INSTITUTIONEN FÖR GEOVETENSKAPER

Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 51

Uppsala Permaculture Park

A Feasibility Study Concerning the Establishment of a Public Permaculture Park in Uppsala, Sweden

Christopher Wegweiser

Uppsala Permaculture Park

A Feasibility Study Concerning the Establishment of a Public Permaculture Park in Uppsala, Sweden

Master thesis in Sustainable Development Christopher Wegweiser

Institutionen för geovetenskaper Uppsala Universitet

2011

  

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Content

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................... 5

2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 5

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................................................................... 5

3.1 GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY .................................................................................................................................. 5 3.2 THE PULSING PARADIGM ....................................................................................................................................... 6 3.3 APPLICATION OF GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY AND THE PULSING PARADIGM ................................................... 8

4 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................... 8

4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................. 8 4.1.1 RESOURCES AND PARTICIPANTS ............................................................................................................................ 9 4.2 DATA ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................................................... 9 4.3 LIMITATIONS ......................................................................................................................................................... 10

5 CONTEXT AND SITE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................... 10

5.1 THE CURRENT STATE OF AGRICULTURE ............................................................................................................. 10 5.1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES ...................................................................................................................... 10 5.1.2 ECONOMIC FACTORS ........................................................................................................................................... 10 5.1.3 HEALTH ASPECTS ................................................................................................................................................ 11 5.1.4 COMMONLY SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVES ............................................................................................................ 11 5.1.5 APPLICATION TO GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY .................................................................................................... 12 5.2 PERMACULTURE .................................................................................................................................................... 12 5.3 THE POPULARITY OF PERMACULTURE ................................................................................................................ 14 5.4 CHALLENGES TIED TO A SHIFT TOWARDS PERMACULTURE SYSTEMS .............................................................. 14 5.5 SWEDISH FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ............................................................................................. 14 5.6 FARMING IN UPPSALA ........................................................................................................................................... 15 5.7 UPPSALA VISION 2030 ........................................................................................................................................... 16 5.8 PERMACULTURE IN UPPSALA ............................................................................................................................... 16 5.9 LOCAL LEGISLATION FRAMEWORK..................................................................................................................... 17 5.9.1 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND BEEKEEPING ............................................................................................................. 17 5.9.2 SALES OF PRODUCE ............................................................................................................................................. 18 5.9.3 COMPOST ............................................................................................................................................................. 18 5.9.4 BUILDING PERMITS .............................................................................................................................................. 18

6 INVENTORY AND COST ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 19

6.1 TOOLS AND SUPPLIES ............................................................................................................................................ 19 6.2 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND TRANSPORT ...................................................................................................... 19 6.3 EMPLOYEES ........................................................................................................................................................... 20 6.4 MACHINERY .......................................................................................................................................................... 21 6.5 ANIMALS AND BEES............................................................................................................................................... 21 6.6 ADVERTISING ........................................................................................................................................................ 22 6.7 LAND ...................................................................................................................................................................... 22 6.8 APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 22

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6.9 ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ...................................................................................................................................... 22 6.10 THREE YEAR COST ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 22

7 CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................................................................................... 23

7.1 ULLERÅKER........................................................................................................................................................... 24 7.1.1 DESIGN ULLERÅKER ............................................................................................................................................ 26 7.1.2 SWOT ULLERÅKER ............................................................................................................................................. 29 7.2 EKLUNDSHOF ........................................................................................................................................................ 31 7.2.1 DESIGN EKLUNDSHOF .......................................................................................................................................... 32 7.2.2 SWOT EKLUNDSHOF ........................................................................................................................................... 35

8. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 37

9. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 38

10. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 40

11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 41

12. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 42

13. APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................................... 46

13.1 APPENDIX 1 - DESIGN CHECKLIST – ULLERÅKER ............................................................................................. 46 13.2 APPENDIX 2 - DESIGN CHECKLIST – EKLUNDSHOF ........................................................................................... 48 13.3 APPENDIX 3 - ELEMENTS, FUNCTIONS AND CONNECTIONS – ULLERÅKER ...................................................... 52 13.4 APPENDIX 4 - ELEMENTS, FUNCTIONS AND CONNECTIONS – EKLUNDSHOF .................................................... 54 13.5 APPENDIX 5 – TOOLS AND SUPPLIES – INVENTORY AND COST ANALYSIS TABLE ............................................ 56 13.6 APPENDIX 6 – MATERIALS AND TRANSPORT – INVENTORY AND COST ANALYSIS TABLE ............................... 57 Table of Figures  Figure 1 - A graphical representation of Odum’s pulsing paradigm (2007). ................................................................. 7 Figure 2 - Holling’s Adaptive Cycle of Complex Systems (2001). ............................................................................... 7 Figure 3 - Swedish Food Imports Kg Per Capita – 2008 (Lindgren and Fischer, 2011). ............................................ 15 Figure 4 - Approximate costs per animal. (Lans, 2011) .............................................................................................. 21 Figure 5 - Three-Year Inventory and Cost Analysis .................................................................................................... 23 Figure 6 - Map of Case Study Areas (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009). ...................................................... 24 Figure 7 - Map of Area Proposed for Development – Ulleråker (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009). ........... 25 Figure 8 - Design – Ulleråker ...................................................................................................................................... 26 Figure 9 - Mandala Keyhole Gardens – Ulleråker ....................................................................................................... 28 Figure 10 - Map of Area Proposed for Development – Eklundshof (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009). ...... 32 Figure 11 - Design – Förskolan Da Vinci – Eklundshof .............................................................................................. 33 Figure 12 - Design –Hill – Eklundshof ........................................................................................................................ 34

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Uppsala Permaculture Park - A Feasibility Study Concerning the Establishment of a Public Permaculture Park in Uppsala, Sweden CHRISTOPHER WEGWEISER Wegweiser, C., 2011: Uppsala Permaculture Park - A Feasibility Study Concerning the Establishment of a Public Permaculture Park in Uppsala, Sweden. Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. XX, YY pp, 30 ECTS/hp  Abstract: This study departs from the notion that permaculture is a method for implementing systemic change, with the objective of curbing the negative trends associated with industrial food production on a local level. Thereafter, the city of Uppsala, Sweden is examined in order to determine the opportunities and constraints in establishing and supporting a public permaculture park. This is accomplished by identifying to what extent permaculture currently is being used in Uppsala. In addition, the municipality’s priorities and vision for the future of the city, as well as their policies and goals concerning the use and development of public green spaces, are examined. Furthermore, the ways in which the city‘s legislation facilitates and/or hinders such a project and the start-up and continuation costs of such a project in the short term are determined. These factors are then used to examine two case studies, which were conducted on potential locations for such an initiative. Upon analysis it is determined that creating a public permaculture park in Uppsala is feasible, though obstacles exist. The study also provides suggestions for improving existing infrastructural hurdles in order to facilitate implementation. Keywords: Uppsala, permaculture, sustainable development, General Systems Theory, food security Christopher Wegweiser, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE‐ 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden 

 

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1 Introduction On a global scale and spanning thousands of years, agriculture has undergone constant change and innovation resulting in a transformation from manual and animal labor dominated routines to the current globalized system of mainly industrial farming practices. While attributable to a variety of factors, arguably the most influential for present methods was the increase in fossil-fuel based inputs. This change allowed for increased mechanization and irrigation, as well as the creation of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. The results have been enormous increases in food yields, more affordable sustenance for billions of people, and a reduced need for manual labor in the farming sector. However, the change from a “diverse and decentralized system to one that is increasingly centralized, uniform, and concentrated” (Roberts, 2008:317) has had severe social and environmental consequences and has proven to be unsustainable in the long term for a number of reasons. Examples include a heavy reliance on fossil fuel inputs and practices which degrade soil structures and negatively impact climate change (Ho M.W., 2008). Largely motivated by these social and environmental outcomes, the concept of permaculture was established in the mid 1970’s by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren as an alternative to large-scale industrial agriculture. The word permaculture is a portmanteau of permanent and agriculture/culture and can be defined as “the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability and resilience of natural ecosystems. It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people providing their food, energy, shelter and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way” (Mollison, 1988:ix). Permaculture design aims to mimic interactions and patterns in multi-functional and mature natural systems, and implements these ideals in detail, adapted to local conditions. Each element within the system is then devised to perform many functions, while each important function is supported by many elements (Holmgren, 2002). Once a system is put in place, continuous acceptance of feedback allows for effective system maintenance and the ability to further reduce wastes.

