken, blade fragment, 1.8 x 2.3 x .7 cmflat, tapered, second-cut file, single-cut one face, double-cutothe-r face; blade hot-cut; 3.1 x 2.7 x .5 ern

flat, coarse, double-cut file, hot-cut one end, broken other end,7.5 x 2.; x.7 cm

flat, double-cut, second-cut, hot-cut one end, broken other end,2.7 x 2.2 x .6 cm

flat, double-cut, bastard, broken, 2.1 x 2.1 x.7 em1/2 round, double-cut, second-cut, rounded point, hot-cut, 6.2 x

1.9 x .7 cmsmooth, single-cut, warding file, complete with tang; mark radio­r~~:'hfga) illegible total length 18.9 cm; width at shoulder 1.6 cm

1/2 round, coarse, double-cut file point, broken on blade, 7.7 x2.6 x .6 cm

flat, rough, single-cut file, reworked, 5.7 x 3.6 x 1.2 cm1/2 round, coarse, single-cut, reworked, 5.7 x 3.6 x 1.2 cmflat, single-cut, bastard, possible warding file, broken, 12.7 x 2.5 x

.7 cm1/2 round, double-cut bastard; tang and portion of shank, broken,

12.5 x 2.7 x .8 cm; marked "MY & Co" (Fig. 15b)

b

-Figure 15. Files: a) warding file with illegiblemark, IH51J2-1; b) l/2-round, double-cut file,broken on shaft, marked "MV&Co," IH5lL5-1.(Photo by R. Chan)

Files are, of course, used as woodworking,metalworking or farriering tools, and thissmith was undoubtedly using them as such.However, he regarded them equally as stock;indeed, worn files probably served, given hissituation, as his chief source of high gradesteel. Sixty-eight per cent of the files fromthe shop show signs of reworking and at leastone tool found in the shop, a pry bar (Fig. 14),was made from a file. In addition, 32 per centof the files from the shop were from the areaimmediately around the anvil, and all of thesehad been reworked. Two files bore marks ofthe tangs (Fig. 15). One was indecipherableand the other was marked "MV & Co." Atleast one other example of a file marked "MV& Co" is known. It was found during theexcavation of Edmonton House III and isdescribed by Nicks (I 969: 133) who notes thatit is "most closely associated with theHudson's Bay Company." This mark is atpresent unidentified, but as Fort St. Joseph

has no associations with the HBC, the markcannot be uniquely associated with that com­pany.

Axes (Table 8)

Remnants of 20 axes were found in theshop. None were complete. The majority ofthese objects are axe bits snipped from theblade (Fig. 19; 20d, e; 21n, This is a common

Table 8. Axes.

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 21

Provenance

IH51A2-2

lH51R2-4IH51R2-5IH51C2-1

IH51eJ-2

IH5IDI-I

IH5ID2-25I H51E2-5

IH51E3-3

IH51E3-6

IH51F2-1

IH51F5-1

IH51G3-9

IH51G3-27

IH51G5-11

IH51H2-3IH51H2-4

IH51K5-5

IH51M2-1

No. Description &: comments

Portion of bit. Snipped off. A commonitem of waste from axes with drawnbits. If the shape is wrong, or it isincorrectly drawn or if the bit ischipped, it is snipped off and redrawn.

Portion of hit. Snipped off.Probable pole.l/2 axe eye. Edges broken. Almond­shaped eye of single bi tted axe. Nopoll. (Fig. 18)

Bit. 'Snipped off. An attempt has beenmade to narrow the bit which hasresulted in a slight buckling of the thinportion. A section of the cutting edgehas been dulled by striking the hotobject. Has been file sharpened.

Overlay, knife-edged bit, with steel slug.Fractured across blade, probably bybeing struck in very cold weather. (Fig.18)

Portions of two bits. Snipped off.Hatchet bit. Thin blade (8 mm). Filesharpened. Broken across blade.

Single bitted. Knife edged. Inlay bit.Leading edge straight. Back edgetapered toward eye. Fractured at baseof eye. Apparent beginning of ear.Mark indecipherable on right bladebelow eye. Rectangular stamp withscalloped edges. (Fig. 18)

1/2 axe eye. Edges broken. Almond­shaped eye of single bitted axe. Nopoll.

Blade and bit. Hot cut below eye. Inlaybit. Knife edged. Leading edgestraight. Back edge tapered towardeye.

Blade and bit. Fractured across bladebelow eye. Knife edged. Overlay bit.Leading edge curved, back edgestraight. "D" stamped on left bladenear bit. (Fig. 18)

Blade and bit. The blade, just below theeye, has been constricted, and this hasapparently caused the fracture. Knifeedged. Inlay bit. Leading edgestraight, back edge tapered toward eye.(Fig. 18)

Highly distorted fragment of 1/3 eye andsegment of blade of folded strap axe.AU three terminal edges hot cut. Bothblade and part of eye have been con­stricted by hot working of the metal.

Bit. Snipped off. Knife edge is distortedby an attempt at narrowing.

Portion of bit. Snipped off.Por-tion of bit. Fractured across bladeand at back edge. Knife edge. Inlaybit.

Bit. Snipped off as prelude to reshapingbit.

Blade and bit. Snipped off. Verydistorted due to an attempt at nar­rowing. Marks of both anvil and ham­mer visible on sides of blade. Knifeedged.

Figure 16. Single-bitted, folded strap axe withportion of ear jindecipherable mark containedwithin rectangular box with scalloped edges onblade near eye, IH5IE3-3. (Photo by G.Vandervlugt)

Figure 17. Single-bitted, folded strap axe withinset bit - marked "0," IH51F5-1. (Photo byG. Vandervlugt)

22 LIGHT

item of waste from the repair of axes withdrawn bits. If the shape is wrong, or if the bitis chipped, it is snipped off and the bit isredrawn. Forty-five per cent of the axes inthe shop show this type of repair. A differentsort of repair is indicated by the presence of aprobable axe pole among the artifacts. Thispole had been shaped but not yet applied tothe axe (Fig. 21d, presumably indicating thesmith was periodically requested to modifyaxes to make them heavier cutting tools. Atleast one item may have been originally arepair. It was a very deformed axe which the

smith appears to have been hammering up intonew stock (Fig. 21a, b).

The remaining axes (Fig. 18) are all"shattered." It appears from analysis (Unglik1987, this volume) that the fracturing is due tothe metal being brittle under extremely coldconditions, which in turn can be directly attri­buted to the forging of the axes. If they werebroken in use during the winter, then theowners brought them to the shop for repair.One axe (Fig. 18d) that had been heat-treatedsubsequent to the original forging had beenrepaired by a smith before it broke.

a

- ---

Figure 18. Shattered axes: a) single-bitted, folded strap axe with portion of earand indecipherable mark, IH51E3-3; b) folded strap axe with probable inset bit,IH51Dl-l; c) single-bitted folded strap axe with inset bit - marked "D" on theback, IH51F5-1; d) single-bitted, folded strap axe with probable inset bit,distorted by hot working just below eye, IH51G3-9; e) half almond-shaped eye ofsingle-bitted, folded strap axe - no poll, IH51C2-1. (Photo by G. Vandervlugt)

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 23

c

ba

d

Presumably the original bit had been snippedoff and the cutting edge reformed and heat­treated. However, as very little steel was leftand as the attempt at hardening was unsuc­cessful, the bit was relatively soft and hadbeen dulled through use.

Two of the axes were marked (Figs 16, 17),but only one of these marks, a "0", was deci­pherable. This may have been the mark ofLouis Dufresne, the Indian Department black­smith at Fort St. Joseph, but as the Indian De­partment smithy has not been excavated, andas no other examples of this mark are known,this hypothesis cannot as yet be verified.Even if this was Dufresne's mark, it was nothis shop because although there is evidencethat the blacksmith was repairing axes, there

Figure 20. Axe parts: a.b) side and end viewof axe blade and bit - the end view shows theweld line typical of a folded strap axe - theblade has been hot-cut from the eye, lH5lF2­1; c) blade and bit of thin axe, probably ahatchet - the blade has been broken, lH5lE2­5; d,e) front and back view of axe bit distortedby trying to narrow the bit and subsequentlysnipped from the blade, lH5lM2-lj f) axe bit ­the bit has been shattered, not cut from theblade, lH5lH2-4. (Drawing by P. Handy)

eM• - - = IIN.

f

~'~" " " """ ..'-.. . ..•... -.. - ...

b f"',

~~•.••.•..••......2== .. d~

L··.···.··/~.~·.·:·····..······..·j .... '.<-' -... . ...

Figure 19. Axe bits. All have been clippedfrom the blade preparatory to reshaping thebit: a) lH51A2-2; b) lH5lB2-4; c) lH5lD2-25;d) lH5lD2-25; e) lH5lG5-ll; f) IH5lC3-2j g)lH5lK5-5. (Drawing by P. Handy)

_r -is no evidence to indicate that he was manu­facturing them. If manufacture had beencarried on in the shop we should have founddiscarded mistakes, clipped poll fragments,eye moulds and the corner cuts madepreparatory to inserting a bit (L. Ross 1979:pers, com.), but none of these objects wererecovered. Only two of the suboperationswere without axe fragments, and over half(53%) of the axes were found in the workingarea of the forge.

2'+ LIGHT

c

II--..- -.......

Figure 22. Tools: a) chisel, possibly a mason's,IH5IC2-5; b) muskrat or sturgeon spear,IH51C2-19j c) hoe eye from small hoe,IH5IG3-23. (Photo by R. Chan)

• I--eM•IN.

Figure 21. Axe parts: a.b) distorted eye andportion of blade from a folded strap axe - theedges have been hot-cut and the smith wasapparently hammering up this piece into newstock, IH51G3-27j c) probable pole, cut butnot yet applied to the axe, IH51B2-5j d.e)interior and end view of an almond-shaped eyefrom a folded strap axe - the object has beenshattered, either from extreme cold or in aforge-related accident, IH51E3-6j f) axe bitsnipped from the blade, IH5IH2-3. (Drawingby P. Handy)

mason's chisel (Fig. 22). Two hammer headfragments represent tools possibly used byanyone, although the blacksmith was the likelyowner. This is also the case with the pry barmade from a file. The only tools thatbelonged indubitably to the smith are severalpunches, a tap, a pair of fire tongs and a hotchisel (Fig. 23). Only one of these tools is atall unusual. The tap, probably a gunsmith'stap, is very roughly made, and could have beena product of this forge.

Farriering (Table 9)

Tools Other than Files and Axes

The remaining tools in the shop mayconveniently be divided into two categories:tools used by the smith, and tools apparentlybrought to the smith for repair. The majorityof tools in the latter category are three chainlinks, four shovel parts, and four wedges, butalso included are a muskrat or sturgeon spear,a rake, a hoe eye and a chisel, possibly a

Evidence of farriering activity in the formof horseshoe fragments and horseshoe nails isconcentrated along the front of the shop. Thisis to be expected because the shop istoo small to accommodate horses inside. Theshoeing must have been done outside the shop,possibly near the road or lane that probablyjoined the buildings along the east shoreof the point. Most of the nails (55%) areassociated with the scrap pile at the southeastcorner of the building. There is also

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 25

Table 9. Horseshoe nails and horseshoes (inparentheses).

Provenance

IH5IA2-11IH511\4-2

lH51/\5-1IH5lB2-13IH511\5-1IH51C2-9IH5IC3-1lH51])1-3IH51112-1IH5lD5-2IH51E2-17

IH5IE3-1

lH51GI-7IH51G2-8IH51G3-15

IH51C;5-5IH5IHI-3IH5IH2-IOIH51J2-3

IH51K5-10IH51L3-6

No.

144 (I)

18131181

12 (2)

2 (I)

121

(j)

Description &-comments

3 complete, 10 incomplete, I fragmentI complete, 1 incomplete, right heel ofshoe, no crease, no calk, 2 holesI1H5IA4-15)

completeincompletecompleteI complete, 2 incompletecompleteincomplete2 complete, 6 incompleteincomplete2 complete, 10 incomplete, 2 horseshoes

UH51E2-1 and IH51E2-2). Both lef tside and hind calk. One shoe partiallyreworked.

complete, I horseshoe (lH51E3-12)j lefthind calk and portion of shoe

completeone complete, one incomplete[ complete, I preform having upsethead, not yet formed to fit in crease;preform shape of head is square

incomplete1 complete, I incompletecompleteright hand calk and por ti on of shoe, no

crease, no holesincompletecomplete

The complete horseshoe nails range from 4.3 to 6.8 ern long but .nost range from5.2 to 5.6 em. Although each nail, being handcrafted, is unique, they all conformto the following description: Head - merely a widening and thickening of theshank (back of head parallel to shank), top tapered from head to back; shank ­rectangular, flat, tapered; point - sharp.-•-_....••

9

Figure 23. Blacksmith's tools: a) stock cutwith chisel (see "d"), IH51B2-34; b) tap,probably a gunsmith's tap, IH5IK4-3; c) punchtip, IH51A2-27; d) hot chisel (see "a"),1H51B2-8; e) fire tongs - the handles havebeen clipped from the tongs, IH51G5-2; f)square punch tip, made from file, 1H51B2-6; g)small round punch, made from file, IH51B2-7and IH51C3-3. (Photo by R. Chan)

,

a proportionally high number of nails (25%) inthe work area (E-H), reflecting not only thefact that the smith manufactured these itemshimself but also perhaps that a nail havingbeen dropped is too small to bother picking up.The area around the anvil was indeed strewnwith small objects, suggesting the smith hadsloppy work habits. The horseshoe nailsthemselves are irregular and crude (Fig. 24).

.. ~j

Figure 24. Horseshoe nails made by the smith.(Photo by R. Chan)

26 LIGHT

Of a total of five shoe fragments, whichrepresent at least four different shoes, threewere found near the anvil and one in the scrappile at the southeast corner of the shop. Onewas a pony shoe. Three had fairly long calks(2, 2.3 and 2.5 ern) designed to increase thegripping power of the horse, and were probablyfor draught animals.

Farriering cannot be considered one of thesmith's major activities although from thevolume of material in the shop there wereapparently enough animals on the site to keepthe smith periodically busy. Strangely, how­ever, although we know there were oxen atFort St. Joseph (Askin 1931: Vol. 2, p. 649),there were no ox shoes found in the smithy.

Coopering

The smith may, from time to time, havebeen engaged in coopering, or at least inrepairing broken or rusted barrel strapping. Itis impossible to be definitive about hisactivities in this regard because although 94pieces of strapping were recovered during ex­cavation, only 24 of these are definitely barrelstraps. Barrel strapping is unusual in that theonly way its presence can be determined withcertainty is by the fragments containing therivets, smoothed on one side to fit the barrel.There are many pieces of metal in the shopthat are probably barrel strapping, but theycannot be distinguished from strapping ofother kinds. The rivets yield artifactual data;the bare strapping is merely artifictional.

Of 24 known barrel straps in the smithy,none were from complete hoops, none wereassociated with wood of any kind, all wereferrous, and almost all (18) had been hot-cutnear the rivet. They were also recovered inevery suboperation except "J" and "M," al­though there were ten barrel strap fragmentsin the dump at the southeast corner of thebuilding, three in the area of the forge, andthree in the scrap pile in the northeast interiorcorner of the building. As mentioned earlier,the barrel strapping did not indicate thelocation of the quenching tub, nor does itindicate the fact that the smith was engagedin coopering. Although there was a highpercentage of straps that had been worked by

()

b

1._iilf!=~~_.IiI;(::l' eMIN.

Figure 25. Barrel strapping: a) barrel strap,hot-cut near rivet, IH51A4-11; b) barrel strap,hot-cut near rivet, IH51A2-10; c) stakepocket, possibly made from barrel strapping,IH51A2-32. (Drawing by P. Handy)

the smith, he may have been merely salvagingstraps from old discarded barrels, rather thanrepairing still utile ones. This is indicated bya stake pocket which may be from barrelstrapping (Fig. 25c). Although this may notoriginally have been a barrel strap, all thestrapping in the shop measured between 3 and3.5 cm wide, and the stake pocket is the samewidth. It is also approximately the samegauge as the barrel strapping.

General Domestic Repair

At least some of the blacksmith's time wasspent repairing small domestic objects, eitherfor himself or for other members of the furtrading community. Various objects (Figs 26,27) found around the shop ranging from furni­ture hardware to a book hinge appear toconfirm this.

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 27

c

ed

1•• IiIii_iiiiiil.~!=::=~~~~ eMI IN.

these 34 parts, 22 had been hot-cut, and 21 of22 springs had been cut. The broken springswere being used as a source of steel (Fig. 28).The spring steel was likely used to make newsprings, and judging from the size of the cutsin the trap springs, the new, smaller springsthat he was manufacturing were for guns (see"Weapons and Weapon Hardware").

Because only fragments of traps werefound in the smithy, and because no frameswere included in the assemblage, it is difficultto identify the type of trap the smith wasrepairing. There is apparently no literaturethat attempts to relate the size of trap partsto the kind of animal being trapped. Thespeculations that follow are therefore basedon personal communication with Lester Rossof Parks Canada, Ottawa, and Charles Hansonof the Museum of the Fur Trade, Chadron,Nebraska.

There are three basic sizes of traps, small,medium and large, or what may be looselycalled rat traps, beaver traps and bear traps.There are wide variations within these "sizes,"caused, it seems, by both the kind of material

Figure 27. a) decorative brass strip withwiggle-work engraving, probably from a patchbox, IH51A4-2; b,c) pewter book hinge from aBible or ledger, front and back views, 1H51G4­1; d.e) front and back view of possible smalldrawer pull - a ferrous object, possibly ascrew, is imbedded in the brass flange,1H51G3-24. (Drawing by P. Handy)

o

c

D

a

/z\

G·,-';,1/:."

b

Figure 26. General domestic repair: a) trunkhandle escutcheon plate, IH51C2-10; b.c) sideand end view of incompleted piece of antler,probably intended as a handle for a small toolor utensil - the end has been carved with aknife, IH51J4-6; d) rat-tailed hanger hook fora kitchen utensil - the shank has been hot-cut,IH51L3-11. (Drawing by P. Handy)

Traps (Table 10)

Repairing traps appears to have been acommon activity of this smith. There were 34fragments of traps in the shop: 19 springs witheyes, 3 springs without eyes, 7 jaw posts, 2 panposts, 2 jaws and 1 catch (Figs 28-30). Of

28 LIGHT

Table 10. Trap parts (all measurements showi,nterior diameter of the eye).

available to the trap maker and his individualpredilections in matters of style. The heightof the trap jaw post, for example, depends onthe length of the spring, the size of the bendin the jaws, and the quality of steel availablefor the spring. Up to approximately themiddle of the nineteenth century, theindividual smith and the quality of materialsavailable to him accounted for a large varia­tion in the type and size of traps (d. the trapillustrations in Russell 1967). Toward the endof the nineteenth century, however, with therise in factory production and the decline ingeneral blacksmithing, traps became more andmore standardized. They also became smalleras the quality and uniformity of materialavailable from the smelters improved.Looking in late nineteenth century cataloguesfor information about early nineteenth centurytrap sizes and types is therefore unwise.

Figure 28. Trap springs scavenged for steel:a.b) probably from the same piece of steel,IH5IE2-50, "b" closely resembles a gunspring;c) spring and portion of eye - the cuts alongthe length of the spring are clearly visible,IH5IG5-13. (Photo by R. Chan)

The technological changes of thenineteenth century notwithstanding, there isstill a necessary correlation between the sizeof the trap and the kind of animal beingtrapped, because if the trap is too small orweak it will not hold the animal, whereas if itis too large it will break or cut the animal'sleg and the trapper will lose his fur. Becausethe holding power of the trap depends directlyon the spring, the spring seems to provide thebest information about the kind of animalbeing trapped if one only has trap parts andnot the whole trap with which to work.

All the trap springs in the smithy haveround eyes or bows. At least two were double­eyed springs, and they may all have beendouble-eyed, this being the most common typeof trap. If they are double-eyed springs, thenthere is an additional complication in that theupper eye which slides up the jaws is alwayslarger than the lower eye which merely restson the frame below the jaw post. One isunsure, therefore, whether an isolated eye is alower eye from a large trap or an upper eyefrom a smaller trap, etc. If the trap has beenwell used, however, wear marks may be on theinside of the eye at the point where the eye

Description

complete 1/2 trap jaw postpreform trap jaw posttrap spring eye Crag. hot-cut, approx.

2.5 emcomplete 1/2 trap jaw posttrap spring eye, hot-cut Ir-o-n shank,

2.6 emtrap spring eye, hot-cut t-o-n shank,2.2cm

trap spring eye 1/2, hot-cut bilaterally,approx. 2.5 em

trap spring, eye and shank, 2.6 emtrap spring catchtrap spring arms (2) clipped springs,

apparently making gun springs2/3 trap spring eye, hot-cut across eye,

3.1 em1/2 trap spring eye and shank, hot-cutbilaterally, 2.5 em

whole trap spring eye and portion ofshank, hot-cut from shank, 2.3 em

trap jaw post leg trag.trap spring eye Ir ag, hot-cut one end,other end broken

trap spring eye and portion of shank,broken, 2.1 ern

trap spring eye trag. hot-cut, approx.3.2 ern

trap spring eye and shank frags., all hot­cut, one cut bilaterally, 2.8 cm

trap jaw post 1/2 posttrap jaw post complete with 3 rivets, jaw

trag. cuttrap pan post trag.trap jaw trag. with pivot holetrap pan posttrap jaw trag., broken, with pivot holetrap jaw post with leg, complete, 3

rivets, jaw fragment cuttrap spring showing steel salvage;

probably making gun springtrap spring eye and shank, frag. broken

from eye, hot-cut across shank, 2.8 emtrap spring eye, cut across eye, 1.6 cmtrap spring eye and shank, hot-cut fr o.n

shank, 2.9 cmtrap spring eye, cut across eye, 2.7 cmtrap spring, no eye, incl. portion of bend,

broken

Provenance No.

IH51A2-37IH51A2-38IH51M-28

IH51A5-8IH51R2-40

IH51C3-l ll

IH51C3-15

IH51C3-16IH51D2-34IH51E2-50

IH51E2-51

IH51E2-52

IH51E2-53

IH51E2-54IH5IE3-22

IH51E3-23

IH51E4-6

IH51F2-15

IH51F2-16IH51GI-18

IH51GI-19IH51G2-25IH51G3-32IH51G3-33IH51G3-34

IH5IG5-13

IH51H2-27

IH51J3-6IH51K5-29

IH51K5-30IH51L3-I7

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 29

9f

e

cb

a

- ...._-h- -Figure 29. Trap springs: a) trap spring with portion of bend - hot-cut near eye,IH51L3-17; b) trap spring eye with broken eye and hot-cut shank, IH51H2-27; c) trapspring with hot-cut shank, IH51K5-29; d) trap spring eye with hot-cut shank, IH51E2­53; e) trap spring eye with broken shank, IH51E3-23; f) trap spring eye with hot-cutshank, IH51C3-14; g) trap spring eye, hot-cut bilaterally and across shank, IH51C3-15;h) trap spring eye and shank - broken, IH51C3-16. (Photo by R. Chan)

rubs either the jaws or the jaw post. Thismarkts) should appear on the upper spring only.There are two springs in this assemblage thatshow what may be wear marks, and both havean interior diameter of 2.8 cm. According toHanson, these are probably from beaver traps,or at least from traps for medium-sized fur­bearing animals. Accordingly, if one allowsfor both a reasonable variation of size within atrap type and for the fact that the upper eyeis always larger than the lower eye, springeyes with an interior diameter of 2-3 em (plusor minus a couple of miUimetres) should befrom traps for medium-sized fur-bearinganimals. Anything smaller than that should bea rat trap and anything larger a bear trap.

One limitation to this hypothesis is thatthe lower spring from a bear trap could fallwithin the 2-3 cm range, and anyone

attempting to apply or test this hypothesisshould note this exception. According to thishypothesis, one of the traps in the smithy wasa rat trap, one was a bear trap and the restare from beaver traps. Because beaver wasthe most common fur gathered at St. Joseph,the majority of trap parts found in theblacksmith shop should be of a medium size.

This is an interim hypothesis only and maybe either proven or dlsproven, It is, however,proffered in the hopes that it may assist insubsequent research.

Weapons and Weapon Hardware (Table 11)

Except for the items mentioned in"Identification of Shop," the weapon parts areall from non-military equipment or they

30 LIGHT

a b c

ISe f

k

-_.....h9

Figure 30. Trap parts: a) trap jaw post with two rivets and portion of hot-cut jaw, thepost has been forcibly removed from the frame, IH5IG3-34; b) single leaf of trap jawpost, IH5IA2-37; c) preform trap jaw post, IH5IA2-38; d) trap spring catch, IH5ID2­34; e) complete trap pan post, IH5IG3-32; f) single leaf of trap pan post, broken,lH51Gl-19; g) trap jaw post with three rivets and portion of hot-cut jaw - the post hasbeen forcibly removed from the frame, lH5IGI-18; h) single leaf of trap jaw post - theattachment flange, probably of the threaded type, has been cold cut off, IH5IF2-16; i)single-eyed trap jaw post - the attachment flange, probably of the threaded type, hasbeen hot-cut, IH5IA5-8; j) flared trap jaw, broken, IH5IG3-33; k) trap jaw fragment,broken, IH5IG2-25; n probable trap jaw post attachment flange, threaded and hot-cutfrom post, lH5IG3-25. (Photo by R. Chan)

are indeterminate concerning type. Of a totalof 40 items found in the shop, 32 are parts offlintlock weapons. As in other instances, thissmith, as a gunsmith, is engaged exclusively inrepair work, and springs are the mostnumerous single repair item. Of 32 parts, 12are springs and all of these were broken.Fourteen trap parts (44%) were found in thearea of the workbench, and 67 per cent of thesprings were found in the same area. Because

the spring parts found in the shop are thosesegments of the spring that remained attachedto the lock after the spring had been broken inuse, apparently these items were removed bythe smith after the gun had been brought infor repair. They were found mostly around theworkbench because they were likely removedthere. The new springs were probablyfashioned on the vise rather than on the anvilbecause of the available light from the window

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 31

Tinkering

Table 11. Weapons and weapon hardware.

and the delicate nature of the work. It isnoteworthy that steel was in short supply andthat one of the blacksmith's sources, perhapshis chief source, for spring steel was trapsprings (Fig. 28).

Much of the blacksmith's time seems tohave been occupied in repairing pots andkettles. There were numerous pieces of sheetcopper and brass from cooking vessels in thescrap piles on the east side of the structure,most of which were undiagnostic. Almostthree-quarters (73%) of the undiagnosticmaterial came from the east side of thebuilding, 35 per cent of it from the scrap pilein the southeast corner of the operation, and25 per cent in the pile beneath the bellows.Enough significant material has survived in theassemblage, however, to describe the repairsundertaken by the smith.

Old copper and brass kettles, not worthrepairing, were used by the smith as a source

of patches for other kettles and as rawmaterial for the manufacture of rivets, rovesand probably lugs. Folded rivets, and probablyroves as well were used for securing patcheson kettles in need of repair. The smith madehis own rivets for these patches by foldingdiamond-shaped pieces of sheet copper into arivet shape. The method of manufacture ofthese rivets is illustrated in Figure 31 togetherwith at least two rejected methods, severalroves, and a fragment of a patch with thefolded rivets in place. Another patch (Fig.32c) has four of these rivets still embedded init. The same patch is covered on both sides inStockholm tar (Per Guldbeck 1979: pers.corn.), as are several other copper itemspossibly from the same kettle because theyare all covered in the same tar (Fig. 32a, b).This kettle may have been used to boil pinepitch after it had served its purpose as acooking vessel. The lug indicates the originalshape-function of the object, and the patchand the use-wear on the lug indicate heavyuse. Because the pine pitch has permeatedevery crack on the patch and the lug, it wasprobably used to boil and not merely tocontain the tar. Because the patch had beencut from the kettle, and because another piececovered in tar (Fig. 32b) was being used tomake rivets and roves, the kettle hadevidently outlived its secondary use as a tarpot and was being used as a source of rawmaterial.

Brass kettles appear to have been commonat the post on St. Joseph Island. Several lugsfrom brass trade nesting kettles (Wheeler etal, 1975, p. 57) were found in the blacksmithshop along with other objects made from sheetbrass and probably from brass kettles (Fig. 33).Two dog-bone lift fasteners from pot lids werealso found, and these had been worked in amanner suggesting they were being used as asource of metal, probably for brazing (Fig.33c, d).

In his repair of kettles, the smith seems tohave been oblivious to any cathodic reactionsthat may take place in the presence ofan electrolyte such as food in a kettle. Onebrass lug from a nesting kettle had beenrefastened with a ferrous rivet instead of withanother copper one (Fig. 33b). Several foldedferrous rivets were found in the shop of a sizeand shape to suggest, in light of the object justmentioned, that they were designed for use

trigger guard fragment, copper alloy, possibly pistolgunflint, wedge-shaped, incomplete, reused, possibly for fire steelbreech plug, distorted, small bore, probably trade gunpatch box mouldingside lock screwcock jaw screw frag.trigger guard, trade gungunflint, wedge-shaped, incomplete, reusedfrizzen spring, non-militarymainspring, incompletemainspring, non-military, incompletelead shot, 5 mm diam.mainspring, non-military, incompletetrigger plate, trade guntop jaw from cock, non-military, distorted, incompletecannon carr iage bolt headramrod pipe-trade musketramrod pipe-trade musketartillery carriage tire studgunflint, incompletesear spring, non-military, incompleterear sling swivel, probably militarymainspring, trade guntrigger guard, trade musket41st Regt. button, pewtergunflint, incomplete, wedge-shapedgunflint spallfrizzen spring, trade gun, incompletemainspring, non-military, fragmentcopper jacket bullet - 9 mm, 20th cent., intrusivetop jaw from cock, incomplete, probably pistolfrizzen spring, fragmentramrod pipe - trade musketsear, trade gunpossible musket jaw driver pickfrizzen, trade gunsear, trade gunbutt plate from trade musket - copper alloy nailedcopper alloy ramrod pipe - trade musketsear spring, trade gun, incompleteside lock screw

lH51A2-1IH51A2-4IH51A2-12IH51A4-2IH51A4-13IH51A4-14IH51B2-1IH51B2-10IH51D2-11IH51E2-18IH51E2-19IH51E2-20IH51E2-21IH51E2-22IH51E3-9IH51E3-10IH51E3-11IH51Fl-2IH51Gl-4IH5IGI-5IH51GI-8IH51Gl-9IH51GI-IIIH51GI-16IH51G2-1IH51G2-4IH51G2-5IH51G2-9IH5IG2-1OIH51G2-11IH51G2-12IH51G2-26IH51G3-2IH51G3-14IH51H2-5IH51H2-11IH51J4.·3IH5lJ5-1IH51K4-2IH51K4-6IH51L2-4

32 LIGHT

b,

a

c

~d

9

;;:;=--=1,CM.IN.

Figure 31. Rivets and roves: a) strip from brass kettle showing cut through rim - probably formaking roves, IH51K5-4j b) rivet preform - rectangular piece of copper folded over itself fromboth ends, then bent back parallel to the length preparatory to cutting - probably a rejectedmethod, IH51G2-20j c) rivet preform - rectangular piece of copper folded over itself at one end ­it is folded into a rough circle and the folds are centered preparatory to cutting and forming head,IH51B2-28j d) rivet preform - rectangular piece of copper crimped at one end and folded in theopposite direction at the other end, IH51GI-I; e) three copper roves, IH51G4-4j f) rivet preform,copper, IH51E2-3j g) rivet, unfolded to show preform shape, IH51G4-2j h) three folded copperrivets, IH5IA2-25, IH5IG3-7(2)j i) patch from tin-plated copper preserving kettle showing threefolded rivets in place, IH5IA2-28. (Photo by R. Chan)

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 33

a

a

...d

DO.e f 9

C t~

~"~'~r- :---:-~ -

Figure 32. Copper kettle fragments, probablyfrom the same kettle. Each fragment ispartially covered with Stockholm tar or pinepitch. a) Lug and portion of kettle includingrim - the wire in one end probably for hangingthe salvaged lug on the wall until it could beused, IH51B2-2; b) strip from copper kettleused for making rivets or roves, IH5IK5-19; c)patch from copper kettle with four foldedrivets, IH5lD2-3. (Photo by R. Chan)

with copper or brass kettles (Fig. 34-d).Ferrous lugs were commonly used on copperalloy kettles. One large, heavy ferrous lug(Fig. 34-a)has copper shims in the attachmentholes and yet another ferrous lug had beenattached to a brass kettle with a copper rivet(Fig. 34-c). Folded copper rivets were alsoused to repair a sheet metal object, possibly aferrous bucket (Fig. 36). Very few people in

Figure 33. Brass lugs and objects made frombrass kettles: a) lug fragment from nestingkettle with original copper rivet - the rivethas been cut, IH5IL3-1; b) lug from nestingkettle with ferrous rivet, probably notoriginal, IH51B2-3; c) dog-bone lift fastener ­one finial has been cut off and the fasteneritself has been ripped from the lid, IH5IG3-3;d) dog-bone lift fastener hammered flat,IH5IH3-1; e) rove or washer, IH5IE2-4-; f)washer, IH5IA4--I; g) washer preform,IH5IE3-2. (Photo by R. Chan)

the early nineteenth century knew about thegalvanic reaction between dissimilar metalsand it is not surprising to find a smith usingincompatible metals in this manner. His lackof adequate stock may have hampered him inthis regard too, so that he used whatevermaterials were at hand. Only one small pieceof what is apparently copper stock wasrecovered from the smithy (Fig. 35d).

34

b

,d

-_......Figure 34. Lugs and rivets: a) ferrous lug for large pot or kettle with copper shims inthe attachment holes - one shim has not been fully punched through, lH5lC2-l6; b)ferrous lug, one hole has the remains of a copper rivet still attached, lH5lH2-20; c)brass kettle rim with copper rivet - the remains of a ferrous lug are beneath the rivet,lH5lH2-l; d) two folded ferrous rivets, lH5lE2-41. (Photo by R. Chan)

e

~•c

35

-d

Figure 35. Objects made from copper kettles: a) copper drain cover plate possibly made from akettle, IH51K5-2; b) strip cut from copper kettle in a shape suggesting it was probably meant toform either a full or half rim of a vessel when bent and soldered to the body, IH51G3-8; c) twocopper roves - one is preform, IH51B2-27; d) copper rod, probably stock, IH51G3-4; e) lugfragment - the handle hole shows signs of heavy wear- the lug probably wore poorly, the metalbeing too soft to bear much weight, IH51G1-2. (Photo by R. Chan)

36 LIGHT

-_.....Figure 36. Folded copper rivets in ferrous sheet metal: a) two folded copper rivets (arrows) inunidentified sheet metal with folded edge, IH5IA2-42; b) folded copper rivet (arrow) throughferrous rolled joint of possible ferrous pail or bucket, IH5lJ2-7. (Photo by R. Chan)

Faunal Remains (Tables 12, 13)

Aside from the remains of a dog, probablythe smith's pet, which had been buried outsidethe northeast corner of the shop, and a jawbone from a vole, the faunal remains are fromfood species (Cum baa 1979). The distributionof these remains about the shop generallyconfirms that the domestic area of the smithywas somewhere along the southern wall.Excluding the dog and the vole, 42 per cent ofthe bones were from along the southern wall;however, by weight the percentage is a consi­derably higher 66 per cent. A single bone

from a sheep, found in the northeast interiorcorner amongst a pile of scrap metalaccounted for 9 per cent of the total weight.There seems to be no discernible pattern tothe distribution of the remaining bones,especially the small, light fish bones evenlyspread through the smithy. The scatter isprobably accounted for by the presence of thedog, as eight bones showed signs of chewingand it is unlikely that these marks wereproduced by humans (5. Cumbaa 1979: pers,corn.). The highest single percentage of bonesis found in the area in which the table is shownin Figures 3 and 4.

the east shore, should have been visible to himbut he does not mention it. Although School­craft did not visit the site, indeed only passedit by at some distance, he was normally acareful observer and probably did not mentionthe blacksmith shop because it was not therein 1820. Even if it was still standing, thesmith was certainly not burdened by overwork,because any of his clients, actual or potential,had by this time moved to Drummond Island.

This shop was probably part of a complexof buildings and not just an isolated structure,the semi-subterranean building next to theshop being part of the complex. In addition,there was likely a house and perhaps severaloutbuildings. There may have been a farrier'ssling as well because we know that he wasshoeing animals. The shop was too small topermit this activity to take place inside, sothe sling, if it existed, was likely somewherein front of the shop.

The deed of transference of the buildingsof Spenard, Fields, Varin and Pelladeau toTousaint Pothier mentions "land, houses,stores, and other buildings" (PAC, RG4, AI, Sseries, Vol. 84, p. 26,160), and the "Plan of thePost on the Island of St. Joseph," which isdated 1799, shows large lots on both the eastand west shores of the peninsula (PAC,National Map Collection, H3!450 - St. Joseph's- 1800). It is likely from the deed of trans­ference that at least one of these lotsbelonged to Spenard, Fields, Varin andPelladeau, and if the blacksmith shop belongedto them, then it should be possible to identify

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 39

the "houses ... and other buildings" belongingto this company. If further archaeology takesplace at Fort St. Joseph, it may be fruitful tocreate a research design in order to define alot and delineate all the features found withinthe lot. The logical place to begin such aproject would be with one of the threestructures already excavated along the eastshore. If the blacksmith shop is chosen, forexample, then artifact research must centrenot merely on the identification anddelineation of any individual structures thatmay be uncovered, but also on theinterrelation of these structures. To this end,the artifacts from this structure should be re­examined to find their relationship to artifactsfrom other buildings. It has already beensuggested that the semi-subterranean buildingnext door (operation 48) will be found to havemore than a proximate relationship to thesmithy, and there may be privies and dumps aswell. The shoeing area may be found and the"civilian structure" below the shop by theshore may have a demonstrable connectionwith the shop.

If such a design is, in the future, conceivedand implemented, then ample cognizance mustbe taken of the synthetic relationship artifactshave, not just to each other - glass to ceramic,to pipe, to metal, etc. - but also to thestructure or feature within which they arefound. Sometimes such relationships aretenuous, but at other times the artifacts arecapable, as in this case, of defining andelaborating the structure itself.

4-0 LIGHT

APPENDIX A. IDENTIFICATION OF WORKAREAS IN THE FORT ST. JOSEPH SMITHY

John Stewart, John D. Lightand Louis Lafleche

Introduction

During the 1978 field season at Fort St.Joseph National Historic Park, a blacksmithshop, dating between 1796 and 1828, was exca­vated by a team under the direction of EllenLee. Excavation revealed the walls, the forge,the anvil base and as yet an unknown smallstone feature in one interior corner of thebuilding.

One aspect of research has centred on theidentification of work areas within the smithy.Where, for example, were windows, the grind­stone and the fuel pile? "This report isconcerned with the search for one of theseitems - the workbench.

When metal is worked by a smith it givesoff scale, or minute pieces of metal, whichfall to the ground. As these bits of scaleaccumulate, the iron content of the soil risesin proportion to the amount of work beingdone in the area. Hence, in an undisturbedblacksmith shop there will be at least twoareas in which the soil has a high iron content,the area around the anvil and the area aroundthe workbench. This idea was used during theexcavation to assist in planning the diggingstrategy. For example, long before the wallswere clearly recognizable or the anvil baseuncovered, it was known that the anvil wasprobably located in suboperation E (Fig. 37)because the soil in that area reacted mostdramatically to a hand magnet. Further exca­vation confirmed this observation.

However, some iron compounds are notmagnetic, and their presence is not detectedby a magnet; furthermore a hand magnet willreveal only the presence of magnetic particlesand not their quantity. Soil samples weretherefore collected from inside and, forcontrol purposes, from outside the building.These were analyzed for total iron and for themagnetic fraction to ascertain whether one ofthe interior areas had soil with abnormallyhigh contents of both the total iron and themagnetic fraction.

A use pattern of the shop floor was thenmade by plotting soil iron concentrations andmagnetic fractions on maps of the floor. Bothmaps showed the presence of two groups: ahigh group, along the northern half of the eastwall and by the anvil, and a low group, in allthe remaining areas. Assuming there has beenno transfer of soil (by sweeping, etc.), themost likely area for the workbench is alongthe northern half of the east wall.

Examination

Total Iron

All samples were dried for 24-h at 105°C inan electric oven and ground to pass a 100­mesh sieve (ASTM). The iron was leached witha hot hydrochloric acid solution (lr l) for 16 h.The resulting solutions were then analyzed foriron by atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

TOTAL IRON CONCENTRATIONS

Provenance % Fe Provenance % Fe

IH51A3 2.20 IH51E4- 13.84-IH51B3 2.82 IH51F3-1 1.25IH51B3-1 2.07 IH51F3-2 1.31IH51C2 .96 IH51F5 .86IH5lD3 5.4-4- IH51G3-1 10.57IH5lD4- 2.71 * IH51G3-2 10.15IH51E3(A) 6.54 IH51H3 6.11IH51E3(B) 3.41 IH51H4 .67IH51E3(C) 6.47 IH51J3 2.89IH51E3(D)** 33.84 IH51K2 2.67*

IH51M7 2.28*

* Control samples from outside the building.** Contaminated.

Samples IH5lD4, IH51K2 and IH51M7 arefrom outside the shop and were included togive a background reading of the iron naturallypresent in the local soil.

Figure 37 shows the iron concentrations ona floor plan of the blacksmith shop. The areasaround the anvil and to the north and east arehigher in iron than the rest of the shop. Infact, the existence of two separate groups,high iron and low iron, is valid at the 99.9

i---T---,--i-----lI . . .

I I I I I

,W."L___ -l i 1,";81 I

~2 ~1 ~; - ; i : m l \ I I

I 10 96 I I JJ I I 1

I F5 (2.891 \o 86) i I

\ ,

.t---+-i3BEiD-JI·----j\ BJ IIHI) ))<,84) , HJ I112. 82 I· :,'4.: 16 . 11) 131 '-'. "

[ \ . 11,;;fil i ,."I BJ-I I fJ.' eJl' .

L -02~ +(b~~4iW ._d __ JI \. I G)-I I 10.5 7! I I I

I AJ I ' GJ-2 (ID. 1\1' I .

I IL"-lQL _llJl5..Ji. 4L - +---- - -1-~ IWINDOW· DOOR ,WINDO\~ ,

: iii IL __ 1 ~ L~2~7) __ J

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 41

bar (4 x 1 ern). After gently shaking thebeaker for 1 h, the bar was removed andreplaced in the solution by another pre­weighed bar. After gently shaking the beakerfor another half-hour the second magnet wasremoved. Both magnets were dried andweighed. The magnetic fraction was calcu­lated by

magnetic fraction = wt of bars after immersion- wt of clean bars X 100

109

Note that to weigh the bars on a single panbalance, they had to be placed on a 30-cminsulating layer of styrofoam.

MAGNETIC FRACTION CONCENTRATIONS

Provenance % M.F. Provenance % M.F.

* Control samples from outside the building.

Figure 38 shows the magnetic fractions ona floor plan of the blacksmith shop. The areasaround the anvil and to the north and east arehigher in iron than the rest of the shop. Infact, the existence of two separate groups,high magnetic fraction and low magnetic frac­tion, is valid at the 99.9 per cent level, i.e,there is less than 1 chance in 1000 of there notbeing two groups.

The low magnetic fraction group has aniron concentration of 1.64 + 1.04 comparedwith the control samples from outside thebuilding with a magnetic fraction of 2.33 .!.1.67. This means no iron enrichment of these

Figure 37. Floor plan of blacksmith shop,showing provenance numbers and total ironconcentrations.

per cent level, using t statistics, i.e, there is lessthan 1 chance in 1000 of there not being twogroups.

The low iron group has an iron concentra­tion of 1.67 + 0.85 per cent, compared withthe control samples from outside the buildingwith iron concentration of 2.55 + 0.24 percent. This means no iron enrichment of theselow iron interior samples has occurred andthus no iron working has been done in theinterior low iron areas.

Sample IH51E3(D) contained an iron nail;although this was removed from the samplebefore analysis, its corrosion products causeda high iron concentration not directlyassociated with the working of hot iron.Therefore it was not included in the examina­tion.

Magnetic Fraction

The samples used were the ground, driedsamples from the total iron analysis.

A lO-g sample was placed in a 250-mlbeaker along with 100 ml of acetone and apre-weighed teflon-coated magnetic stirring

IH51A3IH5lB3IH5lB3-1IH5lC2IH5ID3IH5ID4lH51E3(A)IH51E3(B)IH51E3(C)

2.801.401.001.404.804.20*8.204.608.40

IH51E4IH5lF3-1lH5lF3-2lH5lF5lH5lG3-1IH5lG3-2IH5lH3IH51H4IH5lJ3lH51K2IH51M7

19.00.40

2.20.60

13.207.609.601.403.601.80*1.00*

42 LIGHT

1--.1---.'--1----,i ! I (,Mba) I

~_;., i I

~i W~blo.l;;) I· 1r C2 • F3-2(2.20)

\ (1.40 I F5 I I\ . (0.60) , I

i

·.l+-P--hiB...-p-J,- ~=1-l----~1I 114 .60 ) :_o.Y",'. I I

I \ BJ • : E4 \ I' HJ I· \ Iz\(1.40) I <.» ,19.60) 11.40) . \ .'"I I ' (19.00) I . l:i

l_lB6~;~(8E;~)~:~.--.-L~I-p-~I \ AJ. i I;J-I (I J.20) I 1 I

\(280) I OJ~8~_. ~J~(~~_i_.J ..I WINWW-:--DOOR tWINDOW ' I. . IIii I K2 IL __ 1 ~ L~~__ J

Figure 38. Floor plan of blacksmith shop,showing provenance numbers and magneticfraction concentrations.

low interior samples has occurred and thus noworking has been done in the interior lowareas.

Conclusions

Obviously the best evidence for thelocation of the workbench would have been thearchaeological observation of its remains. Inthis case, however, no such direct evidencewas obtained, necessitating a less directapproach. This involved finding the mostprobable area for the location of theworkbench based on examination of theearthen floor of the blacksmith's shop.

Both methods of analysis, total iron andmagnetic fraction determinations, lead to thesame conclusion. The workbench was mostprobably located along the northern half of theeast wall.

In future only one type of analysis is neces­sary for work of this nature. Both methodshave their advantages and drawbacks. Theanalysis of total iron is rapid uoo dried andground soils can be done in 4 days), but thenecessary equipment is sophisticated andexpensive. A determination of the magneticfraction, however, requires only two teflon­coated magnets and a top-loading balance, butonly five samples can be done per day. Thechoice of technique will ultimately depend onthe resources available in the laboratory.

37

Table 12. Bone distribution by species, blacksmith shop (lH51) occupation levels (2,3,4) (Cumbaa 1979).

Species

Hare/rabbitUOOl. dogDcm. pigDomc covnom. sheepUrud. mamrnat

LooseOuckGreat gray owrGreater ye1lowlegsGulllJnid.bird

Lake-sturgeon\lIhitefish/ciscoPike/muskyBassLJnid.lisn

Class unid.

Addenda:Vole

Total

D2 04 ez F2 G2 Gli l.} 1i2 J3 Jj K2

II J4~

123*

l2 LJ MJ Total

I114*.

21

"

,1II".

246*

*Totals or entries different from Table 22 in Curnbaa 1979.

Table 13. Distribution of faunal remains (excluding dog and vole).

% of total Wt % of totalProvenance No. by suboperation (kg) by suboperation

IH51A22iJ

35.2IH51A3 0.7IH51A4 27.48 12.4 13.90IH51B2 7 5.34 153.9 44.28IH51C2 12 9.16 27.0 7.77IH51D2

In31.4

1H5lD4 9.92 0.3 9.12IH51E2 3 2.29 1.0 0.29IH51F2 5 3.82 0.3 0.09IH51G2 !] 1.21H51G4 0.8IH51G5 8.40 6.5 2.451H51H2 i] 14.81H51H4 3.82 0.3 4.35IH51J2

~]5.5

IH51J3 0.2IH51J5 8.40 0.9 1.90IH51K2 ~] 2.11H51K5 8.40 31.7 9.72IH51L2 !] 17.7IH51L3 0.7IH51U 7.63 0.4 5.411H51M2 ~] 2.3IH51M3 5.34 0.3 0.75Total 131 100.00% 347.6 100.03%

38 LIGHT

CONCLUSION

The structural remains and the artifactshave given us a great deal of informationabout a fur trade frontier blacksmith in thevery early nineteenth century. Probably likeall frontier smiths he was a jack-of-all-tradeswho suffered from a lack of material. Heserved as a cooper, gunsmith, farrier andtinker as well as a general blacksmith, and hedid so without adequate stock, especiallysteel. Indeed, the reuse of material is evidentthroughout the artifact assemblage.

There may well have been more than onesmith who worked at this forge during itslifetime. Certain habits of cutting, foldingand shaping metal became evident as one looksagain and again at the artifacts, and thereappear to be at least two different stylesinvolved. Whether or not there was more thanone man, however, none of the work showsoutstanding craftsmanship. Examples of poortechnique and sloppy work habits are common,but on the frontier it is function, not style,that is of paramount importance and theproducts that came from this forge probablyserved their owners quite well.

The almost 8500 artifacts found during theexcavation were deposited in certain clearpatterns. The fact that these patterns werestill discernable after approximately 170-180years, coupled with the facts that no disturbedareas were discovered and only one insignifi­cant intrusive artifact (a bullet) was found,strongly suggests that the shop was notdisturbed after it was abandoned. Because thebuilding was not burned and appears to havebeen moved, the following sequence of eventsmay have occurred.

Some time after the beginning of theBritish occupation of the point in 1796, thebuilding was built, possibly by Spenard, Fieldsand Varin. It was used exclusively as a black­smith shop although the interior seems to havebeen modified at least once, perhaps duringconstruction, because the unidentified stonefeature in the southwest interior corner isincomplete. It has been suggested that thefeature was a base for the stove, but it seemsa curious shape for this function, and the fact

that the stones were mortared, and those ofthe forge were not, seems to belie this func­tion. Whatever its use, this mysteriousfeature has no discernible function within thesmithy.