2 Aims and Objectives This study departs from the notion that largely due to high levels of energy and resource inputs, current industrial food production is unsustainable and ultimately results in low food security on international and local levels. It is argued that permaculture is a method which, if widely implemented, has the potential to transform the food production landscape, as well as improve social, environmental, and economic livelihoods (Holmgren, 2002). The aim of this study is to investigate the feasibility of creating a public permaculture park in Uppsala, Sweden. To do so, General Systems Theory is used as a framework to answer the following questions: 1. Which skills and tools related to permaculture currently exist in initiatives in Uppsala? 2. What are the municipality’s priorities and visions for the future of the city in regards to sustainable

development? 3. More specifically, what are the policies and goals concerning the use and development of public green spaces? 4. In what ways does Uppsala‘s legislation facilitate and/or hinder such initiatives? 5. What would the start-up and continuation costs of such a project be in the short term? It is hoped that the study will ultimately be a resource to those interested in starting up a permaculture park or similar food production initiative in Uppsala, in that it should lessen the time and effort needed to be spent on research, as well as suggest expected or possible obstacles and provide recommendations. This should hold true in the case of initiatives in Uppsala carried out in either a public or private fashion.

3 Theoretical framework

3.1 General Systems Theory Established in 1968 by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory (GST) has been used within both specialized and interdisciplinary fields, which in turn has led to a variety of definitions. However, ecologist Howard

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Odum’s (1983;2007) application of the theory in his research and publications was perhaps the most instrumental in clarifying and advancing the subject. Odum’s (2007) GST is a holistic view of the world as an open system with complex and interwoven networks of parts working in cooperative and re-enforcing ways. Therefore, GST emphasizes the relationships and parts, conceptualized as energy and material flows and transformation processes. All energy flows originate from the Earth’s three main sources of energy: solar, tidal from the sun and moon, and heat convection from the Earth’s core. These energies are continuously driving the processes of the planet (e.g., atmosphere, oceans, land, and life) “with spatial centers, concentrations, and pulses according to the hierarchy of energy transformations” (Odum, 2007:125). The process of transformation is the creation of higher quality energy forms or structures, with subsequent scattering of lower quality energy (i.e., entropy) as dissipated heat. As this progression is ever-present, it effectively creates the foundation of the world in which all processes in nature and society are nested and constantly interacting in a web of energy transformations (Odum, 2007). Odum (2007:125) adds that “no level within a system can operate without the levels above and below. A corollary of the energy hierarchy principle requires upscale–downscale interaction.” GST also states that systems are self-organized at each network level, where self-organization is the “spontaneous emergence of new structures and new forms of behavior in open systems, characterized by internal feedback loops” (Capra, 1996:85). So, the theory states that in order to begin to understand intricate issues and phenomena, a macro view of large and small systems, and the interactions between and within them, must be used. Thus, synthesizing environment and society as a system necessitates concentrating on parts, processes, and connections (Odum, 2007:13). GST can therefore offer “a theoretical framework for inquiries into the relationships and interactions within and between systems” (Bergquist and Rydberg, 2009).

3.2 The Pulsing Paradigm Among the originally accepted theories of ecological succession was the notion that systems grew rapidly, eventually resulting in a leveling off or equilibrium state (Clements, 1916). However, research into the immense variety of complex ecosystems has shown that there is no one overarching formula which successional patterns follow. Rather, ecological equilibrium merely signifies that species of a mature ecosystem have established populations and/or structures which fluctuate within stable limits. This pattern can be upheld in the short term (a few hundred years or less), but cannot be sustained in a longer time frame (Bush, 2000:224). From a macro or systems perspective, Odum (1983) and fellow ecologist C.S. Holling (2001) have separately shown that pulsing patterns are much more common in systems with long-term productivity. Odum (1983) named this the pulsing paradigm. While a pulsing pattern is not the only successional trend in systems, studies indicate it is the one which best allows for the maximization of system efficiency over time and at larger scales. In GST, this is referred to as the maximum power principle and is essential to understanding ecological succession (Odum, 2007). Gilliland (1978:101) explains the maximum power principle as the tendency of systems to self-regulate to maximize their flow of energy and thus survive in competition. Simultaneously, they are regulated by control mechanisms fed back from systems at larger scales (Bergquist and Rydberg, 2009). One example is an apex predator, which has no predators of its own and breeds rapidly in times when prey is abundant. The apex predator population subsequently decreases when sources of prey are reduced. Thus, they manage themselves and their environment by adapting to oscillating resource bases at varying hierarchical levels. In this way, such systems are able to maintain overall structural stability. Based on a systems view, succession, and the maximum power principle, the pulsing paradigm asserts that the alternation of production and consumption maximizes power in the long run at each scale. Power in this sense is the effective use of renewable energy on a large scale and in high volumes, benefiting the system as a whole. The pulses are generally faster within smaller scales of the hierarchical levels of a system, compared to the slower fluctuations experienced on the macro scale. The pulsing is characterized by a slow, steady buildup of resource production and storage where consumption is very low. As production is at or near its peak, consumption and recycling exponentially increase and climax over a significantly shorter time period than the history of production and resource accumulation. The fall in consumption often mirrors its steep rise and the end of the pulse. Production then sets the cycle in motion once again, as indicated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 - A graphical representation of Odum’s pulsing paradigm (2007).