The shop was abandoned most probably in1812 when Michilimackinac was taken. Thefur traders, who participated in the attack,moved their operations to the formerAmerican fort for the duration of the war, andwith them probably went the anvil, thebellows, the stock and all the other necessaryequipment from the smithy. The slack tub andthe usable scrap from the pile beneath thebellows may have been taken at this time aswell. The removal of the best scrap from thepile beneath the bellows accounts for the lackof any discernible difference, mentioned in"Shop Layout," between the scrap in this pileand that in the pilels) at the southeast exteriorcorner of the building.

After the war, the British returned to St.Joseph Island before moving to DrummondIsland, and the traders followed. The forgemay have been used at this time because thebuilding does not appear to have been burnedby the Americans in 1814. When, however, theBritish went to Drummond Island, they tookwith them whatever was worth salvaging. Thismay well have been one of the buildings taken.

When the building was moved the site wasReither cleaned up nor significantly disturbedand was soon covered by vegetation.

If this sequence of events is correct, thenthe building dates from approximately 1796 to1815. The manufacturing dates of all theceramic in the operation fall between thesedates and none of the glass is inconsistent withthis time frame. These are the only datableitems in the shop. Furthermore, HenrySchoolcraft passed St. Joseph Island in 1820during an expedition from Detroit to the head­waters of the Mississippi. He noted that "thestone chimneys of the former houses are stillstanding to attest the barbarous policies ofwar" (Schoolcraft 1821, p, 130). Because hepassed down the west channel of the river, andbehind Lime Island, he would have had a clear,though distant, view of the east and southshores of the peninsula, but not the westshore. The blacksmith shop, about 20 m from

APPENDIX B. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCEFOR THE OWNERSHIP OF THE

BLACKSMITH SHOP

Dennis Carter-Edwards

The identification of the blacksmith's shopuncovered during archaeological investigationsin the summer of 1978 presents a problem inhistorical documentation. The extensive sec­ondary literature on the fur trade offers littleinsight into the day-to-day activities of thevarious firms operating on St. Joseph Island.In particular it is of limited value in determin­ing ownership of the shop. Even the primarysources on the fur trade, scattered amongvarious repositories, have to date providedonly tantalizing clues regarding fur tradeactivity on the island. In the absence of acomprehensive study, this brief report willmake some tentative observations on thehistory of this building.

In 1796 the British garrison withdrew fromthe post at Michilimackinac and began con­struction of a new military establishment onSt. Joseph Island. At the same time, manymerchants based at this important entrepotfor the Great Lakes fur trade transferred theiroperations to the new British post or at leastset up satellite operations. In September 1798Captain Peter Drummond informed the mili­tary authorities that nearly a dozen traderswere either building or preparing to build "onthe Situation near the new Blockhouse" (PAC,RG8, I, Vol. 251, pp. 256-59; Fig. 39). Includedin this list of merchants was a Mr. Pothier, anoted trader in the area, with roots in the"rascally, scrambly trade for pelts" datingback to the French period. He was one of anumber of traders competing in the area southof the Great Lakes. In 1804 Pothier enteredinto a partnership with a group of traders atSt. Joseph Island who operated under the nameof Spenard, Fields and Varin. Pothier, who hadstrong links with the merchant community inMontreal through his association with theNorthwest Company, was required to "supplythe said concern with goods and merchandise"(PAC, RG4, AI, S series, Vol. 84, pp, 26, 160­61). The exact nature of their operation is un­clear; however, it appears that Pothiersupplied Spenard et ale with trade goods thathe likely received on credit from his

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 43

f'---: I.Figure 39. Plan of military post, St. JosephIsland, 1800 by Gother Mann. (Public ArchivesCanada, National Map Collection, C-57132)

Montreal friends. In return he received a por­tion of the profits from the furs they took in.

On the island Spenard and his partners hadan extensive establishment that also includedtheir own blacksmith and forge. For sixmonths in 1806 they provided blacksmith ser­vices for the Indian Department until a re­placement for the deceased departmentalsmith was found (Vincent 1975). The projectscarried out on behalf of the department wouldlikely have been performed in Spenard et al.'sown shop. The location of this shop is a matterof conjecture; however, internal evidence indi­cates that the shop was probably located on

44 LIGHT

, ... . "~~.,.-.~.('~

10., .'It ....tl • ""-

•

Figure 40. Detail of plan of military post, St. Joseph Island, showing lotsset aside for merchants. One of the two lots indicated by the arrowsprobably belonged to Spenard, Fields, Varin and Pelladeau, (PublicArchives Canada, National Map Collection C-57132, portion only)

one of the lots depicted on the 1800 surveyplan of the island prepared by Gother Mann,commanding Royal Engineer, and referred toby Captain Drummond (Fig. 40).

The firm appears to have experiencedserious financial difficulties. In August 1804James Field complained that the IndianDepartment blacksmith, Louis Dufresne, wastrading with the native population and thus

cutting into Field's own business (PAC, RG8, I,Vol. 254-, p. 223). As the department'sblacksmith, Dufresne would have repaired themuskets, traps and other metal items thenatives brought in. He was thus ideallysituated to exploit his dealings with theIndians for personal gain, although this wasstrictly prohibited by departmental regula­tions. Distant as it was from the centres of

authority in York and Quebec, policing theregulations of the various branches of themilitary and civil departments on St. JosephIsland was difficult in the extreme. Theeffects of this illegal trading and the fiercecompetition that characterized the fur tradein the southwest were soon felt by Spenard andhis partners. In 1808 the partnership wasdissolved and all the assets, including "Land,Houses, Stores and other Buildings, HouseFurniture or utensils of any description," wereassigned to Tousaint Pothier (PAC, RG4, AI, Sseries, Vol. 84, pp. 26, 101-61). As the lastcreditor to supply the firm, Pothier had firstclaim on their assets. If an inventory of thisassignment exists among notarial records, itwould be invaluable in documenting the mate­rial possessions of a typical trading firm on St.Joseph Island.

Although this particular firm was dis­banded, Pothier continued his commercialactivities on the island, though in what capac­ity is not clear. In December 1806 he is listedas a junior agent and attorney with the newlyformed Michilimackinac Company (Wallace1934: 224). Montreal traders organized thiscompany in an effort to minimize the fiercecompetition in the southwest and to dividespheres of interest with the rival NorthwestCompany, but the company was not successful.In 1810 it was dissolved and a new tradingconcern, the Montreal Michilimackinac Com­pany, was formed by some of the firm'spartners (Stevens 1916-17). Pothier, with hisinterest in the area and his ties with theMontreal fur trade community, likely held atleast one share in the company.

The Montreal Michilimackinac Companycontinued to face stiff competition. JohnJacob Astor's American Fur Company was ac­tive in the southwest and proved a formidablerival. Soon the various parties active in thetrade in this region were exploring the possi­bility of a merger. In Janury 1811 an agree­ment was drawn up that joined the companiesunder the name of the South West Company.Were it not for the intervening events associ­ated with the War of 1812, this firm, in co­operation with the Northwest Company, po­tentially represented a multinational operationwith a virtual stranglehold on the interiortrade. Pothier continued his activities on theisland while maintaining a direct interest inthe South West Company. His association with

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 45

the company is noted in a few documents ofthe period. In a lengthy memo to Sir GeorgePrevost regarding the capture and condition ofthe American post at Mackinac Island, Pothierreferred to himself as an "Agent for the SouthWest Fur Company" (PAC, RG8, I, Vol. 677,pp, 68-70). This conclusion is further con­firmed by Captain Charles Roberts of the 10thRoyal Veteran's Battalion who warmly com­mended Pothier for his assistance in the cap­ture of the American post. According to Rob­erts, "Mr. Pothier has thrown open his storehouses to supply my requisitions in the hand­somest manner.... I have enclosed a Memoran­dum of Articles received from the South WestCompany stores for your information" (PAC,RG8, I, Vol. 676, p. 156). Evidently Pothiercontinued to use the fur trading establishmentthat he had acquired from Spenard, Fields andVarin right up to the start of the war.

One additional piece of information sup­ports the contention that the blacksmith shopexcavated during the field season of 1978belonged to Pothier. In the summer of 1814 anAmerican expedition under Colonel GeorgeCroghan sailed up the St. Mary's River towardsMichilimackinac. En route, a small detach­ment was sent to Fort St. Joseph to destroyvital supplies stored there and any remainingmilitary buildings. Ramsey Crooks, an agentfor John Jacob Astor (one of the dominantpartners in the South West Company) ac­companied the detachment to the island. Itwas his responsibility to protect the "inter­ests" of the company (Vincent 1975). Archae­ological investigations found no evidence thatthe building had been burned. Ramsey nodoubt stood by while the destruction of theisland was under way to make sure that valu­able company property was untouched. In thisinstance the lack of certain physical evidencereinforces the argument that the building inquestion did in fact belong to the South WestCompany and was part of the establishmentPothier acquired from the hapless firm ofSpenard et al, Without the 1806 inventory ofassets transferred to Pothier and additionalarchaeological data from associated buildings,it is difficult to identify conclusively theblacksmith shop. However, in light of thedocumentary evidence, a convincing case canbe made that this building was the shop be­longing to Spenard, Fields and Varin and laterowned by Tousaint Pothier.

46 LIGHT

APPENDIX C. TERMS OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN SPENARD, FIELDS, VARIN

AND PELLADEAU ANDTOUSAINT POTHIER

(PAC, RG4, AI, S Series, Vol. 84,pp. 26, 160-61)

Whereas on the Tenth day of August 1804 aTrading Concern or Copartnership was formedat St. Josephs. Generally known under thefirm of Spenard, Fields &. Varin whichCopartnership or Concern was composed ofCharles Spenard, James Fields &: GuilliaumeVarin &: was to continue for the space &. timeof Three Years. And whereas sometime in thefirst year of the said Concern the aboveParties found it convenient &. expedient toadmit Louis Pelladeau into the aforesaid Con­cern, he being bound jointly with them, by allthe clauses conditions &. stipulationsmentioned in said agreement, And whereas itwas stipulated in said agreement; thatTousaint Pothier, Merchant of Montreal shouldsupply the said concern with Goods &.Merchandize on the terms and conditionsexplained and set forth in said Agreement ­And whereas the aforesaid first mentionedparties together with the said Tousaint Pothierhave determined by mutual consent to ter­minate &. put an end to the above copartner­ship from the date hereof &. to conduct &. windup the business carried on under the same onthe terms and conditions hereafter mentioned.Viz.

Article [st

The said Charles Spenard, James Fields,Guilliaume Varin &: Louis Pelladeau herebyconsent &.agree to Consign over and transferto the said Tousaint Pothier on this day with­out reserve, All the Property &: Effects ofwhich they may be possessed as well theirJoint Stock &. Capital in Trade consisting ofLand, Houses, Stores and other Buildings,House furniture or utensils of any descriptionwhatever, Furs, Peltry Merchandize, debts duethem by Book, Notes of Hand or otherwise &.as well as their individual personal property ofevery description &. denomination whatsoeveras more particularly mentioned &. set forth inthe Inventory to be taken for that purpose.

Article 2nd

The said Tousaint Pothier, on his parthereby consents &: promises that he willemploy &.dispose of the above said property soAssigned and Transferred over to him as abovesaid for the greater benefit and advantage ofsaid concern, and that as soon as the saidProperty can be realized he will make out atrue and Correct Account thereof for thesatisfaction of the Parties concerned it beingexpressly understood and agreed upon that hewill appropriate to himself out of the firstpart of the proceeds the full amount of hisaccount against the said parties either collec­tively or individually, and then deliver over tothem the Remainder and the said property tobe divided amongst the said parties as theymay hereafter agree amongst themselves.

In witness whereof the said parties to thesepresents have hereonto set their Hands &.Sealsat St. Josephs this 17th day of June 1808 inpresence of

Witnesses

Signed

Duncan McGillivrayLandreau[illegible]

Je. Wm. Malliot

Signed

Louis Pothier (LS)Charles Spinard [sic] (LS)James Fields (LS)G. Varin (LS)Louis Pelladeau (LS)

I do certify that the foregoing Instrumentof Writing is a true Copy taken from theOriginal.

Given under my Hand &. Seal atSt. Josephs this 13th Sept. 1808

In. Askin Jr.J.P.W.D.

APPENDIX D. ARTIFACTS FROMOPERATION IH48

John D. Light

Operation IH~8 is a semi-subterraneanbuilding that abuts the blacksmith shop on itssouth side. Its doorway faces east. As wassuggested in the main body of this report,these two buildings may form part of a com­plex of structures that may have belonged to asingle fur trading company. This hypothesiscan be affirmed or disproven only by future

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP ~7

research, both historical and archaeological;however, the west side of the semi­subterranean building was partially excavatedduring the 1978 field season, and from theminimal number of artifacts recovered duringthis excavation, the indications are that thereare affinities between these two structures(Fig. ~l).

The inventory of artifacts from this exca­vation is given in Table l~. In "Description ofArtifacts," the possible relationship of theglass in the southwest corner of the black­smith shop to the glass on the west side of thesemi-subterranean building is discussed. The

Figure 41. Remains of blacksmith shop, looking south; note the partially excavatedsemi-subterranean building (operation IH~8) directly behind it. (Photo by H. Stark)

1j.8 LIGHT

Table 14. Artifact inventory for operation IH48. another piece of unidentified metal. Inaddition, there is one piece of copper alloyscrap that has been cut with tin snips and thatclosely resembles the kind of scrap found inthe smithy from the smith's tinkeringactivities. There is also a currycomb whichsuggests that whoever owned the semi­subterranean building may have owned animalsas well. The blacksmith certainly actedoccasionally as a farrier, but it is impossibleto tell whether the animals he shod belongedto Spenard, Fields, Varin and Pelladeau orsome other company or both. A futureexcavation of the semi-subterranean buildingmay provide additional information aboutdomestic animals.

The faunal remains from operation IH48consist of five bones: one each of vole,domestic pig, domestic sheep or goat, frog ortoad and lake sturgeon (Cumbaa 1979, p, 44).Similar species were found in the blacksmithshop, but not enough material is present fromthis excavation to provide any syntheticdescription of the relationship of these twobuildings.

The artifacts discovered in the excavationof the semi-subterranean building may bepresent there as scatter from the smithy.Until the building has been completelyexcavated, especially the interior, no definiterelationship between the two structures can beestablished with certainty. However,preliminary indications are that thetwo structures bear more than a proximaterelationship. Blacksmith's tools may bediscovered inside the semi-subterraneanbuilding or a primary deposition area for glassor ceramic establishing a connection betweenthe mater ial in the two structures. The faunalassemblage may be related or there may bematerial that will establish a firmer relation­ship between the two buildings and domesticanimals. It may be possible as well toestablish some unforseen connection betweenthe buildings. When the semi-subterraneanbuilding is excavated, however, the possiblerelationship between these two buildingsshould be considered.

Description

I stem; I bowl frag. with unident. mouldeddecoration - both pieces white clay

pewter button - 41st Regt, dlam. 1.6 cmprobable currycomb, 4 pieces mend - rectang.,

13.5 x II cmunident. sheet metal container, tinned oneside, with rolled joint - 2 pieces with "L" foldare probably from a lid

circular ring with nail hole - 4 cm diam.,3.4 cm long; possible tool handle support

sheet metal scrap .unidentified, possible nailsheet metal scrapcopper alloy scrappossible blacksmith's stock, hot-cut,

5.2)( 1.5 x Lj cmunident., hot-cutsheet metal scrap

IH48AI ~

1~9tIH48A3IH48BI!H48C2-1 1

tH48D4

IH48A3lH48BI(H48C3lH48D2IH48D3IH48A3

IH48A3-3IH48A3-4

IH48A3-5

IH48BI-l

IH48BIIH48C2-2IH48D3IH48D3-1IH48D3-2

IH48D3-3IH48D4

Cumbaa 1979, p, 44.

dark green container, liquor bottle, dip­moulded push-up with pantil mark - no dupli­cate shapes - no mends with glass in IH'H

colourless, lead glass, square dried food con­tainer with indented chamfers and pontilmark - two-piece mould, mould seam runsdiagonally across base - 18 pieces mend toform base - about 1/3 of bottle present - nomends with glass in IH51

Orange Crush bottle, 20th cent., approx.10-15% of bottle present including completecrown finish - intrusive - picnickers

base of circular. colourless lead glass medicinevial with pontil mark - base diem, 2.3 em

colourless lead glass shoulder of container.possibly dried food container - 2 pieces mend

rear of the semi-subterranean building likelyserved as a disposal area, and possibly at leastsome of the glass from this dump wasscattered into the southwest corner of theblacksmith shop. The facts that the excava­tion of the semi-subterranean building wasonly partial and that no mends were foundleave this question open to further research.

The discovery of 16 pieces of clinker inoperation IH48 is perhaps to be expectedconsidering the proximity of the two buildings.The clinker is, however, from the blacksmithshop.

Several metal objects appear to beassociated with the blacksmith shop. There is,for example, a piece of metal that may bewrought-iron stock. Its profile is rectangular,however, rather than square, and as it has notbeen subjected to analysis, it is impossible tobe definitive about whether it is stock. It has,however, been cut by a blacksmith, as has

Fauna

Metal

Smoking Pipe

Clinker

MatC!rial Provenance No.

Glass IH48A3 1(pane glass) IH48D3 1{container glass, lH48A3-1 26

lH48A3-2 J5

FRONTIER FUR TRADE BLACKSMITH SHOP 49

Miller, George L."Classifica tion and Economic Scaling of 19th

Canada. Public Archives. National Map Col­lection.H3/450 - St. Joseph's - (800).

Light, John D."Blacksmithing Technology and Forge Con­struction." Technology and Culture, 1987.Vol. 28, No.3, forthcoming.

Bealer, Alex W. and John o. EllisThe Log Cabin: Homes of the North AmericanWilderness. Barre Publishing, Barre, Mass.,1978.

Century Ceramics." Historical Archaeology,1980. Vol. 14, pp. 1-40. The Society for His­tor ical Archaeology, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Nicks, Gertrude C."The Archaeology of Two Hudson's BayCompany Posts: Buckingham House 0792­1800) and Edmonton House III 0810-1813)."Master's thesis, University of Alberta,Edmonton, 1969.

Vincent, Elizabeth"Fort St. Joseph: A Preliminary Report."Manuscript on file, National Historic Parksand Sites Branch, Parks Canada, Ottawa, 1975.---. "The Indian Department." Manuscript onfile, Parks Canada, Ontario Region, n.p., n.d,

Unglik, Henry"Metallographic Study of Early NineteenthCentury Axes from Fort St. Joseph, Ontario."Rev. ed, This publication, Ottawa, 1987.

Russell, Carl P.Firearms, Traps, &. Tools of the Mountain Men.Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1967.

Schoolcraft, Henry R.Narrative Journals of Travels From DetroitNorthwest Through The Great Chain of Ameri­can Lakes To The Sources of The MississippiRiver In The Year 1820. E. &. E. Hasford,Albany, New York, 1821.

Stevens, Wayne"Fur Trading Companies in the Northwest1760-1816," Proceedings of the MississippiValley Historical Review, 1916-17. Vol. 9, Pt.2.

Wallace, W. Stewart, ed.Documents relating to the North WestCompany. The Champlain Society, Toronto,1934. p. 224.

Wheeler, Robert C., et al,Voices From the Rapids: An UnderwaterSearch for Fur Trade Artifacts, 1960-73.Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, 1975.

Detroit2 vols.,

Ed. M. Qualfe,Detroit, 1931.

Askin, JohnJohn Askin Papers.Library Commission,Vol. 2.

REFERENCES

Canada. Public Archives.RG4, AI, S series, Lower Canada, Sundries.RG4, AI, S series, Vol. 84.RG8, C, Vol. 253.RG8, I, Vols, 250, 251, 254, 67 , 677.

Cumbaa, Stephen L."A Study of Military and Civilian FoodRemains from Fort St. Joseph, Ontario 0795­1828)." Zooarchaeological IdentificationCenter, National Museum of Natural Sciences,Ottawa, 1979.

Karklins, Karlis"Structural Analysis of the New BakehouseComplex and the Southern Traders' Houses atFort St. Joseph, Ontario." Manuscript on file,National Historic Parks and Sites Branch,Parks Canada, Ottawa, 1978.

Fecteau, Rodolphe David"Archaeobotanical Analysis: Fort St. JosephOH). Algoma District, Jocelyn Twp,"Museum of Indian Archaeology at The Univer­sity of Western Ontario, London, 1979.

Metallographic Study of Early Nineteenth Century Axesfrom Fort St. Joseph, Ontario

Henry Unglik

52 Abstract

52 Acknowledgements

53 Foreword

54 Introduction

55 Methods and Results55 Visual Observation55 Macroscopic Examination55 Hardness Test56 Chemical Analysis56 Microscopic Examination

79 Discussion and Interpretation79 Technology of the Axes79 Structure Versus Technology83 Forging of the Iron Blades83 Heat Treatment of the Steel Bits84 Method of Manufacture of the Axes85 Fracture of the Axes

87 Conclusions

89 Glossary

92 Bibliography

51

52

ABSTRACT

A metallurgical investigation was carried out on five earlynineteenth century iron axes found at Fort St. Joseph, Ontario. Thestudy comprises chemical analysis and metallographic examinationincluding an estimation of the grain size, measurements ofmicrohardness of structural constituents, and hardness testing ofmetal. Macroetching revealed that the axe heads were made ofseveral pieces, and the study reports on the analysis of thecomponent parts and their structure. The technology, the method ofmanufacture and the manner of construction of the axe heads aredescribed. The metal working processes used included hot-working,forge-welding and folding (laminating), carburization and quench­hardening. The procedure used in the manufacture of the axesbasically involved folding a single strap of wrought iron around amandril, forge-welding the two ends, applying a previously hardenedinset steel bit, forging a broad blade, and grinding the cutting edge.The metallurgical transformations that occur on cooling from hightemperature are discussed. Also, the explanation for the axes'failure is given and the mode of brittle fracture discussed. Theresults indicate that a pure, good quality material was used formaking the axes, but the forging of the blades was rather careless.The producer had not mastered the technique of axe manufacture.

Submitted for publication 1980, by Henry Unglik, National HistoricParks and Sites, Conservation Division, Parks Canada, Ottawa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely thank John Light, Artifact Analyst, Parks Canada,Ontario Region, for originally requesting this project and advancingthe idea of publishing the results.

I am much indebted to many other people for their help inpreparing this text, but I would like especially to mention mycolleague John Stewart, Conservation Scientist, ConservationDivision, Parks Canada, for reading the manuscript and makingmany valuable suggestions.

Additionally, the constructive criticism from James Moore,Senior Conservation Scientist, Conservation Division, Parks Canada,is greatly acknowledged. Credit for illustrations is given in thetext, but gratitude is expressed here for these many favours.

FOREWORD

The axes described in this report were found in 1978 during theexcavation of a blacksmith shop. Although the shop proved to havebeen a fur trade smithy, no regular axe manufacture was beingperformed there. Nevertheless, it is likely that some, if not all, ofthe axes were made locally. One of the axes described in thisreport, for example, was marked "D," and it is possible that it wasmade by Louis Dufresne, the Indian Department smith at the post onSt. Joseph until his death in 1805. It was therefore desirable to havea picture of the manufacturing process in a frontier smithy. Thiswork details how the axes were made and how they were bitted.

Although the smith was not making axes.he was repairing them.Numerous bits snipped from axes were found in the shop, and atleast two of the axes described here had undergone this process,because the original bits were very small. All of the axes describedin this study were brought to the smith for repair, but before themetallurgical analysis had been done, this was unknown. It was theprevailing wisdom that an individual who broke an axe in use wouldthrow it away, sometimes very far away, and that therefore theaxes were likely to have been fractured in a forging accident (atheoretical possibility). The conclusions reached by this reportindicate that the broken pieces were picked up and taken to thesmith for repair, evidence of the frugality of frontiersmen and thevalue of iron on the frontier.

The careless forging technique leading to the fracturing of theaxes raises some interesting questions about blacksmithing ingeneral in late eighteenth - early nineteenth century Canada.Sloppiness may be common among frontier blacksmiths in 1800 or itmay not. All blacksmiths in 1800 may have been sloppy. Onesuspects, however (and I have no evidence for this opinion), that agood, careful and knowledgeable smith would have been highlyprized, and therefore highly paid, in one of the more settled areas.The others headed west. Louis Dufresne, for example, was asalaried employee of the Indian Department who augmented hisincome with some illegal trading. If he had been a first-rate smithhe could have earned more in Montreal. Certainly these axes werethe product of careless workmanship and the analysis of the clinkerfrom the forge revealed the same carelessness, so at least twosmiths in the area were sloppy. Other studies are necessary to get acomplete picture of blacksmithing on the frontier, and yet otherwork with material from known provenances in settled areas willhave to be done to get a complete picture of the state of theblacksmithing art in the period. If this work is ever done then it willhave to follow the lead of this study. If the work is not done thenthis analysis will have to stand alone, not just for its uniqueness, butfor its excellence.

John D. Light

53

54

INTRODUCTION

Five axes of ferrous material recovered from the Fort St. Josepharchaeological site in Ontario were forwarded to our laboratory forexamination. The axes, all fractured across the sides at the upperpart of the head, were found and possibly manufactured in the localsmithy.

A thorough investigation was conducted to identify andcharacterize the material, examine and interpret its structure andcomposition, and determine what kind of technological processeswere applied in the axes' manufacture. Another important aim ofthis investigation was to establish the cause of the axes' fracture.These goals were attained by visual observation, macroscopicexamination, chemical analysis, hardness testing, microscopicexamination, and microhardness measurements.

This is a technical report which is also intended for a non­technical audience. It is divided into several sections characterizedby definite objectives. "Methods and Results" is confinedexclusively to the methods used and results obtained from themetallurgical investigation with as little interpretation as possibleto conceivably enable others to draw their own conclusions. In"Discussion and Interpretation" the data are processed - the resultsare explained and interpreted, and several topics are discussed in­depth. The "Conclusions" are basically recapitulations of thefindings, with general conclusions written for a non-technicalaudience.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Visual Observation

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 55

Table I. Designation of the artifacts.

Description Provenance Max. size (em)

Hardness Test

Hardness measurements were taken on apolished and lightly etched cross-section cutperpendicularly to the cutting edge of an axe.The Rockwell method of hardness testing,according to the American Society for Testingand Materials (ASTM) Standard E18-74, wasused. A ball of 1/16 in. diameter under a 100­kg load (Rockwell B) was used for soft iron andsteel areas, and a diamond pyramid under a150-kg load (Rockwell C) for the relativelyhard steel areas. The number of indentationsdepended on the size and number of the dif­ferent areas revealed by macroscopic

the axes (lH51E3-3) a seam (black solid line) isvisible along the centre of the section. Theencircled numbers refer to a given macro­region, the microscopically determinedstructure of which is described in detail later.

The distribution of phosphorus is alsoinstrumental in determination of the tech­nology. To reveal the segregation of phos­phorus in the axes, Oberhoffer reagent wasused (30 g FeC13' 1 g CuC12' 0.5 g SnC12,50 mL HCl, 500 mL ethanol and 500 mLdistilled water). This reagent selectivelydarkens phosphorus-poor regions, leaving phos­phorus-rich regions unattacked and light. Thisis shown schematically in Figure 5. One axe(lH51G3-9) is relatively high in phosphorus,another (l H51D1-1) contains some high phos­phorus iron, and the three remaining axes showa banded structure of alternate phosphorus­rich and phosphorus-poor layers.

The designation and size of the examinedartifacts are given in Table 1.

The surfaces of all of the axes were darkgrey and fractured across the sides at theupper part of the head. The surfaceappearance of the axes is illustrated in Figure1 (side view of Fig. 18e of Light 1984, thisvolume) and in Figure 18a-d of Light 1984 (thisvolume), and their shape and approximatedimensions in Figure 7a-e. The irregularragged area of the fracture surfaces (Fig. 2,which is the top view of Fig. 18d of Light1984, this volume) has the typical appearanceof brittle fracture, exhibiting no evidence ofplastic deformation. The axes have a sharp,clearly defined cutting edge, except one(lH51G3-9) with a blunt edge. Blacksmith'strademarks are present on the surface of twoaxes (lH51E3-3 and IH51F5-1).

Macroscopic Examination

Macroscopic examination (at less than xlO)was used to investigate the structure of largeareas. The specimens were cut longitudinallyfrom the axe heads (perpendicularly to an axeedge) with a band saw. The locations of thesections are shown in Figure 7. The sectionswere prepared as described later in "Micro­scopic Examination." After etching, thesections were examined both with the unaidedeye and at low magnification with a stereo­scopic microscope.

To determine the location of the iron andsteel regions, the sections were etched with asolution of 10 per cent nitric acid in ethanol.As Figure 3 shows, the axes, except the axeeye (lH51C2-1), comprise low carbon (light­etched) and high carbon (dark-etched) regions(that is, iron and steel), The technology of theaxes is more vividly illustrated in Figure 4,which is a representation of the etched sec­tions. The axes are made of low carbon ironblades and high carbon steel bits. In one of

Axe eyeAxe headAxe headAxe headAxe head

IH51C2-1IH5lD2-1IH51E3-3IH51F5-1IH51G3-9

9 x 6 x 0.85xllxl12 x 8.5 x 28x lOx 1.510 x 8 x 2

56 UNGLIK

Table 2. Average hardness of the axes.

M~(F"I&'.) VaIua..-sured ,~-

_ue ~-""'of ,"U RockweU 8 Brlnell- HR, Hue HB/IO/3000

IH5JC2-1 "''' low carbon " 1"IH521"J1_1 Blade- Low carbon wrought iron se 1..

lnsetslug Medium carbon Sleel .. zo•AppJiedbit High carbon neal_treated 51",,) mBladP Faggotediron-highcarbonslrip 81 '"Blade Faggoted iron _lowcarOOnSlrlp " "ln~tbil High carbon heat-treated steel '"Blade Low carbon wrought iron .- ".lnsetbit High carbofl steeJ " areAppJiedbit High carbon heal_lreated sleel eu mBlade low carbon w,ought i,oo " 119l"setbi! HJgh carbon ste"j so 18'

examination. Rockwell B and Rockwell Cmeasurements obtained in testing have beenconverted to standard Brinell HBlO!3000(Hardness Brinell, HB) as approximate equiva­lent hardness (ASTM Standard E 140-72). Thehardness testing results are given in Table 2,and the hardness distribution along a cross­section of each axe is illustrated in Figure 6.

Both Table 2 and Figure 6 show there is awide hardness variation within each axe owingto the heterogeneity in composition (carboncontent in particular) and structure. Thisobservation is confirmed by a comparison ofFigures 4 and 6 which demonstrates that thehigh carbon areas are of much higher hardnessthan the low carbon areas. As will be shownlater, the high hardness displayed by most ofthe steel bits (in axes lH51D1-1, lH5lE3-3and lH5lF5-l) results from a structurebrought about by heat treatment. Note, too,the hardness of the steel bits graduallydecreases with the increased distance fromthe cutting edge. Table 2 demonstrates thatthe average hardness of the wrought-iron partsis 120 HB, and the steel parts 200 HB and theheat-treated steel parts 380 HB.

Chemical Analysis

The chemical analysis was done on the axesunder contract by Bondar-Clegg and CompanyLtd., Ottawa. Samples were taken from eachblade (at the fracture surface) and from twosteel bits (at the cutting edge) as shown inFigure 7. The results of the chemical analysisare given in Table 3. For purposes of com­parison, typical compositions of Swedish iron,modern wrought iron and modern steel are alsoquoted.

Table 3. Chemical composition of the axes.

Compaaitlon (")Put"

Pt.......- - Ma....... C ... Si

IH.51DI-1 Blade and slujil Wrought iron and steel 0,34 0.02 O.OIj. 0.22 0.07IH.51E3-3 Blade Faggoted iron 0.28 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.02

Bit Steel O.H 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.02IH.5IF.5-1 Blade Wrought iron 0.01 0.009 0.0.5 0.07 <0.00.5

Bit (hardened) Steel 0.&0 0.03 0.03 0.0.5 0.01IH.5IG3-9 Blade Wrought iron 0.10 0.0.5 0.04 0.22 0.03

Swedish iron, Dannemora (Percy 1164: 736) 0.0.54 0.02:& trace 0.0.5.5Modern wrought iron (Avner 1964: 313) 0.0& 0.01.5 0.16 0.06 0.01Modern steel (ASM 1961: 62) 0. .5- 0.6_ 0.10_ SO.04 :S.D.0.5

0.' .., 0.3

Table 3 shows that the carbon content, aswas expected, is low in wrought iron and highin steel. The higher carbon content in twoblades OH5IDl-1 and lH5lE3-3) represents anaverage value of iron and steel areas. Thecontent of the remaining elements is very low(except for the somewhat high phosphorus inblades lH51D1-1 and lH5lG3-9), indicatingthe axes were made from very pure, goodquality materials, which compare well in com­position with the best Swedish iron, and withmodern wrought iron and steel.

Microscopic Examination

Three specimens for microscopic examina­tion were taken from each axe (except axe eyelH5lC2-0: one from the blade at the fracturesurface, one from the centre of the axe headand one from the applied bit at the cuttingedge. The location of the sections is shown inFigure 7a-e. The sections were cut from themacro-specimens using a low-speed saw with adiamond blade and cold-mounted in epoxyresin. After grinding on a series of abrasivepapers of progressively finer grit size (nos 240,320, 400 and 600), polishing was carried out ona napless nylon cloth with 6-jlffidiamond pastefollowed by a medium high nap velvet clothwith a l-Ilffi diamond paste, and high nap rayoncloth with a slurry of 0.05-jlffi gamma alumina.

The specimens were etched in 4 per centnital (a solution of nitric acid in ethyl alcohol)to reveal the structure, and in Oberhofferreagent to show phosphorus segregation. Thepolished and etched specimens were thenstudied by reflected-light microscopy at mag­nifications of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 diameters.Micrographs of the specimens were taken tosupplement the metallographic examination.

The grain size was determined using the com­parison procedure of the ASTM Standard E912­74-. Relative hardness of the microconsti­tuents was measured using a Vickers typemicrohardness tester with a diamond pyramidindenter under a 100-g load (Hardness Vickers,HV).

The macroscopic examination revealedseveral differently etched areas within eachaxe. The microstructure of these areas isdescribed and illustrated by micrographs. Theorigins of the micrographs (denoted byencircled numbers) are sketched in Figure 4-.

Axe Eye IH51C2-1

The axe eye (lH51C2-l) material, havingno slag inclusions, is surprisingly pure andresembles modern low carbon steel rather thanwrought iron.

Bulk of Metal (area I, Fig. 4). The bulk of thematerial consists of coarse equiaxed ferritegrains ASTM size no. 5 (Fig. 14-),where ferriteis a nearly pure iron with less than 0.025 percent carbon. Higher magnification clearlybrought out, in this soft (122 HV100) lowcarbon structure, the presence of thin cemen­tite films at the widened grain boundaries(Fig. 15). A banded structure resulting fromsegregation of phosphorus, about which morewill be said later, was also evident in the axeeye.

Surface Rims (areas 2 and 3). The structure atthe surface of the axe eye was found to varyfrom that in the centre. The approximately 2­mm wide rims at the outer surface (area 2)and the inner surface (area 3) are higher incarbon, and contain, besides ferrite grains,some pockets of dark etching pearlite.Pearlite is a high carbon constituent (ca.0.8% C) and thus is much harder than ferrite,as shown by comparing its microhardness of184- HV100 with that of ferrite at only 122HVIOO·

At the outer surface (area 2) the structurehas a Widmanstaetten pattern of ferrite in amatrix of pearlite (Fig. 23). Ferrite occursthere both at prior austenite grain boundaries(a high temperature phase) and as plateswithin the grains. Also, regions of ferrite(ASTM no. 7) with pockets of pearlite were

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 57

observed. At the inner surface (area 3) thestructure consists of fine equiaxed ferritegrains (ASTM no. 9) and small pockets ofpearlite corresponding to about 0.15 per centC (Figs 17 and 18). Parts of the rim,containing only pearlite, were accidentallycarburized in the forge while in contact withcharcoal.

Axe Head IH5IDI-I

Axe head IH51Dl-l with its heterogeneousstructure appears to be made of differentpieces of metal, a wrought-iron blade (areas 1and 3), a steel slug (area 2) and a heat-treatedsteel bit (area 4-).

Wrought-Iron Blade (areas I and 3). Metallo­graphic examination showed the structure ofthe blade to be typical for wrought iron, as itwas composed of equiaxed ferrite (14-9 HVIOO)with a considerable amount of non-uniformlydistributed slag inclusions. The medium sizeslag inclusions, though elongated in the direc­tion of prevailing plastic deformation, arerather compact, similar to some of theinclusions in Figure 9. They are largely ofduplex structure, probably comprisingdendrites of wustite (FeO) in a fayalite matrix(2FeO·Si02). There is a large variation ingrain size and some variation in carboncontent. In area 1, the ferrite grains aremedium size (ASTM no. 5), and in area 3 thegrains are coarse corresponding to ASTM no. 2(Fig. 14-).

Steel Inset Slug (area 2). A medium carbonstrip of metal separates the low carbon areas1 and 3. Here, very fine ferrite grains (ASTMno. 9) are mixed with about the same numberof small pockets of pearlite indicating thepresence of about 0.4-per cent carbon (Figs 19and 20).

Steel Bit Overlaid on One Side (area 4). Thecutting edge represents an entirely differentstructure from that of the remaining parts ofthe axe. Although at low magnification thestructure resembles pearlite, high magnifica­tion clearly reveals a feathery hard matrix(568 HVI00) and some slag inclusions (Fig. 26).Such a structure is known as upper or featherybainite and can be formed only at a rapid rate

58 UNGLIK

of cooling from high temperatures. Its pre­sence suggests a deliberate effort at heattreating to increase the hardness of the steelbit. Farther from the edge, however, the veryhard bainite disappears, and at a distance ofabout 25 mm the structure consists entirely ofvery fine sorbitic pearlite (383 HV100). A fewmillimetres farther in, the presence of regularpearlite and ferrite can be found. Adjacent tothe steel bit the structure is fine pearlite (322HVIOO)with only traces of ferrite. As a resultof heat treatment, the overall hardness of thesteel bit was considerably increased to about370 HB compared with the hardness of thenon-heat-treated steel of about 200 HB.

The several pieces of metal constitutingthe axe head were joined by forge-welding athigh temperatures. This is verified by thepresence in the structure of characteristicseams separating each area, the occurrence ofa chain of very small oval or slightly elongatedslag inclusions in some seams, the presence oflarge slag inclusions in the adjacent areas, aswell as the technologically justified way ofwelding (that is, distribution of hard and softmetal). For example, Figure 29 shows thetransition from the steel slug to the ironblade, with a seam between them. The transi­tion zone where heat-treated steel (theapplied bit) and soft iron (the blade) arewelded together is illustrated in Figures 31and 32.

Axe Head IH5IE3-3

As in the previous case, the axe headIH51E3-3 contains a heat-treated steel bit(area 3), which, however, is welded here to ablade made of faggoted iron (areas 1 and 2).

Faggoted Iron Blade (areas I and 2). There arein the blade material many slag stringers ofboth duplex and single-phase structure. Theslag inclusions vary in size; most of them arevery long (Fig. 11), many large and mediumsize (Fig. 9) and some massive (Fig. 10).Higher magnification resolved the structure ofthe two-phase slag inclusions (Fig. 12) and thatof the uniformly black one-phase slag inclusion(Fig. 13). The structure of the duplex slaginclusions consists of white dendrites ofwustite in a grey fayalite-glass matrix.

Nital etching revealed that the blade has a

piled structure typical for faggoted iron. Itconsists of several laminations varying greatlyin carbon content from less than 0.1 per centto about 0.8 per cent. The blade was madefrom six strips of steel and iron. The highcarbon steel strips contain pearlite and grainboundary ferrite; the medium carbon steelstrips contain ferrite mixed with pockets ofpearlite; and the low carbon iron strips containonly ferrite. The ferrite strips are particular­ly rich in slag inclusions stretching in thedirection of prevalent plastic deformation.Hardness readings of 72-169 HB reflect thedifferent amounts of pearlite and ferrite. Asseen in Figure 4, a welding seam with smallslag inclusions runs along the entire length ofthe blade, dividing it in half. Etching inOberhoffer reagent revealed in the blade avariable phosphorus content in the form of awell-pronounced banded structure. Alternatephosphorus-poor and phosphorus-rich bands runparallel to the direction of deformation (Fig.16). Because phosphorus increases hardness, itwas not surprising to find that the microhard­ness of the phosphorus-poor ferrite is 118HVIOO and that of phosphorus-rich ferrite is207 HV100.

In the high carbon steel strips (area 1)ferrite forms a thin envelope around thepearlite (Figs 21 and 22), or it appears in ablocky form. Figure 30 exemplifies two suchwelded-together pieces of steel with thecharacteristic seam containing a chain of verysmall slag inclusions and large slag stringers inthe adjacent area. In local regions of theblade, ferrite (123 HV100), not pearlite, is thepredominant phase. In general, pearlite (192HV100) is partially spheroidized (Fig. 24),suggesting the metal was heated at 600-700°Cfor several hours. The structure of the lowcarbon iron strip (area 2) is basically that oflow phosphorus wrought iron with equiaxedferrite grains of medium size (ASTM no. 5) andmany large slag inclusions. This strip isextremely soft, its hardness only 75 HB. Thehardness of the medium carbon steel strip ismuch higher, 145 HB. Some pockets ofpearlite appear also in the iron strip close tothe steel strip. This is probably because ofcarbon diffusion from the part of strongercarburization (steel part) to the iron part. Alarge portion of the left surface of the blade iscarburized. The carbon content gradient per­pendicular to the carburized surface developed

because of accidental carburization in theforge.

Inset Steel Bit (area 3). As in axe IH5lD2-1,the structure of the cutting edge of this axe isthat of heat-treated steel, and it changesgradually with increased distance from thecutting edge. Presence of feathery bainite(609 HV1DO)is confined here only to a smallregion at the tip of the axe edge (Fig. 26). Alarge region follows comprising unresolved,almost structureless pearlite which may bereferred to as sorbitic pearlite (Fig. 25). Ithas a high hardness - 402 HV100, but not ashard as upper bainite. Much farther from theedge, the main constituent is still softerlamellar pearlite (234 HV100) with a consi­derable amount of ferrite. The steel bit alsocontains a substantial amount of small elon­gated inclusions (Fig. 8). The forge-weldedzone of the heat-treated steel bit and thefaggoted iron blade (steel strip) is marked by aclearly visible seam (Figs 33 and 34).

Axe Head IH5IF5-1

Axe head IH51F5-1 is made up of threepieces of metal, that is, a wrought-iron blade(area 1) and two steel bits, one heat-treated(area 3) and one not (area 2).

Wrought-Iron Blade (area I). The predominantstructure of the blade is equiaxed ferrite (I35HV100), varying in size from ASTM no. 7 tono. 4, with some pockets of pearlite (Figs 17and 18). There is a large amount of two-phaseslag stringers, frequently of massive size (Fig.10), and some of single-phase strucutre. Oneof the blade surfaces is slightly carburizedshowing a Widmanstaetten geometrical pat­tern. The banded structure is not as welldeveloped as in the axe blade IH51E3-3.

Inset Steel Bit (area 2). This steel bit, incontrast to the one discussed next, has notbeen hardened by heat treatment. The struc­ture of the region close to the cutting edgeconsists of fine pearlite (309 HV100) andtraces of ferrite. However, in the remainingpart of the steel bit coarse pearlite (213HV100) with ferrite envelopes was observed(Figs 21 and 22).

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 59

Steel Bit Overlaid on One Side (area 3). Thestructure in this steel bit was formed as aresult of heat treatment. As in the otheraxes, there was a gradual change in the micro­structure along the length of the steel bit.Slag stringers both of duplex and single-phasestructure occur throughout the entire area(Fig. 9). Presence of feathery bainite (543HV100) extends along the first 10 mm fromthe cutting edge. Proceeding farther awayfrom the edge, sorbitic pearlite (407 HV100)becomes the predominant constituent. Stillfarther from the edge some remains of ferriteappear. In the region close to the steel bit'sopposite end the microhardness of pearlite hasdecreased considerably. Its value of 305HVI00, though appreciably higher than that ofcoarse pearlite, is lower than that of sorbiticpearlite.

Light, not well-etched welding seams formclearly delineated boundaries around the twosteel bits. Figure 31, for example,demonstrates the transition from the ironblade forge welded to the heat-treated steelbit. Details of the transition zone arerevealed at higher magnification in Figure 32.From the left is a light low carbon area, somesingle-phase slag stringers followed by a seamcontaining a chain of very small oval slaginclusions, and on the right a dark high carbonarea (heat-treated steel). A seam about 1 cmlong, terminating at the non-heat-treatedsteel bit, is also visible in the iron blade. Theiron part between the two steel bits has astructure of irregular columnar ferrite withpockets of pearlite.

Axe Head IH5IG3-9

Axe head IH51G3-9 is made of two piecesof metal, a high phosphorus wrought-iron blade(area 1) and a small steel bit (area 2) nothardened by heat treatment.

Wrought-Iron Blade (area I). Typical ofwrought iron, the structure of the bladeconsists of an assortment of slag stringers in amatrix of equiaxed ferrite grains (ASTM no.6). The numerous slag stringers are mostly ofduplex structure and occasionally of single­phase structure. They are heterogeneouslydistributed and vary in size from medium andlarge to massive (Figs 9 and 10). Oberhoffer

60 UNGLIK

Table 4. Characteristics and technological features of the axes from Fort St. Joseph.

"""otMocroo<ructu<.

tc -carbon)(P-phoIphorus)

........~..(Brinell) incJlQiions

Mainconstituents

Grain Micro--size harcktess

(ASTM no.) HVIOO Mn Si

Axe head Blade 1&:3 Wrought ironIH5IDJ-1 Inset shJg 2 Steel

Overlaid on one side 4 Steelbit Hx5mm

Ferrite,equiaxed 5 &: 2Ferrite,equiaxedPearlite ':IUpper bainite·Sorbltlc pearfitePearlite &:ferrite

Axe eye BulkIH'lC2-J

Scrrece rims

"Mild" sreelIiron)

"Mild" steel Urcnl

Very Jow C, low PBandedstruclurelowe,low P

Very low C, higher PMedium C, Jow PHigh C

86 None

182 Mally,medium204 A few, short372 Many,short

Ferrite,equiaxedCementite filmsFerrite,equiaxedSome pearlite

r • , 122,..'"149 0.34

j"383

Axe head Faggoted iron _ high carbon strip Medium C, Banded structure ,OJ Many,Jong,large & med. Pearlite,Ferrite, equiaxed(P_poor P-rich)IH31E3-3 Faggoted iron _ low carbon strip Very low C, low P " Numerous, large Ferrite,equiaxed Cementite films

Inset bit40x3mm Steel High C m Many, short Some upper bainite II' 0.28 0,01 0.04 0.08 0.02

soretnc peerute e '"peartlre Izc ferrite) '"60'

'" O.B 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.02m

Axe head Blade Wrought iron Low C, low P, Banded structlJre ll. Numerous,large&. med. Ferrite,equiaxl!'!d,pearlltl!'! ,.. 0.1)7IH3IF3-1 Inset bit 30x4mm Steel HighC 216 A few FinepearJite- Pearlill!'!{&: ferrite)

Overlaid onool!'!side Steel HighC m Numerous Upper bainite- JO'bil30x4mm SorbiticpearJite '"FinepearJite '"'" 0.' 0.03 0.05 0.(11

JOj

Axellead Blade Wrought iron Very low C, higher P '" Many,long,largl!'! &:med, Ferrite, equiaxl!'!d(P.rich) 0.05IH3IG3-9 Inset bit IOx2 mm Steel High C '8j Afew Pearlile-

Ferrite network

-Predominantmicrostltul!'!nt.

reagent did not darken the matrix, indicating ahigh phosphorus content. This was confirmedby the unusually high hardness of ferrite, 182HV100, which is almost entirely due to phos­phorus. Streaks of somewhat higher carboncontent, containing ferrite with pockets ofpearlite, were also observed in the blade.Their presence is probably due to primarycarburization in the liquid state. Secondarycarburization in the form of locally carburizedsurfaces was also noted in the blade.

Inset Steel Bit (area 2). In contrast to theother axes with relatively large (and heat­treated) steel bits, the cutting edge of axeIH51G3-9 is formed by a thick end of a smallsteel bit about 10 x 2 mm. This is well illus­trated in Figure 27 showing at low magnifica­tion the opposite end of the steel bitsurrounded by low carbon iron. We can also

see a sudden change in the number of slagstringers in the area adjacent to the steel bit.The transition zones from the high carbon area(steel) to the low carbon areas (iron), on bothsides of the bit, are demonstrated at highermagnification in Figure 28. The structure ofthe steel bit itself is that of pearlite. At stillhigher magnification, the coarse pearlitelamellae are easily resolvable (Fig. 22). Thealternate layers of ferrite and cementite arearranged in colonies within which the lamellaeare roughly parallel and uniformly spaced.This structure accounts for the low overallhardness of the steel bit (only 185 HB), andindicates that no attempt at heat treatment toharden the cutting edge was made.

The results presented in this chapter aresummarized in Table 4, which recapitulatescharacteristics and technological features ofthe examined axes.

Figure 1. Axe eye IH51C2-1.(Photo by G.Vandervlugt)

61

Figure 2. Typical appearance of an axesurface fracture. (Photo by author)

i?

Figure 3. Macrostructure of the axes showing light low carbon areas(iron) and dark high carbon areas (steel). Left to right: IH51C2-1,IH5lDl-l, IH51E3-3, IH51F5-1 and IH51G3-9. Etched in 10 percent nitric acid.