In a natural ecosystem, for example, the first stage of production is characterized by expedited energy accumulation from a low diversity of pioneer species. Thereafter, the landscape is displaced by a higher diversity of more complex species which concentrate their energy on sustaining “larger structures and relationships instead of growth” (Odum, 2007:54) and developing information and organization. The production phase will reach a climax, and consumption eventually takes over in the form of unsustainable consumption levels, predatory excess, or natural disaster. C. S. Holling created a figure-eight model as a representation of this oscillating cycle in ecosystems (Figure 2). Dubbed the “Adaptive Cycle of Complex Systems,” it displays the workings of “development and decay in a system and is generally ‘self-organizing’ because positive interactions reinforce its structures” (Allen and Holling, 2010). Subsequent to a land clearing event like a hurricane, flood, or fire, an ecosystem reorganizes in order to make use of the available energy and nutrients, after which exploitative energy organism intake takes place. Thereafter, larger and more structurally distinguished organisms specialize in ecological niches to establish the complex web of life, represented in Odum’s production climax and named conservation in Figure 2. The energy and available matter in such an ecological community is then bound within the system and is susceptible to release in the form of fire, pests, etc. The escape from the cycle shown as “x” in Figure 2 suggests “where the potential can leak away or where a change of state into a less productive and organized system is likely” (Allen and Holling, 2010).  

Figure 2 - Holling’s Adaptive Cycle of Complex Systems (2001).

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Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, which decrease during the summer as a result of high rates of photosynthesis while increasing in the winter as transpiration is on the rise, display pulsing patterns. Oscillating patterns of sleep and wakefulness in animals display a similar cycle. The life span of a tree is another suitable example, as it grows, falls, and reproduces from seedlings. Atmospheric storms, as well as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, pulse in their build-up and frequency. Even stars and galaxies are said to pulse. All of these self-organized pulsing systems are long-term methods for maximizing energy transformation. The implication is that a singular steady state is not possible in the long term, but rather that a steady state is one that “holds a constant pattern of flows, cycles, storages, and structures” (Odum, 2007:57).

3.3 Application of General Systems Theory and the Pulsing Paradigm A General Systems Theory perspective of civilization today exhibits a highly transformed, unsustainable pulse (Odum, 2007:124). The geologic timescale during which fossil energy storages were formed and the steady rise in the rate of their consumption is a relevant example. The access to cheap, high-quality fossil energy sources has and continues to allow for rising population growth and resource use. The same pattern can be observed in, for example, copper and platinum extraction, fishing and forestry practices, and fresh water management (Miller and Spoolman, 2008). The Global Footprint Network has calculated that as of 2007, 1.5 Earths were needed to sustain consumption levels. Were current consumption levels to continue at the current rate, more than two Earths would be needed by 2050 (Global Footprint Network). Easter Island and the Mayans are past civilizations which were decimated by similar over-consumption and environmental degradation (Diamond, 2005). However, the main advantage of today’s globalized civilization, compared to others potentially facing collapse, is the availability and ease of transfer of information, which will be elaborated on later in the study. As the engine of society, growth is reliant upon the availability and exploitation of natural capital and the use of non-renewable energy sources. Therefore, it is necessary to come to terms with the fact that continual growth is not possible in the long term, nor is it productive for the balance of the social, economic, and environmental facets of society.

4 Methodology

4.1 Research Design  The study was carried out over eight consecutive months, divided into four phases. First, a literature study was performed to identify the problems associated with industrial agriculture on a global scale, as well as to learn the theoretical background of permaculture. Thereafter, a theory was sought which was broad enough to take a holistic perspective on global issues while still being applicable on a local scale. Once GST was chosen, more specific research was undertaken to contextualize and tie both industrial agriculture and permaculture to Uppsala’s past and present situation. Guided by the results of these three initial phases, possible components of a permaculture park were finally identified and investigated in terms of their viability in Uppsala. Pertinent to the study was the fact that the author participated in two 72-hour permaculture design certification courses. The first of which met on four occasions between February and May in 2011, and the second during a 12-day period in October 2011. An individual design project assignment was included in both courses. This, together with the course curriculums and literature, theories learned, practical exercises, and contacts formed, helped to cement an understanding of the topic. Lastly, the author’s involvement in starting up a social initiative and garden in Uppsala (Flogsta Food) was helpful in gaining experience in gardening, design, budgeting, communication, and marketing. Semi-structured and unstructured interviews were chosen as qualitative research methods due to their adaptability and appropriateness for the study and the respective interviewees. A semi-structured interview uses a framework of topics, yet remains flexible to allow the interviewer to bring up new questions based on the interviewee’s responses (Lee, 1999). An unstructured interview is even more flexible and is carried out without a script or order. The purpose of an unstructured interview is to remain uninhibited in collecting a wide variety of information pertaining to one or several, often broad, topics (Lee, 1999).

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4.1.1 Resources and Participants  It was necessary to ascertain how much Uppsala Municipality values green spaces, as well as its goals and visions for the city regarding food production, environmental conservation, climate change mitigation, energy use and conservation, and the start-up of socially and environmentally oriented initiatives. This, in combination with research on the legality and effort needed to implement possible elements of a permaculture park, was done to achieve a well-rounded picture of the project’s feasibility. Uppsala Municipality’s website was a valuable resource in obtaining direct information and publications, in addition to contact information within different municipality departments. Three short, semi-structured telephone interviews were carried out with employees of the municipality’s “environment, climate, and health” department regarding the rules and restrictions on animal husbandry and food sales. The municipality’s “city planning” department was also contacted, using semi-structured interview techniques, regarding future development plans for the case study areas, as well as regulations on the creation of new structures. In choosing areas for the case studies it was necessary to find locations which are state owned, currently not in use, have generally favorable growing conditions, and present possibilities for collaboration with other institutions (schools, university departments, hospital departments, businesses, churches, etc.). By using online mapping resources to identify landscapes and surrounding infrastructure, the first location selected was in Ulleråker, a district in southern Uppsala. Thereafter, several visits were conducted over the course of an eight-month period to observe and analyze the area and understand its seasonal variability. Through a semi-structured interview with one informant, the author discovered that a group of Uppsala citizens had already begun discussions on establishing a rehabilitation motivated initiative in the Ulleråker area. Through email correspondence, semi-structured interviews were arranged with this group and subsequently with the public organization Finsam, which is in charge of coordinating the efforts of the Swedish Public Social Insurance Office (Försäkringskassan), the Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen), the Uppsala County Council (Landstinget i Uppsala Län), and the Uppsala Municipality to start up and improve work-related rehabilitation initiatives in the county. Also, visits to the area resulted in one unstructured interview with staff at the Psychiatric History Museum in Ulleråker, two unstructured interviews with former hospital employees, and one unstructured interview with four current gardeners in the area. These interviews provided an historical overview and information concerning the current and future plans of the area. The selection of the second area was done in cooperation with the author’s supervisor, who had connections with the Da Vinci pre-school. Through semi-structured and unstructured interviews with school staff, it was discovered that a desire existed to develop their newly acquired schoolyard in a sustainable way, while allowing for new learning possibilities for the children. This, as well as an additional area bordering the schoolyard which fulfilled the aforementioned requirements, became the second location.

4.2 Data Analysis Once the two case study locations were chosen, they were analyzed using a permaculture design checklist. A hand-drawn design was made of each area, along with a register of each system’s elements, functions, and the connections between them. This process is more thoroughly described in the case study section of the study. These three parts were revised and added to continuously in an iterative manner. To incorporate this information for the purpose of the study and enable a comparison of the two case studies, SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) (Williamson, et al., 2004:14) analyses were performed. The SWOT method is used within strategic planning to evaluate a project or business venture (Williamson, et al., 2004). All of these methods discussed were chosen due to their comprehensive nature and applicability within a GST framework. An inventory and a cost analysis of the possible components of a permaculture park in Uppsala were created to determine the economic parameters for such an initiative, and ultimately to serve as another factor in evaluating feasibility. The inventory list was compiled largely based on personal experiences in starting up and maintaining Flogsta Food as a non-profit organization and public garden.