62

lH51C2-l

Q,G·I.C

O.l·I.C

~«:%'d)~O.l·I.C

O.l·/.C

lH51F5-l

------aJ1IIll1 O.Ol·I.C

---lH51G3-9

O.l·I.CC-=-~~l---------TO...Q7.'.C

O Low carbon area (iron)Zone ~ faible teneur en carbone (fer)

H!V!!IHigh carbon area (steel)~Zone a haute teneur en carbone (acier)

II High carbon area (heat-treated steel)Zone a haute teneur en carbone (acier

trait~ thermiquement)

Figure 4. Technology of the axes: carbon distribution revealed byetching with 10 per cent nitric acid. (Drawing by J. Renaud)

1H51C2-1

1H51D1-1

1H51E3-3

1H51F5-1

63

0-1H51G3-9

- -----

D(I

Phosphorus-rich areaPhosphore-zone a haute teneurPhosphorus-poor areaPhosphore-zone a faible teneur

Figure 5. Technology of the axes: phosphorus distribution revealedby etching with Oberhoffer reagent (black areas are steel bits).(Drawing by J. Renaud)

64

lH51C2-1

172 1H51Dl-1

204~Tt'~164 310 ~: ~15

372

1391H51E3 -3

147- 169- -125

120- .68

1H51F5-1

297 404

362 484

100• 116•

1H51G3-9

117.

•137

116• •

117112• •

110

Figure 6. Hardness distribution (Brlnell) on the longitudinal cross­sections of the axes. (Drawing by J. Renaud)

o

"'I

I

I

~,~I_tJa

~ MACRO - SECTIONS

III MICRo - SECT IONS

~.~ SAMPLES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

d

In<D

65

Figure 7. Sketches of the axes with locations of the samples taken for examination(dimensions in millimetres are approximate). a, Axe eye IH51C2-1; b, axe headIH5lDl-l; c, axe head IH51E3-3; d, axe head IH51F5-1; e, axe head IH51G3-9. Theshape and location of the sections taken from the axes are shown by means of revolvedsections superimposed on the side view of the axes. (Drawing by J. Renaud)

66

Figure 8. Tiny slag inclusions (black) with one-phase structure. Aspolished (not etched). (xIOO [IOO-power microscope])

, .....

---;:-- . 7

Figure 9. Medium and small size slag stringers (grey) with two­phase structure. As polished (not etched). (xIOO)

Figure 10. Large slag stringers (grey) of two-phase structure. Aspolished (not etched). (xIOO)

Figure 11. Very long and thin slag stringers (black) of one-phasestructure. As polished (not etched). (xIOO)

67

68

Figure 12. Structure of two-phase slag inclusions resolved at highmagnification. Wustite dendrites (light), fayalite columns (grey)and glass matrix (dark). As polished (not etched). (x500)

Figure 13. Structure of one-phase slag inclusions resolved at highmagnification. Uniformly black single-phase glassy stringers. Aspolished (not etched). (x500)

Figure 14. Structure of iron with less than 0.05 per cent carbon<Cooled slowly). Coarse equiaxed ferrite grains (light) with well­delineated grain boundaries (dark lines). Etched in 4 per cent nitalto produce contrast. (xIOO)

Figure 15. Figure 14 at higher magnification. Thin cementite filmsrevealed at ferrite grain boundaries. Etched in 4 per cent nital, (xl 000)

69

70

Figure 16. Banded structure in wrought iron. Phosphorus-rich bands(light) and phosphorus-poor bands (dark) of ferrite, slag stringers(black). Etched in Oberhoffer reagent. (x50)

Figure 17. Structure of iron with about 0.15 per cent carbon (cooledmoderately fast). Fine ferrite grains (light) with some pockets ofpearlite (dark) at grain boundaries. Etched in 4 per cent nital, «ioo:

Figure 18. Figure 17 at higher magnification. Ferrite (light) andsome pearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per cent nital, (x500)

Figure 19. Structure of steel with about 0.4 per cent carbon (cooledfast). Roughly equal amounts of very fine ferrite (light) andpearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per cent nita!' (xlOO)

71

72

Figure 20. Figure 19 at higher magnification. Ferrite (light) andpearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x500)

Figure 21. Structure of steel with about 0.6-0.7 per cent carbon(cooled slowly). Pearlite matrix (dark) with ferrite envelopes (light)at grain boundaries. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xl 00)

Figure 22. Figure 21 at higher magnification. Coarse lamellarpearlite (dark-light) resolved, and grain boundary ferrite (light).Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x500)

Figure 23. Widmanstaetten structure of steel (cooled fast). Ferrite(light), both at grain boundaries and within grains, in matrix ofpearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per cent nita!' (xl 00)

73

74

Figure 24. Partial1y spheroidized structure of steel (heat affected).Spheroidized pearlite (dark) in matrix of ferrite (light), and slaginclusions (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x500)

Figure 25. Structure of heat-treated steel bit <Cooled moderatelyfast). Matrix of sorbitic pearlite with slag stringers. Etched in 4per cent nltal, (x500)

Figure 26. Structure of heat-treated steel bit (cooled rapidly).Upper (feathery) bainite. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xIOOO)

75

......-- ..

~ .. ,..... ~ ..."...'!~ """ .- ..

"'. '.~'-..-'

; .', "_ ...Figure 27. Forge-welded steel bit (dark) to wrought-iron blade(light) in axe head IH5IG3-9. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x25)

76

Figure 28. Forge-welded structure: iron to (high carbon) steel.Wrought iron: ferrite (light) with slag stringers (black). Steel(centre): pearlite (dark) and network of ferrite (light). Etched in 4per cent nital. (x50)

Figure 29. Forge-welded structure: iron to (medium carbon) steel.Wrought iron (left): ferrite (light). Welding seam (arrow) (light).Steel (right): ferrite (light) and pearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per centnltal, (xl 00)

Figure 30. Forge-welded structure: steel to steel. Steel (on eitherside of seam): pearlite (dark) and grain boundary ferrite (light).Welding seam (arrow) (Iight) with a chain of very small slaginclusions (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xl 00)

Figure 31. Forge-welded structure: iron to heat-treated steel.Wrought iron (left): ferrite (light) and few pockets of pearlite (dark).Welding seam (arrow) (Ilght). Heat-treated steel (right): upperbainite (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x50)

77

78

Figure 32. Figure 31 at higher magnification. A chain of very smalloval slag inclusions is visible in the seam (arrow); there are alsolarge slag stringers in adjacent area. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xl Ou)

Figure 33. Forge-welded structure: steel to heat-treated steel.Steel (top): ferrite (light) and pearlite (dark). Welding seam (arrow)(light) with small slag inclusions (black). Heat-treated steel(bottom): sorbitic pearlite (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital, (xlOO)

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 79

Figure 34. Figure 33 at higher magnification. Medium carbon steel(left), seam (arrow), heat-treated steel (right). Etched in 4 per centnital. (x200)

DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETAnON

Technology of the Axes

Structure Versus Technology

The structure and composition of theexamined axes provide information on thetechnology and methods used for their manu­facture. The results obtained from macro­scopic examination, hardness testing,microscopic examination, microhardnessmeasurements and chemical analysis areconsistent in showing the type of structure,technological processes and heat treatmentapplied to the axes.

To clarify the relationship between theresults obtained and the technology andmethods of manufacture of the axes, a simpli­fied description of structural changes caused

by heating and cooling of iron and steelfollows.

The structure and resulti.ig mechanicalproperties (hardness and ductility) of the ironand steel depend mainly on the following threefactors:1. Composition (primarily carbon content)

The higher the content of carbon theharder and less ductile is the material.

2. TemperatureChanges in structure occur at certaintemperatures called critical or trans­formation temperatures. The range 700­900°C and above is in this respectinteresting to us.

3. Cooling rateThis depends on the size of the objectand, more significantly, on the coolingmedium. The rate of cooling increases,respectively, from very slow to veryrapid with cooling in the followingmedia: liquid salts, in the forge, in air(still or agitated), warm water, oil, cold

80 UNGLIK

water, and salt brine. Note that with anincreased rate of cooling the transfor­mation temperature is lowered.

Thus the formation of the microconstituentsencountered in the examined axes (anddescribed here) was governed by the amount ofcarbon present, the temperature it reached,the cooling rate and the size of the object.

Ferrite and Pearlite. The main constituents ofslowly cooled iron and steel are ferrite (Fig.35) - a very soft and ductile phase of nearlypure iron with less than 0.025 per cent carbon;cementite - a very hard and brittle compoundof iron carbide (Fe3C); pearlite (Fig. 36) - alamellar aggregate of ferrite and cementitecontaining about 0.8 per cent carbon and muchharder than ferrite; spheroidized pearlite (Fig.37) - a soft aggregate of cementite particlesessentially globular shaped in a ferrite matrix,formed when iron or steel containing lamellarpearlite is heated for a prolonged period at ornear the critical temperature (about 700°C).The more carbon (up to 0.8%) and the higher

the rate of cooling, the more pearlite and lessferrite is formed, and consequently the harderand less ductile is the material.

Sorbitic Pearlite. The fineness of pearliteformed (that is, the distance between thelamellae) and the resulting hardness vary withthe temperature of transformation. They bothincrease as the temperature decreases belowthe critical temperature (about 700°C) due tothe increased rate of cooling. When the rateof cooling has been moderately rapid, anextremely fine and almost structurelesspearlite, referred to as sorbitic pearlite (Fig.38), is produced at about 500-600°C.Mechanically it is the strongest type ofpearlite and gives steel a high elasticity andconsiderable hardness.

Upper Bainite. A rapid cooling rate, at about550-500°C, causes formation of upper orfeather bainite (Fig. 39). Although it resem­bles pearlite, it is a distinct microconstituentcharacterized by a combination of both high

Figure 35. Ferrite with thin cementite films at grain boundarieswith a microhardness of 125 HV100 as found in wrought iron.Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xlOOO)

Figure 36. Pearlite consisting of lamellae of cementite (dark) andferrite (light) with a microhardness of 210 HVIOOas found in slowlycooled steel. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xl 000)

Figure 37. Partially spheroidized pearlite consisting of spheroidizedparticles of cementite (dark) in matrix of ferrite (light) with amicrohardness of 190 HV100 as found in heat-affected steel. Etchedin 4 per cent nltal, (xl 000)

81

82

Figure 38. Sorbitic pearlite consisting of very fine unresolvedpearlite (the black stringers are slag inclusions) with amicrohardness of 400 HV100 as found in moderately rapidly cooledsteel. Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xIOOO)

Figure 39. Upper bainite having characteristic feathery appearancewith a microhardness of 540 HV100 in rapidly cooled steel. Etchedin 4 per cent nital. (xl 000)

hardness and high toughness. At about 400­300°C a somewhat different microconstituentis formed called lower bainite.

Martensite. As a result of a very rapid rate ofcooling (that is, quenching in water or oil) atabout 200-100°C, martensite is obtained inmedium and high carbon steels. It is a veryhard and extremely brittle phase not detectedin the examined axes. Heating a quenchedsteel at 100-650°C (that is, tempering) causesdecomposition of martensite (resulting information of so-called tempered martensite),and softens the material.

Forging of the Iron Blades

Each of the axe heads was made of severalpieces of metal joined by forge-welding athigh temperatures. This is based on (I)characteristic welding seams delineating thevarious areas; (2) occurrences in the seam of achain of very small round or oval slaginclusions; (3) sudden change in the content ofcarbon; (4) areas of carbon diffusion from thepart of stronger carburization (steel) to theiron part; (5) sudden changes in the size andquantity of slag inclusions, and finally (6) thetechnologically justified way of welding (thatis, distribution of hard, stronger carburizedmetal and of soft metal). Steel, being aharder metal, was selected for the bits, whilesofter iron was used for the blades.

The structure of most of the axe blades istypical for wrought iron, though in local areasit may resemble that of steel. The blades(except for axe IH51E3-3) have structuresassociated with simple air-cooling from tem­peratures well above the critical point (900°Cfor the low carbon areas) without any furthertreatment.

The equiaxed ferrite grains and the slaginclusions elongated in the direction of preva­lent plastic deformation show evidently thatthe axes (blades) were hot-worked, that is,forged at high temperatures. The ferritegrains although deformed in forging are nolonger elongated because the temperature atwhich hot-working had been done wassufficiently high to permit the structure torecrystallize. Hot-working also caused segre­gated regions of phosphorus to be elongated inthe direction of plastic deformation flow, a

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 83

condition revealed in three axes (lH51C2-1,IH51E3-3 and IH5IF5-l) as a banded struc­ture. The generally large grain size in thewrought-iron parts suggests that forging wasfinished above 1000°C and perhaps as high as1200°C or higher.

It was demonstrated before that the struc­ture of axe blade IH51E3-3 is different fromthat of the remaining blades. Its piled struc­ture clearly indicates that the blade is madeof faggoted iron. Piling or faggoting was atechnique in which several sheets or lamin­ations of iron separately carburized had beenpiled one upon another and then forge-weldedtogether. During carburization, the iron stripswere held at high temperature and allowed toabsorb carbon from the charcoal fire forvarying lengths of time to obtain grades ofiron differing in carbon content and hardness.The piled structure was an attempt to combinethe high strength of a high carbon steel withthe ductility of one of lower carbon content.Presence of partially spheroidized pearlite insome of the strips suggests that the blade washeated for a prolonged time at about 600­700°C. Therefore the faggoted piece had beenair-cooled from a forging temperature over1000°C and reheated to about 700°C.

Heat Treatment of the Steel Bits

The steel bits comprise various structuralareas resulting clearly from deliberate heattreatment. The size of these areas and thetypes of the gradually changing structures(upper bainite followed by sorbitic pearlite,pearlite, and sometimes pearlite and ferrite)are directly related to the decreasing rate ofcooling with the increased distance from thecutting edge of the axe. This sequence ofstructures suggests that the steel bits musthave been heated to not much higher than 800­900°C and then cooled very fast by partialimmersion with the cutting edge facing thecooling medium. The heat treatment wascarried out to harden the steel bits. Some ofthe medium carbon regions in the bladesadjacent to the steel bits have a structure(ferrite and pearlite) that forms after air­cooling from temperatures above the criticalrange. This suggests that the steel bits hadbeen treated before being forge-welded to theblades.

84 UNGLIK

Formation of upper bainite and sorbiticpearlite in the heat-treated steel bits is quiteunusual. Ordinarily, quenching of medium orhigh carbon steel would result in much hardermartensite, rather than the upper bainite orsorbitic pearlite formed here. This may beaccounted for only by a somewhat less thancritical rate of cooling due to the use of adeficient cooling medium like warm waterinstead of ambient temperature water or oil.

Although upper bainite and sorbiticpearlite, being hard and tough, are generallydesirable, a higher hardness of the cuttingedge resulting from the presence of temperedmartensite (about 550 HB) would be superior inthe working part of a tool such as the cuttingedge of an axe. Thus, the attempt to hardenthe steel bits by heat treatment was notcompletely successful. Some of the steel bitshave not been subjected to heat treatment atall (the steel bit in axe IH51G9-9 and probablyone of the steel bits in axe IH51F5-0. Thoughalso made of high carbon steel, they haveconsiderably lower hardness (about 200 HB)than the heat-treated steel bits (about 380HB).

Method of Manufacture of the Axes

The terminology used in this section andthroughout the report was developed by L.A.Ross (1977).

The blacksmith used wrought iron for thebody of his axe, which was soft enough toabsorb the shock of cutting: he used hardenedsteel for the axe edge to prevent its earlywear. For the same reasons the manufacturerheat treated only the bit and not the wholeaxe. The probable procedure employed inmanufacture of the axes involved folding asingle strap of iron around a mandril, forge­welding the two ends, insetting a previouslycarburized and hardened steel bit, forging abroad blade, and finally grinding the cuttingedge. This sequence varies from one axe toanother. In one axe head (lH51E3-3) twoseparate iron straps were forged together, andin another (lH51F5-I) two steel bits wereapplied - one hardened and one not. Thehardened steel bit (overlaid on one side) waspossibly added later because the other

bit was too soft. In still another axe (lH51DI­I) a single iron strap was folded, butadditionally a steel slug was inserted tostrengthen the blade, and an inset bit made oftwo pieces (one possibly repaired) was applied.This bit appears to have been carburized andquench-hardened after being forge-welded tothe blade, although as in the other axes, itmight have been hardened before the weldingoperation.

Supplementary to the general characteris­tics of the axes is a description of each axe.

IH5IC2-1: A broken axe eye made of onepiece of iron structurally resembling modernsteel rather than wrought iron.

IH5IDI-I: A broken axe head about 5 cmlong, fractured across the sides, with a bitabout 3.5 cm long, knife-edged with an edgeextensively chipped. The folded strap axehead consists of a wrought-iron blade, a steelinset slug to strengthen the blade, and anoverlaid bit on one side made of two pieces(one possibly repaired) of heat-treated steel.

IH5IE3-3: A broken axe head about 12 cmlong, fractured about 1 cm above the clef (atthe eye) with a bit about 4 cm long, knife­edged with an edge extensively chipped, and amaker's mark on right blade located about8 cm from the cutting edge. The double strapaxe head consists of a faggoted (piled) ironblade made of six strips varying in carbonfrom about 0.1 to 0.8 per cent, and an inset bitmade of heat-treated (high carbon) steel.

IH5IF5-I: A broken axe head about 8 cmlong, fractured across the sides, with two bitseach about 3 cm long, knife-edged with anedge only slightly chipped, and a maker's markon the left side of the blade centred about4 cm from the cutting edge. The folded strapaxe head consists of a wrought-iron blade, aninset bit made of steel not hardened by heattreatment, and an overlaid bit on one sidemade of heat-treated steel.

IH5IG3-9: A broken axe head about 10 cmlong, fractured across the sides at the eye,with a small bit about 1 cm long, knife-edgedwith an edge plastically deformed and dull (notground), The folded strap axe head consists ofa wrought-iron blade, and an inset bit made ofsteel not hardened by heat treatment.

The description, technology and method ofmanufacture of the examined axes issummarized in Table 5.

The composition of the irons provides

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 85

Table 5. Description, technology and method of manufacture of the axes from Fort St. Joseph.

Description Manufacturing technique TKhnology

Axe-head wear Edge- Maker's

Article Type blade bit sharpening marks Make Parts Material Heat Treatment Forging

Axe eye Atmond., "Mild" steel Accidental Hot-working,IH51C2_1 shaped (low carbon iron) carburization made of

I piece

.....xe head Slngfe., Broken Extensively Knife-edged None Folded strap Blade Wrought iron None Hot-working,lH5lnl_1 bitted across chipped axe head (5 em long) forge-welding

sides Inset slug Steel None of J pieces,(medium carbon) repairing (?)

Overlaid on one Steel Carburization &:side bit (high carbon) quench-hardening0.5 x 0.5 em)

.....xe head Single- Broken Extensively Knif e cedged On right Double strap Blade Faggoted iron Reheating to Hot-working,IH5JE1_3 bitted I ern chipped blade, 8 ern axe head (12 ern long) near 700 GC, faggoting

above from edge accidental (piling ofdef carburization 6 strips),

Inset bit Steel Carburization &: forge-welding(4 x O.3cm) (high carbon) quench-hardening of 2 pieces

Axe head Single- Broken Shghtlv Knife-edged On left Folded strap Blade Wrought iron Accidental Hot-working,IH51F5-1 bitted across chipped blade, axe head 18 ern long carburization forge-welding

sloes centred Inset bit Steel Carburization of 3 pieces4 ern from Ox 0.4 em) (high carbon) repairing (?)edge Over laid on one Steel Carburization &:

side bit (high carbon) quench-hardening(J x O.4cm)

Axe head Stng!e., Broken Kmte-edged, None Folded strap "lade Wrought iron Accidental Hot-working,IH5IGl-9 bitted dull (not axe head (JO cm long) earburization forge-welding

ground) Inset bit Steel Carburization of 2 piecesat eye {I x 0.2em) (high carbon)

information on ironmaking methods. The onlyintentional constituents of the analyzedmetals were iron and carbon. AU otherelements entered accidentally from the oreand materials used in the subsequent rnetallur­gical processes. The silicon and manganesecontents were governed by the conditions ofproduction favouring low silicon andmanganese levels. The very low silicon andmanganese contents indicate that theexamined material is an old iron, rather than amore recent one. The irons, having uniformlylow phosphorus content (less than 0.25%), weremost likely made from low phosphorus metalli­ferous ores, as phosphorus from high phos­phorus ores would have been transformed tothe iron. The very low sulphur contentsuggests that charcoal, a low sulphur sub­stance, was used as fuel. Charcoal ironsrarely show more than 0.05 per cent sulphur.AU these facts seem to indicate that the ironwas produced by an indirect method using acharcoal-hearth refining process.

Fracture of the Axes

It was mentioned before that each of theaxes was fractured across the sides at the

upper part of the blade. The axes failed bycleavage with no evidence of plastic deforma­tion, displaying a typical transgranular(through the grains) brittle fracture. Todetermine the reasons for the breaking of theaxes, it is useful to have a general review ofsome of the more likely causes of brittlefracture.

Defects causing brittleness may arisebefore the forging operation (that is, asso­ciated with the material - its composition,structure, etc.) during heating to forging (dueto overheating, etc.), during forging (due topoor forging technique), and after forging (dueto faulty heat treatment, low temperatureenvironment, etc.), The more serious defectsmay be associated with:1. Structure2. Internal defects like nonmetallic inclusions

or cracksInternal cracks and large and irregularinclusions are stress concentrators,easily resulting in complete fracture ofthe forged part under impact force.

3. CompositionTwo elements in particular, phosphorusand sulphur, can be very harmful. Thepresence of high phosphorus contentinduces in iron cold-shortness or brittle­ness at ordinary temperatures. With 0.5per cent phosphorus, iron cannot be

86 UNGLIK

worked in the cold state withoutcracking at the edges, although when hotsuch metal can be readily forged.During hot-working a banded structuremay be formed as a result of phosphorussegregation. These bands are planes ofweakness. Sulphur is an even moredeleterious impurity than phosphorus,which if not matched by a suitableamount of manganese induces brittlenessat high temperatures (hot-shortness)causing iron to crumble during hot­working. The iron also becomesunsuitable for cold-working, or, indeed,for subsequent service of any type.

4. Heat treatment, resulting, for example, inoxidation, decarburization, overheating,over cooling, etc.

5. Poor forging techniqueFaulty forging technique may cause theworked metal to crack internally.Internal cracks would be found, forexample, when forging with too light ahammer, or continuing forging after themetal has cooled below a safe forgingtemperature. Wrought iron and steelare also rendered brittle in the coldstate (blue brittleness) after working inthe blue heat temperature range, 230­370°C.

6. Mechanical fiberingWhen metal is deformed by forging, apreferred orientation called mechanicalfibering can develop. This is caused bythe alignment of nonmetallic inclusionsand chemical segregation in the maindirection of mechanical working (that is,the direction of metal flow) giving riseto flow lines. Mechanical orientationcauses the mechanical properties toexhibit different properties in differentdirections (anisotropy). The pattern offlow lines permits interpretation of thedirections of minimum ductility andtoughness which are the directions atany point transverse to the flow lines.

7. Breaking of the fiber flowBroken fiber is directly associated withmechanical fibering and results in poormechanical properties. In a desirableflow pattern the flow lines should bemainly parallel to free surfaces. Anundesirable forging pattern with abroken fiber, that is, one containing

numerous flow lines intersecting freesurfaces, is caused by the metal flowingtoo rapidly at right angles to the direc­tion of the fibers during forging.

8. Low temperature environmentIron and low carbon steel tend to frac­ture under impact load. This tendency isincreased by a decrease in temperature.There is a temperature range (calledtransition temperature) in which iron andsteel decrease sharply in toughness andductility as the temperature is lowered.The transition temperature for lowcarbon steels is often about O°C to-30°C or below and is affected byseveral metallurgical phenomena.

Consider these points in light of the actualresults obtained by examination of the axes.The fracture of the axes is not related tofaulty heat treatment (point 4) because theheat treatment was confined only to the steelbits and was carried out before the forgingoperation. The examination revealed severalundesirable conditions weakening the materialand contributing to the subsequent failure ofthe axes.

Predominant presence of ferrite in thefracture area, and the relatively large sizeof the ferrite grains. Ferrite (having abody-centred cubic crystal structure) isparticularly susceptible to brittle fracturewhich follows a transgranular path. Coarsegrain size is also disadvantageous - itlowers toughness and raises the transitiontemperature.Presence of large and irregular slaginclusions and internal cracks in theregions of the blade adjacent to the frac­ture surface (point 2).Relatively high content of phosphorus(point 3), revealed by chemical analysis andmetallographic examination in two blades(IH5lDI-I and IH5IG3-9). The content ofthe other harmful element - sulphur - wasshown to be low, hence, it has no detri­mental effect.Mechanical fibering (point 6) in the form ofelongated slag inclusions and bandedstructure resulting from phosphorus segre­gation. This in itself should not be veryharmful in an axe, where the flow lines arealigned in the direction of maximum stressand greatest strength, so that the greatest

stresses act along the fibers, rather thanacross them.Breaking of the fiber flow (point 7).Macroetching disclosed an undesirableforging pattern containing numerous flowlines which intersect the free surfaces insome axes. This condition creates manypotential crack initiation regions whichunder appropriate service conditions couldresult in fracture.Some of the undesirable conditions (those

beyond the blacksmith's control) wereassociated with the material of the axes.Others that occurred during forging suggestthat the blacksmith was careless in his tech­nique. The broken fiber flow associated withmechanical fibering appears to be especiallyrelevant in this case, because of the impact­loading conditions characteristic for axes inservice. Also, dangerously low temperatures,if encountered during service in conjunctionwith some form of impact loading, wouldcause the breaking of the axes.