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4.3 Limitations There were some limitations on the research and the methods used. The main one being time. The study could definitely have benefited from further contact with Uppsala Municipality and Finsam, as well as from incorporating additional case studies. Additionally, group interviews and meetings with stakeholders (government, municipality and university officials, Uppsala citizens, etc.) would have given a clearer overall picture of the reception to the idea and provided feedback. This also was not possible due to time constraints. Another limitation was on the inventory and cost analysis portion of the thesis. Due to a large variance in location needs, sizes, and project budgets, this section includes a great deal of estimation, making it difficult to generalize in the case of some permaculture park designs.

5 Context and Site Analysis

5.1 The Current State of Agriculture

5.1.1 Environmental Consequences The most widely practiced methods of soil preparation, irrigation, harvesting, processing, refrigeration, transportation, and packaging in industrial food production and distribution depend on immense inputs of fossil fuels, especially oil. Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are also made with oil and/or natural gas. Consequently, from the farm to the end consumer’s plate, the entire process of large-scale, industrialized food production is extremely reliant on fossil fuels. In the US for example, it is estimated that between 7.3-10 units of energy (primarily fossil fuel based) are required to produce one unit of food energy (Heller and Keoleian, 2000:42). As both oil and natural gas are non-renewable resources, in addition to being difficult to predict in terms of availability and reserve levels (Strahan, 2008), price fluctuations and uncertainty are bound to occur. Therefore, the future of agriculture using this course of action hinges heavily on oil and gas availability and prices. In addition, present global agricultural practices contribute to climate change (Smith et al., 2007). This is in part due to high levels of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel usage, but also because around 70 percent of human-generated nitrous oxide stems from the agricultural industry (Mosier et al, 1998). Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas estimated to be 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide (Peoples et al., 2004a). Another negative derivative directly tied to agriculture is the decline in the quality of world soils and available arable land. This can largely be attributed to deforestation, xenobiotic chemical use, industrialization, and overgrazing (World Resource Institute, 2000). Also, intensive irrigation has effectually decreased freshwater table levels in many parts of the world. In fact, the Food and Agriculture Organization (2005) states that agriculture accounts for roughly three-quarters of global freshwater use. Such irrigation practices also have the effect of increasing erosion, siltation, eutrophication, desertification, and salinization (Manning, 2004:99). Furthermore, widespread hyperintensive, monocultural crop and animal agriculture has led to decreased genetic diversity, diminished soil qualities, highly adapted pests and diseases, and biodiversity loss. David Holmgren compares this resource-intensive, often single-yielding method of agriculture to the initial phases of ecological succession (2002:245).

5.1.2 Economic Factors Obviously, increasing efficiency and yields has been a main driver in creating a system so destructive to the natural environment. However, the economics behind the agricultural sector have arguably played an even larger role in this respect. External costs are a prime example. External costs can be defined as “the cost or benefits of a transaction to parties who do not directly participate in it” (Farlex Financial Dictionary, 2009). In agriculture, they can come in the

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form of air pollution, water contamination, soil erosion, biodiversity loss, etc. External costs “tend to be invisible to consumers and policymakers and thus are rarely counted when we evaluate the efficiency of our food system or praise our capacity to generate so much food so cheaply” (Roberts, 2008:220). Roberts goes on to argue that industrial operations are only a more efficient and lower cost alternative to small-scale food production if external costs are not taken into consideration. However, these same external costs “erode the natural capital on which all food production depends” (2008:248), meaning the practice can only be considered efficient in the short term. This is an example of how consequences can be made apparent when a systems view is adopted. The nature of modern industrial agriculture is one of tight competition and low profit margins. Small farmers generally have difficulties competing when pitted against large producers in an era of constant cost-cutting. This in turn makes scaling up operations the most profitable business method and has led to centralization within the agro-industry. Large players can more easily cater to retailers and consumers who have come to expect low food costs. Additionally, with the nature of modern business being that profits are expected to increase steadily, constant cost reductions are a necessity within the food production industry. External costs (environmental, social, and economic) often do not receive an appropriate level of attention. Another economic factor governing agribusiness today is the utilization of subsidies. Governments, often highly influenced by lobbying, subsidize the farming of specific crops or animals to make them attractive and economically viable enterprises. In such a structure, governments, and the producing industry itself through lobbying, can determine the agricultural landscape for a region or country. It can also mean that farmers in other countries are undercut in order to gain long-term market share (Roberts, 2008). One example of a highly subsidized industry today is crops for ethanol production. Because of this, there is economic incentive for farmers to use their fertile land to produce grains for ethanol rather than for food, despite that nearly one billion people are starving and/or malnourished (FAO, 2010). With such economic incentives, crops like maize, soybeans, and wheat have come to be regarded as commodities on the global economic market. As with any commodity, prices are subject to market speculation, which results in low food security for both producers and consumers.