In general, the failure of the axes mayhave resulted from the independent action ofany of these conditions, but more likely thefinal failure resulted from the combinedaction, either simultaneous or sequential, ofmore than one factor. Most of the axesprobably fractured during usage, indicated bythe extent of wear of the cutting edges.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, the examined artifacts may bedescribed as single-bitted, broken axe heads,5-12 cm long, fractured across the sides (atthe eye), with a bit about 4 cm long, knife­edged with an edge chipped, and a maker'smark located on the surface of two blades.Only one of the four axe heads (IH51G3-9)contained a smaller bit, 1 ern long, and a dull,plastically deformed cutting edge.

Each of the axe heads was made up ofseveral pieces of metal joined by forge­welding. They were composed of two mainparts, an iron blade and a steel bit. Thevarious materials welded together included

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 87

wrought iron to steel, steel to steel, and ironto heat-treated steel.

The structure of most of the axe blades,equiaxed ferrite, occasional pearlite, and slagstringers, is typical for wrought iron, and isassociated with simple air-cooling fromtemperatures well above the critical point.The equiaxed ferrite grains and the slaginclusions elongated in the direction ofprevalent plastic deformation show that theaxes (blades) were hot-worked and forged athigh temperatures. The generally large grainsize in the wrought iron suggests that forgingwas probably finished close to 1200°C orhigher.

The axe eye (IH51C2-I), being completelyfree of slag inclusions, represents a surprising­ly pure material which resembles modern lowcarbon steel ("mild" steel) rather than wroughtiron.

The blade with a piled structure (IH5IE3­3) was, however, made of faggoted iron. Thisresulted from forging of heterogenouscomposite pieces of wrought iron which hadbeen carburized to different carbon contents.After being air-cooled from forging tempera­ture the blade was reheated (perhaps severaltimes) to about 600-700°C.

The structure of only one of the steel bits(in axe IH51G3-9) is typical for air-coolingfrom temperatures well above the criticalpoint, without any further treatment. Thisstructure, consisting of pearlite and grainboundary envelopes of ferrite, shows thematerial to be a high carbon steel with about0.6-0.7 per cent C.

The steel bits of three axes (IH51DI-I,IH51E3-3 and IH5IF5-I) comprise a sequenceof structures, that is, upper or featherybainite followed by sorbitic pearlite, lamellarpearlite, and occasionally pearlite and ferrite,gradually changing with increased distancefrom the cutting edge. This type of structureclearly indicates a deliberate attempt at heattreating the steel bits to increase their hard­ness.

The carburized and quench-hardened steelbits must have been heated to about 800­900°C and then fast-cooled by partial immer­sion with the cutting edge facing the coolingmedium. However, the attempt at hardeningthe steel bits was not completely successful.Formation of feathery bainite and sorbiticpearlite suggests that a deficient cooling

88 UNGLIK

medium, like warm water, was used forquenching the high carbon steel bits. Althoughtheir hardness increased considerably due tothis heat treatment, a higher hardness of thecutting edge, one resulting from very rapidcooling (quenching in cold water or oil) and theformation of martensite, would have beensuperior. A striking example of slackquenching appears to be the inset steel bit inaxe IH51F5-1 which had not been hardened byheat treatment at all and has the same hard­ness as the non-heat-treated steel bit in axeIH5IG3-9.

The procedure used in the manufacture ofthe axes involved folding a single wrought-ironstrap around a mandril, forge-welding the twoends, insetting a previously carburized andhardened steel bit, forging a broad blade, andfinally grinding the cutting edge.

This sequence of manufacture varied some­what from one axe to another. In one axe(lH5IE3-3) two separate iron straps wereforged together; in another (lH5IF5-l) twosteel bits were applied, one of them possiblyadded later because the other bit was too soft;in still another axe (lH5IDI-l) a steel slugwas inserted to strengthen the blade, and thesteel bit also bears signs of repair.

Thus, the folded strap axe head consiststypically of a wrought-iron blade and anapplied inset bit made of high carbon steelhardened by heat treatment. The exceptionsinclude the double strap axe head (lH5IE3-3)having a faggoted iron blade made of six stripsvarying in carbon content, and the folded strapaxe head (lH5IG3-9) with a small non-heat­treated steel bit.

Chemical analysis showed that very purehigh quality materials were used for makingthe axes. Besides slag inclusions, they containhardly any impurities and their compositioncompares well with that of Swedish iron,

and with modern wrought iron and steel.The irons were made from low phosphorus

ores, probably by an indirect method using acharcoal-hearth refining process.

The examination of the axes revealedseveral undesirable conditions weakening thematerial and contributing to the subsequentbrittle fracture of the axes by transgranularcleavage. These are material structure (thatis, coarse grain ferrite susceptible to brittlefracture at low temperature), large and irre­gular slag inclusions and internal cracks in theregion of the blade adjacent to the fracturesurface, rather high phosphorus content insome blades, and broken fiber flow associatedwith mechanical fibering.

Considering during service an impact loadis applied to the axes, their failure may haveresulted from the independent action of any ofthose conditions. But most likely the finalfailure was caused by the combined actioneither simultaneously or sequential of morethan one factor and might have beenassociated as well with low temperatureenvironment. The axes probably fractured inuse (possibly during the winter), as the extentof the cutting edges' wear seems to indicate.

The fact that many of the undesirableconditions leading to the fracture of the axeshad arisen during forging suggests that theblacksmith was not very careful while forging.This combined with slack quenching of thesteel bits indicates that the maker of the axeshad not mastered the technique of axemanufacture, which involved considerabletechnological sophistication. A well-made axewas a work of a competent blacksmith; all hisskill and pride were required to make a highquality tool.

The broken axes may have been brought tothe local smithy for repair, but may not havebeen manufactured there.

GLOSSARY

ALLOY. A metallic material composed of twoor more chemical elements

AUSTENTITE. A non-magnetic form of ironnormally existing only at high tempera­tures (above 723°C)

BANDED STRUCTURE (BANDING). A phos­phorus segregated structure of nearlyparallel bands that run in the direction ofworking

BIT. The cutting part of an axe head that endswith the edge

BLADE. The broad (flattened) cutting part ofan axe head

BLAST FURNACE. The furnace in whichsmelting of iron ore to pig iron is carriedout

CARBURIZING. Introducing carbon to thesurface layer of wrought iron or mild steelby heating the metal below its meltingpoint in contact with a suitable carbona­ceous material

CEMENTITE. A very hard and brittle com­pound of iron and carbon, Fe3C, It formsone of the constituents of pearlite, andalso appears as a separate constituent inthe grain boundaries of wrought iron con­taining about 0.02 per cent carbon.

CHARCOAL. Wood that has been distilledleaving only carbon, formerly used as fuelin iron making

COLD-BLAST. Air under pressure which hasnot been reheated, supplied to a blast fur­nace

COLD-SHORT. A condition of brittleness attemperatures below the recrystallizationtemperature of a metal

CONSTITUENT. A phase, or combination ofphases that occur in a characteristic con­figuration in an alloy microstructure

COOLING RATE. The average slope of thetime-temperature curve taken over a spe­cified time and temperature interval

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE (CRITICALPOINTI. The temperature at which somechanges occur in a metal or alloy duringheating or cooling

CRYSTAL. A homogeneous solid of regulargeometrical structure peculiar to the ele­ment and in which the atoms are spaced incharacteristic pattern

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 89

DENDRITES. Crystals formed during solidifi­cation, which are characterized by a tree­like pattern composed of many branches

DUCTILITY. The amount of plastic deforma­tion that a material can withstand beforefracture

EQUIAXED. Applied to crystals whose dimen­sions are approximately the same in alldirections

ETCHING. Developing the structure by pre­ferential attack of reagents on a polishedmetal surface

FAGGOTING (PILING). An old technique ofiron manufacture in which several sheetsof iron carburized to different carbon con­tents had been piled one upon another andthen forge-welded together at high tem­perature

FAYALITE. A mineralogical constituent, ironsilicate 2FeO'Si02, found in some slags

FERRITE. A soft constituent occurring in ironor steel (nearly pure iron with less than0.025% carbon)

FLOW LINES. The texture revealed byetching a surface or section showing themanner in which the metal flowed duringdeformation

FORGE. 1. Smithy; 2. the building andmachinery for making wrought iron

FORGE-WELDING. The oldest method ofwelding, by heating two pieces of iron towelding heat and forging them togetherwith a hand-held or power hammer

GRAIN BOUNDARY. An interface separatingtwo grains, where the orientation of thelattice changes from that of one grain tothat of the other

GRAINS. Crystals in metals or alloysHARDNESS. Resistance of the material to

deformation, usually measured by indenta­tion

HEAT TREATMENT. Heating, holding andcooling a solid metal or alloy in such a wayas to obtain desired conditions or proper­ties

HOT-SHORT. A condition of brittleness attemperature above the recrystallizationtemperature of metal

HOT-WORKING. Any form of mechanicaldeformation processing carried out on ametal above its recrystallization tempera­ture

INDIRECT PROCESS. A two-stage process ofiron manufacture, where pig iron is first

90 UNGLIK

made from the ore by smelting, and thenpurified by refining to wrought iron

INSET BIT. An applied bit inserted in thenotch of the blade

LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION. The directionthat is parallel to the direction of maxi­mum elongation in a worked material

MACROETCHING. Subjecting the metal tothe action of a reagent to bring out thestructure for visual inspection

MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION. Examina-tion of a suitable prepared specimen eitherwith the naked eye or under low magnifica­tion (up to ten diameters)

MACROSTRUCTURE. Structure of metals asrevealed on a suitable prepared specimenby the naked eye or under low magnifica­tion (up to ten diameters)

MARTENSITE. A very hard constituent withan acicular (needle-like) appearance, pro­duced by quenching iron containing carbonfrom temperatures above nODc

MATRIX. The principal, continuous consti­tuent in microstructure in which other con­stituents or phases are embedded orenclosed

MECHANICAL FIBERING. Elongation andalignment of non-metallic inclusions,voids, chemical segregation and second­phase constituents in the main direction ofmetal flow during mechanical working(forging)

METALLOGRAPHY. The branch of metal­lurgy dealing with the study of the struc­ture and constitution of solid metals andalloys, and the relation of this to proper­ties on the one hand, and technology, heattreatment and manufacture on the other

MICROCONSTITUENT. See Phase and Consti­tuent

MICROGRAPH. A photographic reproductionof a material structure as seen through themicroscope at magnification greater thanten diameters

MICROHARDNESS. The hardness of a micro­constituent of a material

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION. Examinationof a suitably prepared specimen under mi­croscope at magnifications greater thanten diameters

MICROSTRUCTURE. The structure of asuitably prepared specimen as revealed bythe microscope at magnifications greaterthan ten diameters

MILD STEEL. Modern equivalent of wroughtiron but without the slag which gives thelatter its fibrous structure

NETWORK STRUCTURE. A structure inwhich one constituent occurs primarily atthe grain boundaries

NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS. Particles ofimpurities (usually silicates, sulfides,oxides, etc.) which are held mechanically,formed during solidification or by subse­quent reaction within solid metal

ORE. A natural mineral deposit from which auseful, valuable metal can be extractedprofitably

OVERLAID BIT. An applied bit laid over oneor both sides of the blade

PEARLITE. A constituent occurring in iron orsteel consisting of alternate laminations offerrite and cementite

PHASE. A constituent that is completelyhomogeneous both physically and chemi­cally, separated from the rest of the alloyby definite boundary surface

PLASTIC DEFORMATION. Permanent distor­tion of a material under the action ofapplied stress

QUENCH-HARDENING (QUENCHING). Aheat-treating process involving rapidcooling of steel from elevated tempera­tures by immersion in cold liquid such aswater, brine or oil, carried out to hardenthe material

RECRYSTALLIZATION. The formation ofnew, strain-free crystals or grains fromdeformed metal accomplished by suitableheating

RECRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE. Theapproximate rrurumurn temperature atwhich complete recrystallization of cold­worked metal occurs within a specifiedtime. It is about 500-700 D C for iron andsteel.

REFINING. The process of removing impuri­ties from metal (for example, convertingpig iron into wrought iron) by means ofslags or by remelting in a special furnace

SEAM. A welding joint in which the edge ofone piece is turned or folded over the edgeof another

SEGREGATION. Non-uniform distribution ofimpurities, inclusions and alloying elementsin metals

SLAG. The waste material formed duringsmelting of iron or making of wrought iron

or steel (resulting from the action of fluxon the oxidized non-metallic constituentsof molten metal)

SLUG. A strip of metal inserted between thefolded straps to reinforce the blade

SMELTING. A metallurgical operation inwhich the metal sought is separated in astate of fusion from the ore that containsthe mineral chemically combined or physi­cally mixed with gangue and impurities

SMITHY. The workshop and its equipment inwhich forgings are made

SORBITIC PEARLITE. Extremely fine, almoststructureless pearlite (unresolved under op­tical microscope), formed at moderatelyrapid rate of cooling in the temperaturerange about 600-550°C

SPHEROIDIZED PEARLITE. A soft aggregateof cementite particles of essentially globu­lar shape in ferrite matrix, found when ironor steel containing lamellar pearlite isheated for a long time at or near thecritical temperature (about 700°C)

STEEL. An alloy of iron and carbon containingup to 1.7 per cent carbon and minoramounts of other elements such as manga­nese, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur

STRINGER. A microstructural configurationof foreign non-metallic material lined up inthe direction of working of iron or steel

STRUCTURE. The size, shape, and arrange­ment of phases or microconstituents

TEMPERED MARTENSITE. The decomposi­tion products resulting from heating mar­tensite below the critical temperature(about 700°C), having the best combin-

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AXES 91

ation of hardness, ductility and toughnessTEMPERING. Reheating hardened steel to a

temperature below the critical tempera­ture, followed by any desired rate ofcooling, to decrease the hardness

TOUGHNESS. Ability of a material to absorbenergy (impact load) without failure

TRANSFORMA TION TEMPERATURE. SeeCritical Temperature

TRANSGRANULAR FRACTURE. A type offailure in which the line of fracture passesthrough the grains, and not around thegrain boundaries as in intergranular frac­ture

TRANSITION TEMPERATURE. An arbitrarilydefined temperature in a range in whichductility or toughness changes rapidly withtemperature

UPPER (FEATHERY) BAINITE. A structuralconstituent of feathery appearance,formed in steel at rapid rate of .cooling attemperatures somewhat lower than thosewhere sorbitic pearlite forms, that is,about 550-500°C

WIDMANSTAETTEN STRUCTURE. A struc­ture characterized by a geometrical pat­tern resulting from the formation of a newphase along certain crystallographic planesof the matrix

WROUGHT IRON. The first commerciallyavailable form of pure iron consisting ofslag (iron silicate) stringers embedded inferrite matrix

WUSTITE. A structural constituent of slag;the lowest oxide of iron with more oxygenthan required to form ferrous oxide (FeO)

92 UNGLIK

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Society for Metals (ASM)Metals Handbook. 8th ed, ASM, Metals Parks,Ohio, Vol. I 0961h Properties and Selection.---. Metals Handbook. 8th ed, ASM, MetalsParks, Ohio. Vol. 10 (1975): Failure Analysisand Prevention.

Avner, Sidney H.Introduction to Physical Metallurgy. McGraw­Hill, New York, 1964.

Bain, Edgar C. and Harold W. PaxtonAllo in Elements in Steel. 2nd ed. (3rd rev.reprint. American Society for Metals, MetalsPark, Ohio, 1966.

Bradley Smith, H.R."Blacksmiths' and Farriers' Tools at ShelburneMuseum." Museum Pamphlet Series, No.7.The Shelburne Museum, Inc., Shelburne, Ver­mont, 1966.

Brewer, C. W."Metallographic Examination of Six AncientSteel Weapons." Journal of the HistoricalMetallurgy Society, Vol. 10 (976), No. I, pp,1-10, London.

'Brick, R.M., R.B. Gordon and A. PhillipsStructure and Properties of Alloys. McGraw­Hill, New York, 1965.

Greaves, Richard H. and Harold WrightonPractical Microscopical Metallography. Re­print of 1957 ed, Chapman, Hall, London,1967.

Grossman, Marcus A. and Edgar C. BainPrinciples of Heat Treatment. 5th ed, Ameri­can Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,1964.

Hermlin, E., E. Tholander and S. Blomgren"A Prehistoric Nickel-Alloyed Iron Axe."Journal of the Historical Metallurgical Soci­~, Vol. 13 (979), No.2, pp, 69-93. UK.

Knauth, PercyThe Metalsmith. Time-Life Books, New York,1974.

Muhly, J.D., T.S. Wheeler and R. Madin"An Iron Adze of the 5th-4th Century B.C. fromAl Mina." Levant, Vol. II (1977), pp, 156-61.

Percy, JohnMetallurgy: Iron and Steel. John Murray,London, 1864.

Piaskowski, Jerzy"A Socketed Axe from Wietrzno-Bobrka inCarpathians." Journal of the Iron and SteelInstitute, Vol. 194 (1960), pp, 336-40. London.---. "Metallographic Investigations of AncientIron Objects from the Territory Between theOder and the Basin of the Vistula River."Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol.198 0960, pp, 263-81. London.---. "The Method of Determination of theOrigin of Ancient Iron Objects Based onMetallographic Investigations." ArchaeologiaPolona, Vol. 6 (1964), pp, 124-60. Warsaw.

Ross, Lester A."A Guide to the Description of Axes." Manu­script on file, National Historic Parks andSites Branch, Parks Canada, Ottawa, 1977.

Smith, Cyril S."The Interpretation of Microstructures of Me­tallic Artifacts." Application of Science inExamination of Works of Art. Ed. William J.Young. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass.,1967, pp, 20-52.---. "The Techniques of the Luristan Smith."Science and Archaeology. Ed. Robert H. Brill.MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1971, pp. 32-54.

Thomsen, Robert"Metallographic Studies of an Axe from theMigration Age." Journal of the Iron and SteelInstitute, Vol. 204 (966), pp, 905-9. London.

Tylecote, Ronald F.Metallurgy in Archaeology. Edward Arnold,London, 1962.

Ironworking at an Early Nineteenth Century Blacksmith Shop,Fort St. Joseph, Ontario: An Examination of Slag and Iron

Henry Unglik

94 Abstract

94 Acknowledgements

95 Foreword

96 Introduction

97 Methods and Results97 Preliminary Examination101 Chemical Analysis102 Microscopic Examination102 Structure of Slag Material107 Structure of Pieces of Metal Found in Slag116 Structure of Iron Objects

123 Discussion and Interpretation123 Constitution and Melting Points of Slag123 Formation of Slag Material126 Ironworking at the Blacksmith's Shop

129 Conclusions

130 Bibliography

93

94

ABSTRACT

A large amount of slag and 16 iron fragments from an earlynineteenth century blacksmith shop at Fort St. Joseph, Ontario, areexamined metallographically. The study characterizes the material,ascertains its technology and identifies the ironworking processescarried out in the smithy. The structure and composition of the slagand ferrous material are discussed in detail. Additionally, meltingtemperature and constitution of slag are determined, and theimplications of the presence of pieces of metal in the slag lumps areconsidered. The examination revealed that the blacksmith wasengaged in ironworking operations such as hot-working, forge­welding, brazing, some cold-working and a quenching-type heattreatment of steel. It is also possible that the blacksmith wasattempting to convert pig iron into wrought iron. The blacksmithworked with various materials including malleable and cold-shortwrought iron, high and medium carbon steel, and white cast iron.There are indications that the blacksmith was rather careless in hisjob.

Submitted for publication 1980, by Henry Unglik, National HistoricParks and Sites, Conservation Division, Parks Canada, Ottawa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author thanks John Light, Artifact Analyst, Parks Canada,Ontario Region, who originally requested the metallurgical examin­ation of the slag and iron fragments, and whose knowledge of theblacksmith shop, an archaeological site he investigated thoroughly,notably helped in interpretation of the results. I wish also toacknowledge the assistance of James Moore, Senior ConservationScientist, and John Stewart, Conservation Scientist, ConservationDivision, Parks Canada, for help in reviewing material in this textand giving many constructive suggestions.

FOREWORD

The excavation in 1978 of a fur trade blacksmith shop at Fort St.Joseph yielded almost 50 kg of slag. This large quantity of wastematerial from the forge provided the opportunity to produce a clearpicture of the general activities undertaken by the smith through ametallurgical examination. This descriptive analysis of the workingsof an early nineteenth century fur trade blacksmith in the oldnorthwest is the result of that examination.

The additional slag described here came from the 1964excavations at the fort. It may be from a disturbed context,possibly having been deposited in the location in which it was foundby the bulldozer that "landscaped" the fort area in 1948, so we donot know its provenance. The pieces were not recognized as slag in1964 and were placed in dead storage under the names "cinder" and"cooked earth." They were included with the original material assoon as they were rediscovered, to demonstrate metallurgically aswell as physically that there was another blacksmith shop on thepoint. Unfortunately, the samples proved to be too similar to thosefrom the blacksmith shop to make a definitive statement to thiseffect. We know, however, from documentary sources that therewas at least one other smithy, and there could well have been more.The Indian Department employed a full-time smith at the fort andthe military had a blacksmith as well, at least during theconstruction period. Where these men worked is unknown.

This study is, so far as we know, unique. As such it provides,together with its companion study on axes (this volume), a firmbeginning to what may eventually prove to be a complete picture ofthe state of the blacksmithing art in the period. Becauseblacksmithing was one of the most important, if not the mostimportant trade at the time, such knowledge would be invaluable.This type of information is impossible to gain through documentaryresearch alone, and should it come about that others follow the leadgiven by this work and a technical picture of blacksmithing on thefrontier begins to emerge, it will demonstrate once again theinterlocking nature of historical and archaeological research.

John D. Light

95

96

INTRODUCTION

A large amount of slag material associated with ironworking wascollected at the early nineteenth century archaeological site of FortSt. Joseph in Ontario and submitted for metallurgical examination.

About 50 kg of slag was found in two different areas of the fort(Light 1987: Table 1, this volume). One group of slag (provenanceIH5l) is from the blacksmith shop, while the other group(provenances IH37 and IH43) is from an area approximately 150 mfrom the blacksmith shop, close to the palisade of the fort. Thelatter slag is generally a surface material from a disturbed context.The slag from the shop, however, was in piles which also containediron scrap and some copper alloy. The distribution of the piles andthe layout of the excavated shop was determined by John Light(1987: Fig. 2, this volume).

The forge, built of limestone, had a side tuyere. Analysis of theone remaining piece of tuyere (Light 1987: Fig. 1, this volume)showed it to have been made of ferrous metal. The bottom wasformed of earth on top of which the blacksmith laid a bed of sand.Charcoal was used as fuel in the forge. There are also indicationsthat brazing was extensively carried out with kettles and brass orcopper pots as the source of filler metal. Besides the excavatedshop, there was at Fort St. Joseph apparently at least one othershop (possibly a military one) that also used charcoal as fuel.

The objective of this investigation is to determine: 1) How canthe slag material be characterized, and, in particular, whatdifferentiates the dark, heavy slag from the light, porous one? 2)What are the proportions of wrought iron and steel worked by theblacksmith in the shop? 3) Was the blacksmith engaged in anyactivity other than forging (for example, smelting, refining orcasting)? 4) Was the forge associated with working some materialsother than iron (for example, copper alloys)? 5) Was the slag fromthe palisade of the fort produced in the excavated blacksmith shopor in a different shop, for example a military one?

These basic aims were attained by means of visual observations,sectioning of the lumps, chemical analysis, hardness testing, micro­scopic examination and microhardness measurements of the slagmaterial and the iron fragments.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Preliminary Examination

From about 150 lumps of slag (Table 1)about 90 samples were selected for preli­minary examination. The examinationincluded visual observation, testing for ferro­magnetism, specific gravity, sectioning of thelumps, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence(EDX) and microscopy.

Most of the slags from the blacksmith shopuasn are convex-concave, cake-shapedlumps, varying from light or dark grey tobrown, often with a tinge of green (Figs 1 and2). On the concave or top side the surface issmooth and glassy with clear indications ofviscous flow, and on the convex or bottom sidethe surface is rough. The bottom side

Table 1. Designation of slag.

No.Provenance of samples Code nos

Shop SlagIH51A4-6 8 1-8IH51B2-11 1 9IH51E4+ 16 1M-16MIH51Fl 1 10IH51GI-6 1 11IH51G2-6 2 12-13IH51G3-13 3 14-16IH51H2-6 1 17IH51I2-2* 9 18-26IH51J5-2 1 27IH51K4-4* 5 28-32IH51K5-8 6 33-38IH51U-5* 6 39-43IH51U-2 6 44-49

Palisade SlagIH37E5 8 50-57IH43B3 74 58-87

+ Iron fragments accompany these slags.* Lime adheres to some of these samples.

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 97

may have acquired its shape from the bowl­shaped forge bottom. The lumps are generallyabout 9 x 11 x 3 ern, Three groups of slag, K5­8, L3-5 and L5-2, are somewhat smaller and anirregular rather than cake shape. In a fewlumps, clearly defined sharp ridges caused bycharcoal imprints were observed (Fig. 3). In afew others, pieces of charcoal, remnants ofthe fuel originally used in the ironworking, areembedded in the matrix (Fig. 4). Besidescharcoal, lime was also found adhering tomany slag pieces. In addition, three of thelumps were magnetic.