5.1.3 Health Aspects In addition to the alarming amount of malnutrition and starvation worldwide, there is a rise in obesity in both developed and developing countries. Concurrently, as the world population continues to increase, so does affluence, and with it demand for energy- and grain-intensive meat production (Manning, 2004). Moreover, today’s centralized and global-reaching food system promotes highly evolved viruses and inhibits the ability to quarantine outbreaks. Examples include new and dangerous traits of the previously nearly harmless E.coli bacteria and mutations of the avian flu (H1N1) (Roberts, 2008).

5.1.4 Commonly Suggested Alternatives One frequently proposed alternative to industrial agriculture is organic production. Organic agriculture in itself is a broad term, but most often it is interpreted to mean that no synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are permitted, crop rotation is used, strict limits are enforced on antibiotic use on livestock, and stricter standards ensure improved animal conditions and fodder (European Commission, 2011). However, most large-scale organic producers use methods similar to those of industrial producers, meaning a heavy reliance on energy inputs and operation within the infrastructure of the modern food system (Roberts, 2008). Thus, a shift to organic agriculture on its own does not provide a solution to the systemic causes tied to the social, environmental, and economic degradation rooted in current food production. Transgenic technology (often referred to as genetic modification) is regarded by some as a cure-all for global food security and future production. There are concerns regarding its safety for environmental and human health reasons, but this will not be elaborated on due to inconclusive research and the breadth of the issue. Nonetheless, transgenic technology is usually assumed to be adopted within the large-scale, often monocultural, models already discussed here. Much like large-scale organic agriculture, this can again be interpreted as only dealing with the symptoms, rather than the cause of the larger problem.

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5.1.5 Application to General Systems Theory With all these aspects in mind, the infrastructure of large-scale agriculture can be considered unsustainable in the long run. The continual increase in highly-transformed inputs (e.g., fossil-fuel usage, intensive irrigation, grain as animal fodder, highly processed foods) exhibits a strong similarity to the consumption pattern of the pulsing paradigm. Couple this with the inter-reliant nature of global food production, again seen from a systems perspective, and it becomes apparent that a failure in one element of the system would have far-reaching consequences throughout the whole system. Therefore, it is argued that systemic change is needed in order to secure high food production levels while at the same time decreasing energy and resource consumption and limiting agriculture’s environmental impact. In order to do so, a holistic and locally applicable concept is necessary to improve resilience in existing and new environments. Permaculture could potentially fill this void and will now be discussed as a prospective alternative.