The lumps of slag from the palisade (lH43)varied also from light or dark grey to brown,often with a tinge of green, and had a ratherrough surface and often a glassy appearance.The majority of them, 7 x 6 x 2 cm or smaller,are characterized by a rather compact shape.Six larger lumps, about 11 x 9 x 3 cm with aflat or flat-convex shape, were also found.Among the lumps of slag were many pieceswith clear imprints of burned or charred woodin an irregular checkered pattern of ridges.These most probably were formed when thehot slag came in contact with the wood sur­face. Several lumps, the ones with a brownsurface rich in embedded charcoal pieces, aremagnetic. The eight lumps from IH37resemble the other slags and vary from about2 x 2 x 1 cm to 8 x 6 x 2 ern, Except for threepieces that showed considerable ferromagne­tism, these slags were nonmagnetic.

Sectioning showed that about one-fourth ofthe lumps contain pieces of metallic ironranging from small to massive (Fig. 5), thelatter clearly parts of iron objects left in theforge by the blacksmith. In a few cases thelumps were pieces of corroded iron or a mix­ture of iron and slag. A red hue, like that ofcopper, was observed on the surface of a fewof the lumps, which, after sectioning, wasshown to extend to some depth.

Preliminary microscopic observationrevealed that the examined samples fall intotwo basic groupings. One, comprising nearlyhalf of the samples, represents "true" slaghaving a homogenous structure and typicalslag microconstituents. The other can bedescribed generally as contaminated slag, con­sisting of slagged furnace lining and cinderswith an inhomogenous structure lackingdefinite recognizable microconstituents. Ingeneral, the slag lumps are dark, heavy and

98

Figure 1. Cake-shaped lump of slag (no. 9). (Scale: 0.7;(photo by author)

Figure 2. Lump of slag (no. 33) with rippledappearance due to viscous flow. (Scale: 0.7;photo by author)

Figure 3. Lump of slag (no. 60) withimprints of charred wood. (Scale: 0.6; photoby author)

Figure 4. Lump of slag (no. 47) containing entrappedcharcoal. (Scale: 1.0; photo by author)

Figure 5. Sectioned lumps of slag, nos 2, 7, 85 and 33, containingpieces of metal. (Scale: 1.5; photo by author)

99

100 UNGLIK

dense, while the contaminated slag pieces arelight in colour and weight, and are porous.Most of the polished slag sections observedwith the naked eye or at low magnificationappear black or dark green with a tinge of blue(Fig. 6). They have a solid glassy texture withsmall pores. The polished sections of thecontaminated slag samples, however, generallyhave a mottled appearance of black regionsintermixed with whitish-grey regions andnumerous large pores, giving it a stonypumice-like texture.

More information concerning the slag andcontaminated slag samples was obtained bythe specific gravity test and the EDX analysisof approximate iron content, results of whichare given in Table 2. Table 2 shows that theselected slag samples from both the shop andthe palisade have a high iron content (25-50%)and a relatively high specific gravity (2.5-3.6),whereas for the contaminated slag the ironcontent (8-25%) and the specific gravity

Table 2. Specific gravity and iron content ofslag material.

Approx. ironcontent ('fa) (EDX) Spec.grav. W'W Appro••

No. of .uAm Material ~p'" "-' .....M.~ ..... (em)

Blacksmith Slag 17 26~~1 l4 2.5-3.5 3.1 50-500 llx9x3shop Contam. slag 19 8-25 15 2.2_2.7 1.'

Pali~ade Slag 13 32_4';1 en 2.5-3.6 3.0 10-350 b6x2Contam.slag 20 8_24 " 2.0_2.4 1.1 &:smaller

(2.0-2.7) are much lower. The EDX surfaceanalyses showed, besides iron, trace amountsof copper and zinc in some samples. Overall,the preliminary examination of the slagmaterial has shown that the samples found atthe blacksmith shop and the ones from thepalisade are similar. The latter are generallysmaller, weigh less and have on the average asomewhat higher iron content.

In addition to the slags, four metallic arti­facts probably connected with the brazingoperation were analyzed by EDX analysis.

Figure 6. Sectioned lumps of slag (top, no. 33) with uniform darkappearance, and contaminated slag (bottom, no. 24) with mottledappearance. (Scale: 1.0; photo by author)

Three of them, iron objects IH51D2-7,IH51C2-18 and IH51K5-20, had a copper-likemetal on parts of the surface. The EDXanalyses showed the remains of metal on thesurface of the file IH51D2-7 to be bronzecontaining about 5 per cent tin and 5 per centlead, while the artifacts IH51C2-18 andIH51K5-20 were covered with brass containingabout 20 per cent zinc. The fourth, a copperalloy object, was made of brass containingabout 6 per cent zinc and 2 per cent lead.

Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis of 23 samples of slagmaterial selected on the basis of preliminaryexamination was done by Dr. C. Pride, Depart-

Table 3. Chemical analysis of slag (%).

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 101

ment of Geology, The University of Ottawa.The results obtained by wavelength dispersiveX-ray fluorescence analysis are given in Table3, and the average composition is summarizedin Table 4. On the average, the slag sampleshave a high iron oxide content (about 46%) anda high silica content (about 38%). The phos­phorous pentoxide content is low (about 0.4%)and the manganese oxide content very low(about 0.06%). The slags are also low in otheroxides like alumina (about 3%), lime (about7%), magnesia (about 2%) and titania (about0.1%). The low sulphur content of the slagsdoes not exceed 0.05 per cent. The conta­minated slag samples contain considerably lessiron oxide (about 19%) and more silica (about60%) than the slag samples. Otherwise, theircomposition is similar. Full chemical analysis

ltl ac k smi t.h Shop Palisade

IHSI 11137 IB43

Cud,.'''' 2 5 7 8 22" 28 29 Jl 47' 50 51 (,0 01 62 63 64' 67 69' 71 73' 84 85 80'

r e t o t a I 41.5 44.7 n.D 33.5 S,li 22.2 45.8 24.7 21.5 29.6 49.4 34.9 ?4 7 36.8 28.3 6.5 2.3.3 12.2 26.4 12." 5'>.1 52.1 ~ 7.9

FeU'" 53.4 57.5147 43.1 11.1 28.6 "8.9 31.8 27.7 38.1 63.6 44.9 31.8 47.3 36.4 8.4 J0,O 15.7 34.0 16 .1 70.9 67.0 35.9

38.2 31. (, 34.9 H.l 73.0 :i8.1 30.9 47.9 47.6 37.1 28.8 37.7 46.7 34.7 42.8 73. e 48.3 59.7 39.6 61.9 13.3 44.4

2.9 12.3 4.1 4.0 4 8 3.7 '7.0 8.3 Jl.4 3.4 6.0 10.6 7.3 0.0 3.5 7.7 7.9 9.8 7.5 2.7 l.7 7.2

I\l;/Jl

2.1 2.3 2.1 2.S 4.7 3.1 1.8 ],7 4 1 1.7 1.4 2.9 J.8 2.7 3.5 6.7 6.6 6.5 3.9 5.6 1.1 2.4 4.J

0.02 O.J 0.3 0.06 O.OG 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 1l.06 0.02 0.06

0.7 0.8 2.1 0.8 l.l 1.0 0.7 2.0 2.5 1.9 0.8 1.4 2.U 2.5 2.5 1.6 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 0.9 1.9 2.3

0.4 D.' 0.7 n.s. 0.2 0.4 0.4 O • ."! 0.7 O.S 0.7 U.3 U.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 U.3 0.5 O.S 0.3 0.1 D.3

5 0.02 C.OO o.»; 1).02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

fl02

0.09 0.1 0.09 O.J 0.2 D•• 0.07 0.07 D.2 0.2 0.07 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0 . .3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.07 O.J 0.2

0.5 D.':, 0.4 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 D.,) 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.2 0.5 0.8

K20

1.4 2.0 >'2 1.9 3.4 2.8 1.7 S.l 6.4 3.4 1.2 3.1 3.6 2.7 3.2 3.1 J.8 4.0 4.7 4.3 0.8 1.0 3.5

Co 0.002 0.035 0.04 0.27 L005 0.04 0.008 0.008 O.OJ 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.04 O.OJ 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.009 0.009 0.02 0.04 0.007 0.07

Total 99.7 98.4 98.7 '-JR.2 9.3.9 99.7 98.7 98.6 98.J 99.1 100.5 97.0 11.9 98.2 98.7 98.6 101.0 98.4 96.1 100.0 90.4 100.5 99.0

**al1 iron

Table 4. Average composition of slag (%).

Slag

Shop slag Palisade slag Total slag Contam. slag

Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean

Fe total 22-46 35 23-55 36 22-55 36 7-28 15FeO 29-60 45 30-71 46.5 29-71 46 8-36 195i02 31-58 41 13-48 35 13-58 3& 44-74 60CaO 3-12 5.5 3-11 7 3-12 6.5 4-8 6AI203 2-4 2.5 1-7 3 1-7 3 4-7 5MnO 0.02-0.3 0.1 0.02-0.08 0.05 0.02-0.08 0.06 0.02-0.08 0.06MgO 0.7-2 1.0 0.8-4 2 0.7-4 2 1-3 2P205 0.3-0.7 0.4 0.1-0.7 0.4 0.1-0.7 0.4 0.1-0.7 0.45 0.00-0.02 0.01 0.00-0.04 0.01 0.00-0.04 0.01 0.00-0.2 0.01Ti02 0.07-0.1 0.09 0.07-0.2 0.15 0.07-0.2 0.1 0.2-0.3 0.2Alkali * 2-6 3 1-5 3 1-6 3 4-7 5Cu 0.002-0.04 0.02 0.007-0.04 0.02 0.002-0.04 0.02 0.005-0.07 0.03

*Alkali is the sum of Na20 and K20.

102 UNGLIK

Table 5. Chemical analysis of ferrous metal.

Cast-iron piecein lump of sJag 28 1. 85 0.91 1. 94 0.010 0.050

Piece of refinediron 87 2.18 0.J2 0.08 <O.OJ 0.07

Iron fragment 4M 0.04 0.023 0.005 <0.005

confirms the preliminary findings of little dif­ference between the slags from the blacksmithshop and the palisade.

Chemical analysis of three ferrous metalsamples was carried out under contract byBondar-Clegg and Company Ltd., Ottawa, andthe results are shown in Table 5. Thecomposition of the cast-iron sample (no. 28),with the exception of its very low manganesecontent, corresponds to the typicalcomposition of modern pig iron. The composi­tion of the iron fragment (no. 4M), however, istypical for old wrought iron, and lump no. 87 isapparently a piece of refined iron.

Composition (%)

were converted to standard Brinell HB 10/3000as approximate equivalent hardness (HardnessBrinell, HB).

The structure of the slags consistsbasically of fayalite (iron silicate, 2FeO·Si02) and a glass matrix approximating thecomposition of anorthite (CaO· Al203 .2Si02). The predominant phase of fayaliteusually occurs as large light-grey columns,and anorthite is the dark grey matrix (Figs 7and 9). Occasionally, the primary fayaliteappears as large, often well-formed, recti­linear crystals rather than columnar crystals(Fig. 8). In some samples, small columns ofsecondary fayalite accompany the primaryfayalite (Figs 8 and 9). Frequently a primaryphase of wustite (iron oxide, FeO) occurs inthe slag. Wustite appears white underreflected light and forms rounded globulardendrites mainly associated with the anorthitephase (Figs 11 and 12). The hardness of thevarious phases differs by a significant thoughsmall amount. The wustite dendrites (536HV100) are considerably softer than the faya­lite (673 HV100) or anorthite (606 HV100).Fayalite, being harder than anorthite, has atendency to crack, mainly from the corners(Fig. 12). The slags demonstrate variable

5MnCodeno. Ctot. Cgraph. 51Material

Microscopic Examination

Structure of Slag Material

All samples for microscopy were cut with athin diamond blade and cold-mounted inepoxide resin. After sectioning and mounting,the specimens were ground on a series ofabrasive papers (320, 400 and 600 grit) usingrunning water as a lubricant and coolant.Polishing was carried out on nylon cloth with6-flmdiamond paste, followed by medium-highnap velvet with 1- urndiamond paste. Thestructure of polished and nital-etched speci­mens was studied by reflected-light micro­scopy at magnifications of 50, 100 and 500diameters. Microhardness was measured witha Vickers type tester with a diamond pyramidindenter and under a 100-g load (HardnessVickers, HV). The hardness measurements ofthe metailic samples were taken on polishedcross-sections using the Rockwell Superficialmethod. The Rockwell 30T (I/16-in. diameterball under 30-kg load) measurements obtained

Figure 7. Structure of slag (no. 8): fayalitecolumns (light grey) in anorthite matrix (darkgrey). As polished (not etched). (xl00)

Figure 8. Structure of slag (no. 28): rectilinear crystals of fayalite(light grey), small columns of secondary fayalite (light grey),anorthite matrix (dark grey); pores (black). As polished (notetched). (xl 00)

Figure 9. Structure of slag (no. 61): large columns of primaryfayalite and small columns of secondary fayalite (light grey) inmatrix of anorthite (dark grey); pores (black). As polished (notetched). (xl 00)

103

104

Figure 10. Structure of slag (no. 71): columns of fayalite (lightgrey) and some dendrites of wustite (white) in anorthite matrix (darkgrey); pores (black). As polished (not etched). (xl 00)

Figure 11. Structure of slag (no. 85): dendrites of wustite (white infayalite-anorthite matrix (grey); pores (black). As polished (notetched). (xl 00)

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 105

*Underllnlng denotes lumps containing pieces of metallic iron.

Table 6. Type of slag material.

6 indicates the quantity and type of materialfound in 48 examined samples.

As Table 6 shows, the majority of thesamples represent slag material, about one­half of which is true slag. The other half iscontaminated slag, which comprised roughlyequal amounts of cinder and slagged furnacelining. Three of the samples are siliciousstone, and five are lumps of extensivelycorroded ferrous metal.

porosity (Figs 10 and 11); the pores appear inthe structure as black rounded holes pin-headto medium size (0.5-1.5 mm diarn.), Aninhomogenous structure in the form of ironoxide regions and iron oxide envelopes aroundlarge corrosion cavities was encountered insome of the slags.

The contaminated slag samples have astructure distinctly different from the slags,varying from one completely fused (cinders) toone containing large columns of fayalite ina refractory background (stagged furnacelining). The microstructure of the cinder (Fig.13) shows that it contains many angular silicaparticles embedded in a fused, amorphousmatrix containing numerous pores. Thesilica particles are very hard, having amicrohardness exceeding It 00 HV100,whereas the microhardness of the bondingphase (678 HVIOO) corresponds closely tothat of the fayalite phase in the slag. Theslagged furnace lining contains, inaddition, typical fayalite columnspenetrating the fused matrix (Fig. 14). Table

No.Material of samples

Slag 19

Contam. slag 21

Silicious stoneLumps of iron

Code n05*

2, 5, 7, 8, 28, 29, 33, 48, 50, 60, 61, 62,63;-66,67,71,82,84,85- - - ­6;-9,12;13,15;18,19;22,24,26,37,39,46,47,51,53,64,69,70, 73,8640,42, 74 - - -79, 80, 81, 83, 87

Figure 12. Figure 11 at higher magnification. Relativemicrohardness of slag phases (indicated by the size of indentations)is 536 HV100 for wustite (white), 673 HV100 for fayalite (light grey)and 606 HVIOOfor anorthite (dark grey). As polished (not etched).(x500)

106

Figure 13. Structure of contaminated slag (cinder no. 14): angularsilica particles (>1100 HV100) in fused matrix of fayalite(678 HV100); numerous pores (black). As polished (not etched). (x50)

Figure 14. Structure of contaminated slag (stagged) furnace lining(no. 50); columns of fayalite (light grey) penetrating refractorybackground (dark grey); silica particles also visible (right). Aspolished (not etched). (x50)

Structure of Pieces of Metal Found in Slag

Microscopic examination revealed thepresence of pieces of metal in 20 lumps of slagand also showed 5 of the lumps to be ferrousmetal. The pieces of metal in the slag variedin size and shape - some were small blobs andothers were large, even massive. Most ofthe pieces were irregularly shaped, but severalhad regular shapes (that is, rod-like about5 mm in diameter, or cylinder-like about10 mm in diameter with a 2-mm wallthickness) (Fig. 5). The pieces of metalusually occurred close to the surface of theslag lumps and were extensively corroded,often with numerous cavities. Hardness ofthese corroded pieces of metal ranged from130 to 150 HB.

Detailed microscopic examination led tothe identification of three different materialsamong the pieces of metal, iron, steel and castiron. The structure of the iron pieces consistsof equiaxed ferrite grains as shown in Figures15 and 16 where the soft, metallic iron is

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 107

surrounded by slag. The black lines in theferrite are grain boundaries which delineatethe ferrite grain size. The pieces of steel,depending on their carbon content, comprisepearlite (high carbon steel in Fig. 19), orpearlite and ferrite (medium carbon steel inFig. 17) having often a Widmanstaettenpattern. This characteristic geometricalpattern of ferrite at grain boundaries andwithin the pearlite areas is shown in Figure 18.The structure of a high carbon steel piece isillustrated in Figure 20. The dark matrix ispearlite whose two-phase lamellar structure isnot resolved at this magnification.

In several of the slag lumps, pieces ofmetal having a cast-iron structure wereunexpectedly found. These pieces and someseparate lumps of metal have basically apearlitic matrix with cementite at the grainboundaries and within the grains (Fig. 21). Forexample, the structure of cast iron in lump no.28 consists of pearlitic regions outlined byenvelopes of free cementite and some graphiteflakes (Fig. 22). In most specimens, however,

Figure 15. Structure of iron piece entrapped in slag (no. 48):equiaxed ferrite grains (light). Etched in 4 per cent nital to producecontrast. (xlOO)

108

Figure 16. Structure of iron piece entrapped in slag (no. 61):equiaxed ferrite grains (light). Etched in 4 per cent nital, (xlOO)

Figure 17. Structure of medium carbon piece of steel entrapped inslag (no. 85): ferrite (light) and pockets of pearlite (dark). Etched in4 per cent nital. (xl 00)

Figure 18. Widmanstaetten structure of medium carbon piece ofsteel entrapped in slag (no. 7): ferrite (light) at grain boundaries andwithin grains, in matrix of pearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per centnital. (xl 00)

Figure 19. Structure of high carbon piece of steel entrapped in slag(no. 67): pearlite matrix. Etched in 4 per cent nita!' (xl 00)

109

110 UNGLIK

Figure 20. Structure of high carbon piece of steel (left) entrappedin slag (no. 62): unresolved pear lite. Etched in 4 per cent nital, (x150)

*Numbers in parentheses refer to lumps of metal (not pieces of metal in slag).

Table 7. Type of metal found in slag lumps.

No. of samples s 11(1) 5 8 (3)Code nos 2,29,47,48,50,53, 7,67,73,85,86 5,8,28,33,62, (81),

60,61,63, (79), 82 (83), (871

The structure of the examined pieces of metalis summarized in Table 7.

Sample no. 8, which has a piece ofcorroded ferrous metal at its surface, is anunusual case. The two-phased structure of themetal is that of fine pearlite (410 HV100), andan unidentified light phase (635 HV100),possibly cementite, found at the grainboundaries and in the form of needles withinthe grains (Figs 27 and 28). The pearlite

Steelpearlite matrix, Cast-ironor pearlite and pearlite matrix

ferrite with cementiteIron

ferrite matrixMaterialstructure

all the carbon is present as cementite, bothfree and as a constituent of pearlite. This ischaracteristic for white cast iron. The struc­ture of the cast and refined iron in the metallumps no. 83 and 87 consists of white needlesof cementite in a dark matrix of pearlite (Figs23 and 25). At higher magnification, details ofthe pearlitic background and the massive car­bides become visible (Figs 24 and 26).

In contrast to the dark pearlite, both theferrite and the cementite appear white underthe microscope. As indicated by the size ofthe microhardness indentations in Figure 26,the ferrite is soft whereas the cementite is avery hard phase. The range of microhardnessof the microconstituents identified in theexamined metal samples is as follows:

ferrite 100-150 HV100pearlite 200-400 HV100cementite 850-1000 HV100

Figure 21. Structure of cast-iron piece (left) entrapped in slag (no.28): cementite (light) at grain boundaries and within grains ofpearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x50)

Figure 22. Figure 21 at higher magnification. Cementite (light) andgraphite flakes (dark grey) in matrix of lamellar pearlite (grey), andsome cavities (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x200)

III

112 UNGLIK

matrix also contains many light-reddishcopper particles (149 HV190) with globularor irregular shapes rangmg from 0.1 to0.2 mm. The presence of copper in the

metal was confirmed by EDX analysis, thespectrum of which shows an appreciable peakof copper. Particles of copper were observedmicroscopically not only in the metal but also

Figure 23. Structure of cast-iron lump (no. 83): cementite needles(light) in pearlite matrix (dark), and some cavities (black). Etched in4 per cent nital, (xl 00)

Figure 24. Figure 23 at higher magnification. Cementite plates(light) in matrix of lamellar pearlite (dark). Etched in 4 per centnital. (x500)

in the slag itself (Fig. 29). Chemical analysisof the slag lump showed the presence of 0.27per cent copper (Table 3); however, no copperwas found in the slag matrix using a scanning

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 113

electron microscope (SEM) X-ray microanaly­zer, This verifies that the copper is in theform of metallic inclusions in the slag as wasobserved microscopically.

Figure 25. Structure of refined iron lump (no. 87): cementite (light)in pearlite matrix (dark), cavities (black). Etched in 4 per centnital. (xtoo)

Figure 26. Figure 25 at higher magnification. Massive cementitecrystals (946 HV100) in matrix of lamellar pearlite (254 HV100)'Etched in 4 per cent nital. (x500)

114

Figure 27. Structure of cast-iron piece entrapped in slag (no. 8);light phase at grain boundaries and within grains of pearlite (dark),and many particles of copper (white). Etched in 4 per cent nital.«ioo:

Figure 28. Figure 27 at higher magnification. Light grain boundaryphase (635 HVlQO) in matrix of fine pearlite (410 HVlOO), and aglobular particle of copper (149 HV100). Etched in 4 per cent nita!'(x500)

Figure 29. Etched in 5 per cent ferric chloride. Structure of slag(no. 8) with entrapped piece of copper (light). (xlOO)

Figure 30. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrum of lumpno. 8 with particles of copper, showing peaks of iron (dark) andcopper (light). (Photo by author)

115

116 UNGLIK

8M

iI16M

11M

,15M14M

9M

Figure 31. Surface appearance of ironfragments 1M to 8M. (Scale: 0.4; photo byauthor)

Figure 32. Surface appearance of ironfragments 9M to 16M. (Scale: 0.5; photo byauthor)

In addition to the iron pieces in the slaglumps, iron objects were also recovered in theblacksmith shop. Sixteen of these objects,mostly in the form of small bars and wedgesnot exceeding 2 x I x 7 ern, were examinedmetallographically. Visual observationrevealed that the iron fragments were coveredwith a corroded surface layer of rust mixedwith burial sand as well as black magneticscale. The surface appearance of the objectsis shown in Figures 31 and 32 and their shapesin Figure 33. Preparation of the iron micro­sections was similar to that of the slag.

Examination of the polished and nital­etched sections showed the structure of mostof the fragments to be typical for wroughtiron. In addition, a structure typical for steelwas observed in four fragments. The wroughtiron exhibits a structure of equiaxed ferritegrains and an assortment of slag stringerselongated in the direction of prevalent plasticdeformation. Their thread-like appearance isevident from the longitudinal section (Fig. 34).The number and size of the slag stringers varyconsiderably within each object and from oneto another, and their distribution is frequentlynot uniform. The slag inclusions havepredominantly a duplex structure (Fig. 35),being largely a mixture of FeO and Si02,though some uniformly black single-phaseinclusions were also observed.

The ferrite grains are medium size (ASTMno. 5 and 6) in most wrought-iron fragments asshown at low magnification in Figure 36. Athigh magnification, the presence of thincementite films at the widened grainboundaries of this very low carbon material isbrought out (Fig. 37). The microhardness offerrite in six of the objects (1M, 3M, 4M, 7M,9M and 16M) is 100-140 HVIOO,a range typicalfor soft, almost pure iron. The overall hard­ness of these objects (80-120 HB) is also low.However, the hardness of the five remainingwrought-iron objects (6M, 10M, 12M, 14M and15M) is unusually high (130-210 HB).Interestingly, the microhardness of the ferritein these objects (160-280 HVI00) is also veryhigh. This suggests that the five fragmentsare made of high-phosphorus (cold-short) iron,and their high hardness should be attributed tothe presence of a large amount of phosphoruswhich hardens iron almost as much as carbon.

Structure of Iron Objects

1M 2M 3M 4M

117

5M

Figure 34. Slag stringers (black) in wrought­iron fragment (3M). As polished (not etched).(xIOO)

9M 10M 11M 12M

13M 14M 15M

~ V w16M

Figure 33. Sketches of iron fragments withlocations of sections (indicated by brokenline). (Drawing by author)

Figure 35. Duplex structure of slag inclusionsin wrought-iron fragment (9M): mixture ofFeO and Si02. As polished (not etched).(x500)

118

Figure 36. Typical structure of wrought-iron fragment (6M):equiaxed ferrite grains of medium size (light) and slag stringers(black). Etched in 4 per cent nital, (xlOO)

Figure 37. Figure 36 at higher magnification. Cementite films atwidened grain boundaries of ferrite. Etched in 4 per cent nita!'(x500)

The equiaxed, polygonal ferrite grainsobserved in the wrought-iron fragments showthat forging was done hot and finished abovethe recrystallization temperature. Only in onefragment (I5M) was evidence of cold-workingfound. The microstructure in this case (Fig.38) shows crystals of ferrite crossed by rela­tively straight bands all parallel within a givengrain but changing direction from one crystalto the next. These are Neumann bands(mechanical twins) which are found only inferrite and indicate some distortion of thematerial, usually caused by sudden stress suchas might occur on the edge of an axe. SuchNeumann bands are not uncommon in man­made iron, especially in a brittle metal havinga high content of phosphorus. Four of thewrought-iron fragments (3M, 9M, 14M and15M) are locally carburized. This carburiza­tion is most likely accidental, having occurredin the charcoal fire during the forging process.

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 119

Four of the examined fragments (2M, 5M,11M and 13M) show a structure typical forsteel. This consists generally of a pearlitematrix and occasionally some ferrite. Thestructure of the medium carbon steel bar 5M(Fig. 39) is largely that of the Widmanstaettentype, having ferrite (I22 HV100) at prioraustenite grain boundaries and as plates withingrains in a matrix of pearlite (206 HV100).The Widmanstaetten distribution of ferritesuggests that the fragment had been finallycooled from a high temperature at a fairlyfast rate. The presence of broken slagstringers observed at the end of this slantedbar is also interesting. These silicate slaginclusions had been first elongated whenplastic and subsequently broken by deforma­tion at a lower temperature, indicating thatthe slanted end of the bar was worked whenmuch colder. The structure of the high carbonsteel wedge 13M (Fig. 40) comprises very fine

Figure 38. Structure of wrought-iron fragment (I5M); Neumannbands (straight parallel lines) within ferrite grains. Etched in4 per cent nital. (x200)

120

Figure 39. Structure of medium carbon steel fragment (5M):Widmanstaetten ferrite (light) in matrix of pearlite (dark), and slagstringers (black). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xl 00)

Figure 40. Structure of high carbon steel fragment (13M): very finepearlite (sorbltic pearlite). Etched in 4 per cent nital. (xlOO)

unresolved pearlite, called sorbitic pearlite. Itis very hard (351 HV100) and contr ibutes tothe overall high hardness of the material (34-0HB). Sorbitic pearlite is formed as a result ofrapid cooling from high temperature and itspresence suggests an attempt at hardening the

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 121

steel fragment by heat treatment (probablyquenching in water). In the other two highcarbon steel fragments (2M and 11M) thestructure consists of partially and completelyspheroidized pearlite (Figs 4-1 and 4-2, respec­tively). This type of structure is the result of

Figure 41. Structure of high carbon steel fragment (2M): partiallyspheroidized pearlite and slag inclusions (black). Etched in4- per cent nital. (xIOO)

Figure 42. Structure of high carbon steel fragment (lIM): massivecarbides in ferrite matrix; remains of pearlite also visible. Etchedin 4 per cent nital. (x500)

122 UNGLIK

heating the metal to about 600-700°C for aprolonged period of time or repeated heatingto that temperature during forging. The char-

acteristics and technological features of theiron fragments obtained from the metal­lographic examination are compiled in Table 8.

Table 8. Characteristics and technological features of iron fragments.

Grain Micro-Code Slag inclusions size hardness Hardnessno. Material (amount &.size) Microconstituents ASTM no. HVIOO HB Technology

1M Wrought iron Few, medium Ferrite II 122 93 Hot-working2M Steel Some, very long Pearlite, partially 2115 213 Heating at

spheroidized 600-700·C3M Wrought iron Some, long Ferrite 6 117 105 Hot-working

accidentalcarburization

11M Wrought iron Some, large Ferrite II 1113 1011 Hot-working5M Steel Many, very long Ferrite 7 122 125 Hot-working,

Pearlite 206 some cold- working6M Wrought iron Many, short Ferrite 5 1911 151 Hot-working7M Wrought iron Some Ferrite 6 138 122 Hot-working8M Corroded iron9M Wrought iron Some Ferrite 6 119 113 Hot-working

accidentalcarburization

10M Wrought iron Few Ferrite 6 160 129 Hot-working11M Steel None Ferrite 190 151 Heating at

11111 600-700·C12M Wrought iron Numerous, fine Ferrite 8 222 1311 Hot-working13M Steel None Sorbi tic pear llte 351 3/t0 Quenching(?)111M Wrought iron Few, fine Ferrite 9 230 1/t5 Hot-working

accidentalcarburization

15M Wrought iron None Ferrite 8 276 210 Hot-working, cold-working, accidentalcarburization

16M Wrought iron Some, medium Ferrite 5 100 83 Hot-working,accidentalcarburization

DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION

Constitution and Melting Pointsof Slag

The constitution and melting points of theslag lumps were calculated from theirchemical analyses using the approach ofMorton and Wingrove (I 969a: 1556-64). Thecalculated amounts of the slag constituentsare given in Table 9.

The slag samples comprise predominantlyfayalite (about 70%), anorthite (about 10%)and excess of silica (about 20%). In thecontaminated slag samples free silica is thepredominant phase (about 30%) with aconsiderable amount of fayalite (almost 30%)and some anorthite (about 15%). The presenceof fayalite, wustite and anorthite, but not freesilica, was observed under the microscope.This lack of free silica in the microstructure isdue to nonequilibrium conditions resultingfrom rapid cooling. This shifts the systemtoward the FeO side of the phase diagram, andthe formation of free silica is suppressed.

The original melting points of the slagswere determined by plotting the three calcu­lated constituents on the ternary FeO-Si02anorthite phase diagram shown in Figure 43.This diagram demonstrates that the mineralo­gical constitution of about half of the slags isconcentrated in a wide region of low meltingcompositions falling in the fayalite region atapproximately 1200°C. The composition ofmany other slags, however, is found to be farremoved from the fayalite region, beingdispersed in the area of the cristobalite mono­tectic shelf. The contaminated slags aresituated even closer to the Si02 corner of thetriangle. The ratio of silica to other oxides ismuch higher in these samples than in theremaining slags, and consequently they have amuch higher melting temperature. Thus, themelting points of some of the slag and all ofthe contaminated slag samples fall outside therange of low working temperatures. Thisconfirms the microscopical findings that alarge part of the material is either slagcontaminated with forge lining (sand bed) orsome other uncommon byproduct of a flawedironworking operation.

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 123

Formation of Slag Material

Slag that is a product of secondary iron­working is referred to as smithy slag. It is awaste material from a blacksmithing operationinvolving heating of pieces of iron in the forgewith resulting high iron loss. Sand was oftenused as flux to facilitate the removal of scalefrom the forged iron. The slag forms fromiron oxides (hammer scale, cinders, slaginclusions in wrought iron) and othercomponents such as sand, earth, melted partsof the hearth lining, or from ashes and char­coal remains.

It was determined earlier that theexamined material from Fort St. Joseph con­tains slag and contaminated slag. The highsilica content of the slag suggests it originatedfrom the interaction of molten slag with sandin the bottom of the forge. The silica fromthe sand bed of the forge combined with someoxidized iron to form fayalite which as a slagdescended in the molten state towards thebottom of the hearth. There it acquired acake-like shape from the bowl-shaped forgebottom. The very low content of manganesein the investigated slags probably resultedfrom dilution by sand from the bed. Some ofthe contaminated slag was formed by theattack of the molten slag on the forge liningand as such is called slagged furnace lining.This is demonstrated by typical fayalitecolumns penetrating the furnace lining. Othersamples, identified as cinder, apparently wereformed when pieces of refractory fell off thewalls of the forge and were bonded by thesurrounding molten slag.

The numerous contaminated slag piecesfound at the shop suggest a rather inadequatestate of technology, probably due to a lack ofproper maintenance of the forge by the black­smith. In operating the forge it is importantto remove the slag while welding, as thisprocess requires a clean fire, and to clean outthe forge when the fire is dead. The careless­ness of the blacksmith is underlined by thepresence of numerous iron pieces in the slagmaterial, some of which are clearly remnantsof objects left or dropped by him in the forge.Many of the iron pieces found in the slaglumps may, however, indicate an ironworkingoperation involving the conversion of pig ironto wrought iron, as discussed in the nextsection.

124

Table 9. Constitution of slag (%).

Code No. 2 5 7 8 22* 28 29 33 47* 50 51 60

Analysis

FeO 53.3 57.5 42.5 43.0 11.1 28.6 58.9 31. 8 27.7 38.1 63.6 44.9

Si0 2 38.2 31. 6 34.9 44.3 73.0 58.1 30.9 47.9 47.6 37.1 28.8 37.7

CaO 2.9 3.2 12.3 4.1 4.0 4.8 3.7 7.0 8.3 11.4 3.4 6.0

A120 3 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.5 4.7 3.1 1.8 3.7 4.1 3.7 1.4 2.9

MnO 0.02 0.1 0.3 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.04

MgO 0.7 0.8 2.1 0.8 1.1 1.0 0.7 2.0 2.5 3.9 0.8 1.4

P205 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.3

S 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00

Ti0 2 0.09 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.2 o.i 0.07 0.07 0.2 0.2 0.07 0.1

Alkali 1.8 2.4 3.6 2.6 4.5 3.4 2.2 5.7 7.0 4.1 1.6 3.6

Tap Analysis

FeO 53.6 58.5 43.1 43.9 11.2 28.7 59.8 32.3 28.2 38.5 63.4 46.3

Si0 2 38.4 32.2 35.4 45.2 73.8 58.4 31. 3 48.6 48.4 37.4 28.7 38.9

CaO 2.9 3.2 12.5 4.2 4.1 4.8 3.7 7.1 8.5 11. 5 3.4 6.2

A120 3 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.6 4.7 3.1 1.8 3.8 4.2 3.8 1.4 3.0

MnO 0.02 0.1 0.3 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.04

MgO 0.7 0.8 2.2 0.8 1.1 1.0 0.7 2.1 2.6 3.9 0.8 1.5

P 20 5 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.3

S 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00

Ti0 2 0.09 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.07 0.2 0.2 0.07 0.1

Alkali 1.9 2.5 3.7 2.7 4.5 3.4 2.2 5.8 7.2 4.1 1.6 3.7

Mineralogical Constituents

Anorthite 6.1 6.8 7.1 7.5 14.0 9.2 5.2 11.8 13.8 12.5 3.9 9.1Si0 2 37.7 31. 2 40.0 45.3 73.9 59.6 31.1 50.9 52.3 40.4 28.8 39.4FeO 56.3 62.0 52.9 47.2 12.1 31.2 63.7 37.2 33.9 47.1 67.3 51. 5

Microconstituents

Anorthite 6.1 6.8 7.1 7.5 14.0 9.2 5.2 11.8 13.8 12.5 3.9 9.1Fayalite 79.8 88.0 75.0 66.9 17.2 44.3 90.3 52.8 48.1 66.8 95.5 73.1Wustite

Free Si02

14.2 5.2 17.9 25.6 68.8 46.5 4.5 35.4 38.1 20.7 0.6 17.8

"'Contaminated slag.

125

Table 9. Cont.

Code No. 61 62 63 64* 67 69* 71 73* 84 85 86*

Analysis

FeO 31. 7 47.3 36.4 8.4 29.9 15.6 34.0 16.1 70.9 67.1 35.9

Si02 46.7 34.7 42.8 73.6 48.3 59.7 39.6 61. 9 13 .3 23.8 44.4

CaO 10.6 7.3 9.0 3.5 7.7 7.9 9.8 7.5 2.7 3.7 7.2

A120 3 3.8 2.7 3.5 6.7 6.6 6.5 3.9 5.6 1.1 2.4 4.3

MnO 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.06

MgO 2.0 2.5 2.5 1.6 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 0.9 1.9 2.3

P205 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3

S 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Ti02 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0 2 0.07 0.1 0.2

Alkali 4.3 3.2 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.1 5.4 1.0 1.4 4.3

Tap Analysis

FeO 31. 8 48.2 36.9 8.5 29.7 15.9 35.4 16.1 78.5 66.7 35.9

Si02 46.8 35.4 43.5 74.7 47.9 60.7 41.3 62.0 14 .8 23.6 44.4

CaO 10.6 7.4 9.1 3.5 7.6 8.0 10.2 7.5 3.0 3.7 7.2

A120 3 3.8 2.8 3.5 6.8 6.5 6.6 4.0 5.6 1.2 2.4 4.3

MnO 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.06

MgO 2.0 2.6 2.6 1.6 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.7 1.0 1.9 2.3

P20 5

0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3

S 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Ti02 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.08 0.1 0.2

Alkali 4.3 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.7 5.1 5.3 5.4 1.1 1.4 4.3

Mineralogical Constituents

Anorthite 12.3 8.6 11.1 18.9 20.2 20.7 13.3 17.6 3.5 6.9 13.6

Si02 50.1 36.5 45.8 72.0 45.9 61.0 44.0 63.8 14.0 22.2 45.2

FeO 37.6 58.8 43.0 9.1 33.9 18.3 42.7 18.6 82.5 70.9 41. 3

Microconstituents

Anorthite 12.3 8.6 11.1 18.9 20.2 20.7 13.3 17.6 3.5 6.9 13.6

Fayalite 53.3 77.8 61. 0 13.0 48.0 26.0 60.6 26.4 47.5 75.1 58.5

\1ustite 49.0 18.0

Free Si0 2 34.3 13.6 27.8 68.2 31. 8 53.3 26.2 56.1 27.9

*Contaminated slag.

126 UNGLIK

100 -t,

o slag from blacksmith shop (lH5l)a slag from palisade (lH37 & lH43)

0 01

v). / 50It- 136B~2°

20 30 40

FeO-7

Figure 43. Constitution of slag from Fort St. Joseph. (Drawing by J. Renaud)

Ironworking at the Blacksmith's Shop

Before considering the type of ironworkingprocesses carried out in the blacksmith shoplet us look at brazing. This was a commonpractice of the old-time blacksmith, whichrequired the high temperature of his forge.Brazing, the joining of two iron pieces with acopper alloy filler, was done in the St. Joseph

shop, as verified by the examination. Brazingwas generally used to join broken objects thatwere impossible or very difficult to weld,including cast-iron objects or high carbon steeltools. To braze, the blacksmith placed brokenpieces in the forge and heated them to abrazing temperature. Then, placing the frac­tured surfaces together, he added sand orborax as flux, and applied brass or copperfillings between the two broken iron pieces so

that the filler flowed into the whole jointafter melting. The brazed piece was left inthe dying fire to cool down until the fillersolidified. The smith then removed the objectfrom the forge and trimmed off any excessbrass or copper. An inattentive blacksmithcould easily spill molten brass which wouldmix with the slag or iron fragments. Thepresence of copper particles in one of the slaglumps, and traces of copper and zinc on thesurface of many others, is evidence of this.The traditional coppersmith's brazing spelterwas common brass (50Cu50Zn or 60Cu40Zn).The EDX analysis of the examined samplesshowed the brazing remains on the two ironobjects from the blacksmith shop to be a brassalloy.

The results of the examination of the slaglumps and the iron fragments, combined withthe archaoelogical evidence, seem to point toan ordinary blacksmith shop where the makingand repairing of tools and machinery wascarried out. However, the number and varioustypes of metal pieces found in the slag lumpswarrant a more careful look at the iron­working at the St. Joseph blacksmith shop. Itseems unlikely that all the different pieces ofiron, steel and especially cast iron found in theslag are remains of objects left in the forgeduring brazing or forging. It is plausible toregard the presence of some of these pieces inthe slag as evidence of a metallurgicaloperation the aim of which was to convert pigiron into wrought iron by employing anindirect method of manufacture.

The early indirect process using charcoalas a fuel involved two stages, smelting andrefining. First, pig iron in the molten statewas reduced from the ore in a charcoal blastfurnace and cast from the blast furnace intosand pig beds. Second, the pig iron wasconverted into malleable iron in a forge havingthree essential units: a refining hearth (thefinery), a fire for reheating preparatory tohammering (the chafery) and the hammer.The finery process consisted of two operationscalled refining and fining, following each otherin the same furnace without any markeddivision. The conversion of the pig iron intowrought iron was achieved by oxidation ofexcess impurities in the pig iron by means ofair from a tuyere. The cast-iron pig was fedinto the tuyere zone progressively, where itsend was brought to the melting point so drop-

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 127

lets of iron would run off. These dropletsoxidized rapidly as they fell towards thebottom of the hearth. During this operationcarbon in the iron would burn out. The mainimpurities - silicon, manganese and phos­phorus, along with some oxidized iron - wouldform a slag similar to normal bloomery slag orsmithy slag. The fining was followed byreheating in the chafery fire and by ham­mering to remove the excess slag and weld thesolid lumps into a bar.

The analyses of iron at various stagescharacteristic of the indirect method of manu­facture are given in Table 10. Products fromthe eighteenth century Nibthwaite site inGreat Britain (Morton 1969: p. 10) and thosefrom Fort St. Joseph are compared in thistable.

The ferrous materials from Fort St.Joseph, cast iron, steel and malleable iron,with carbon contents ranging from very highto very low, may actually be products ofdifferent stages of the conversion process.The carbon content of these materials variesprobably due to burning out during refining. Agood example is the composition of lump no.87 which is characteristic for a refined pieceof iron. This sample still has a high carboncontent, but the silicon is almost completelyoxidized. Thus it follows that many of theexamined slags could be forge slags (that is,slags formed during refining) and not smithyslags. The forge and smithy slags,undistinguishable in composition, similar instructure and appearance, are usually verydifficult to tell apart.

As described, the process of conversion ofpig iron to wrought iron would require a large­scale ironworks and much equipment. Thesmall blacksmith shop would hardly be suitablefor this type of operation. To date there is noarchaeological evidence substantiating thepresence of a finery, chafery or a forge ham­mer in this area. It may not be feasible at allto carry out a successful refining operation ina blacksmith shop. Nevertheless, the findingsof this study seem to indicate that such anattempt had been made in the St. Josephblacksmith shop.

The cast-iron material will now be charac­terized in more detail because of its impor­tance as possible evidence of iron refining.Besides its structure and composition deter­mined before, its carbon equivalent and

128 UNGLIK

Table 10. Comparison of iron manufactured by an indirect process with iron from Fort St. Joseph.

Nibthwaite, cr. Brit.(Morton 1969: 10) Fort St. Joseph, Ont,

Pig Refined Wrought Pig iron Refined Wroughtiron iron iron (no. 28) iron iron

(no. 87) (no.4M)Element (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Ctotal 3.86 2.94 0.028 1.85 2.18 0.04Cgraphitic 2.43 0.01 0.91 0.12Ccombined 1.43 2.93 0.94 2.06Si 0.85 0.173 0.23 1.94 0.08 0.023Mn 0.05 0.05 0.13 0.010 <0.01 0.005P 0.11 0.16 0.31 0.10 0.09 0.22S 0.029 0.037 0.024 0.050 0.07 <0.005

liquidus temperature were also calculated.The carbon equivalent was calculated as thepercentage carbon plus 0.3 times the sum ofthe percentage silicon and phosphorus. Theliquidus or melting temperature in the regionof the eutectic was determined with thefollowing empirical formula:

TOC = 1669°C - 124 (%C + %Si/4 + %P!2)

The carbon equivalent, which describes howclose a given analysis is to that of eutecticcomposition, was about 2.5, clearly indicatinga hypoeutectic character of the piece of castiron. The liquidus temperature is reached atabout 1370°C for sample no. 28. Ordinarily aledeburite eutectic of cementite and austeniteis part of the structure of cast iron. This isnot the case in the examined pieces, whichhave, for cast iron, a rather unusual structurecomprising cementite needles in a pearlitematrix. Under some conditions, however, the

white iron eutectic can have a plate-likestructure in which cementite occurs in theform of needles. Its formation always involvessupercooling which is promoted bysuperheating the melt, thus reducing thenucleation.

Some information on the method of manu­facture of the cast iron is provided by itscomposition. The relatively low siliconcontent indicates a temperature ceiling ashigh temperatures favour the production ofhigh silicon pig irons. The same can be saidfor the very low manganese content. The lowphosphorus content suggests that ores low inphosphorus were used in the smelting opera­tion, as phosphorus present in the ore alsoappears in the iron. The sulphur content,however, is very low due to the use of char­coal (low sulphur material) as a reducingagent. This indicates that the cast-iron pieceswere produced by smelting low-phosphorusores in a cold-blast furnace fired by charcoal.

CONCLUSIONS

The investigation showed that the exa­mined slag is a waste material formed in anironworking operation, where iron loss washigh and a considerable amount of silica wasabsorbed from the sand lining. Most of it issmithy slag, though some may be forge slag.

The structure, composition, physical pro­perties and melting temperature of the slagmaterial demonstrate that only half of thesamples, the dark and heavy ones, are actually"true" slag. The remaining light-coloured andporous material is contaminated slag com­prising slagged furnace lining and cinder.

The slag is a dense material with a highspecific gravity, high iron content, relativelyhigh silica content and low in other elementssuch as alumina, lime, manganese oxide andphosphorus pentoxide. Its structure consistsbasically of fayalite columns in an anorthitematrix, often with dendrites of wustite, Themineralogical constitution of many of the slagsamples is concentrated in a wide range of lowmelting compositions around the fayaliteregion at approximately 1200°C.

The contaminated slag, however, is ahighly porous and heterogenous material, witha specific gravity lower than the slag, aconsiderably lower iron content and a highersilica content. Its structure, lacking definiterecognizable microconstituents, is basicallythat of silica particles in a fused fayalitematrix. Fayalite columns penetrate the fusedmatrix in the slagged furnace lining samples.The very high melting temperature of thecontaminated slag verifies that much of thematerial is either slag contaminated withforge lining or some other unusual and non­representative produce caused by poor forgingtechnique or abnormally high operatingtemper atures.

The examination of the slag material hasnot shown any appreciable or important dif­ferences between the lumps found at theblacksmith shop and the palisade. No proofwas found for the existence of a second black­smith shop.

Twenty of the slag lumps contain pieces offerrous metal, half of which are wrought iron,the other half equally divided between steeland, quite unexpectedly, cast iron. Some of

IRONWORKING: SLAG AND IRON 129

these pieces are clearly remnants of objectslost in the forge, indicating that the black­smith was careless in his work. In addition,the numerous contaminated slag pieces foundat the blacksmith shop suggest a poor state oftechnology, probably attributable to the short­comings in the maintenance of the forge.

Of the 16 ferrous objects subjected toexamination, three-quarters are wrought ironand one-quarter steel. This gives only ageneral idea rather than a factual indicationof the proportions of wrought iron and steelworked in the blacksmith shop. Half of thewrought-iron objects represents a softmalleable iron and the other half has a higherhardness suggesting a cold-short highphosphorus material.

The structure of the wrought-iron objectsis mostly equiaxed ferrite with a carboncontent less than 0.1 per cent and mediumgrain size, as well as slag stringers elongatedin the direction of prevalent deformation.This is a structure associated with simple aircooling from temperatures well above the cri­tical temperature without any further treat­ment. The equiaxed grains clearly indicatethat forging was done hot. Evidence of cold­working, in the form of Neumann bands, wasfound in only one object. The carburizationobserved in several objects was accidental, astheir surface most likely carburized in theforge while in contact with hot charcoal.

The structure of the steel objects, having apearlite matrix, indicates a high carbon con­tent. There was an attempt at hardening oneof the steel objects by a quenching type heattreatment which rendered a high hardnessstructure of sorbitic pearlite. Two other steelobjects must have been reheated and kept forsome time at 600-700°C, as their spheroidizedstructure indicates.

Several metallurgical operations werecarried out in the blacksmith shop, includinghot-working, forge-welding, brazing, somecold-working and also attempts to harden steelby heat treatment. The presence of pieces ofcharcoal in many of the slag lumps is con­vincing proof that charcoal was used as fuel.This is also verified by the very low sulphurcontent of the slag material. The minimumtemperature of the hearth in the blacksmithshop was about 1150-1200°C with the workingtemperature probably 1250-1450°C. Theblacksmith worked with different materials

130 UNGLIK

such as wrought iron, high and medium carbonsteel, and white cast iron.

Some of the pieces of ferrous metalentrapped in the slag lumps, especially thecast-iron pieces, might indicate the use of arefining operation by the blacksmith in anattempt to convert pig iron into wrought iron.Although not substantiated archaeologically,the possibility of conversion of pig iron intowrought iron at the St. Joseph blacksmith shopis more than a matter of conjecture. Arefining process would explain more plausiblythe presence of cast iron, refined iron, steeland malleable iron in the slag lumps. In fact,the composition of the cast-iron pieces,except for the very low manganese content,corresponds to the typical composition of amodern pig iron. No evidence was found thatthe blacksmith engaged in such iron workingoperations as smelting or casting.

The copper content of the slag material,with only one exception, is less than 0.1 percent. Because a copper slag usually contains aminimum of about 0.5 per cent copper, theslag from Fort St. Joseph is evidently notassociated with working of copper or copperalloys.

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