5.2 Permaculture Permaculture was spawned as an ethically motivated movement for Earth care and governance, as well as for people care, with the belief that systems should be designed using sensory observation in order to create abundance, rather than promoting scarcity. Not a new concept, permaculture was in part founded upon studies of the lifestyles and social structures of indigenous peoples around the world. These peoples realized that the enhancement of biological functions was possible and necessary by recognizing systemic relationships and replicating them in long-term design. The contrast between traditional societies to the present unsustainable global society also helped promote the forming of the concept. However, the advantage of today’s society is the unparalleled access to information and ease of communication. As widely shared information can be considered the highest of all energy forms (Odum, 2007:97), it is the most crucial tool in implementing systemic change, or as in this case, permaculture design. It can therefore be said that while the industrial revolution was a transformation from a labor-intensive to an energy-intensive society, permaculture strives to be part of the transformation to an information-intensive society in energy descent. Some of today’s most pressing issues - climate change, soil deterioration and erosion, biodiversity loss, and future energy and economic insecurity - require large-scale change in order to create sustainable living structures. It can be argued that there are two major camps which contend that the solution comes from either technological advancements or lower levels of consumption. In regards to the former, Professor Robert Ayres (1988) hypothesizes that thermodynamic efficiency and energy transformation are the main cause of economic growth. The theory came about from Ayres’ studies on how efficiency advances led to cost and price reductions, thereby stimulating demand, increasing profits and investment, and eventually leading to further efficiency advances. This cycle therefore constitutes a positive feedback loop. Ayres’ work built on the Khazzoom-Brookes postulate, which states that there exists an efficiency paradox: increased energy efficiency most often leads to increased energy consumption (Saunders, 1992), i.e., the rebound effect. With this in mind, it can be argued that it would be short sighted to rely solely on technological and efficiency advances to generate major change. Doing so would risk a continued reliance on large amounts of highly transformed energy and further ecological negligence. Therefore, steps to lower consumption are equally as necessary as technological advancement and efficiency. Permaculture works to achieve lower states of energy use, with occasional support from technological and mechanical developments, by converting linear resource relationships to cyclical and interconnected resource relationships. This is accomplished by implementing creative solutions based on observatory planning and design, where the solutions lie in linking the components of the natural environment with the processes of food production, water usage and treatment, and energy harvesting. Designing to optimize the efficiency of energy transformation and “trapping” energy can be done in a variety of ways, including: • reducing the need for irrigation and keeping soils hydrated through natural methods (e.g., creating swales on sloped surfaces, establishing gravity-fed rainwater irrigation systems, and using on-site mulch material for ground cover) • using resources and wastes within the borders of the system in innovative ways to perform the functions of sources otherwise outside the system (e.g., creating windbreaks out of wood waste or feeding food waste to animals)

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• designing food production areas which capture the maximum solar energy and limit the potential for calamities and the subsequent energy input necessary for rebuilding • “stacking” plants (using both horizontal and vertical land area to grow plants which benefit each other while producing a yield and maximizing the usage of available space) • using perennial plants and trees to strengthen root structures and improve soil qualities while necessitating less maintenance and producing a yield • increasing nutrient contents in foods and soils organically rather than by importing fertilizers (e.g., effective compost management) • finding multiple uses for plants, animals, and structures to slow down energy dissipation while expediting energy transformation (e.g., ducks can be useful for insect, weed, and slug prevention, creating natural fertilizer, consuming food waste, laying eggs, and producing meat) • creating systems which are more self-regulating to lessen future work (e.g., design using plant guilds or companion planting, thus promoting diversity and beneficial plant and/or animal relationships) Two of the main methods permaculture design utilizes to accomplish these goals are zone planning and sector analysis. Zone planning involves consciously limiting the amount of human energy necessary to maintain an area. System elements needing the most attention are closest to the most central location of the area, while those needing little or no attention (like forest for timber) are at a distance. Sector planning on the other hand is the mapping of slope, winds, rain, sun, shading, and potential flood/damp locations, in all seasons, based on location history and observation. By making use of both of these design tools, system characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats can be identified easier and limit energy inputs (human and mechanical). In addition to energy efficiency, such analyses and design strategies can help reduce waste and maximize spatial utilization. This type of specialization does not generate widely applicable or universal guidelines, but rather models which display possible techniques and solutions to problems which may be relevant in other situations. While the concept of permaculture can come across as abstract to its critics, its adoption need not be considering the vast amount of wealth, information, technological innovation, and cheap, efficient energy currently at the disposal of modern civilization. With an uncertain future and these tools accessible, creating new environments as investment strategies could be beneficial to life in general. Integrated management and land use can cater to the diverse needs of the components of ecosystems while providing more insurance from natural complications. In addition, less importation of purchased resources results in reduced operational costs as well as less susceptibility to price shocks. While a permaculture system generally produces lower yields than modern large-scale agriculture when single crops are considered, the yield is more sustained and diversified and involves more people from the local community in the process. This in turn can provide opportunities to bolster social and natural capital while increasing self-reliance and decentralization. Holmgren contrasts these two methods of sustenance and living by stating that,

“in nature, systems that are immature and growing rapidly, in a situation of surplus free energy, tend to be dominated by competitive relationships; mature ecosystems, in which there is little free or surplus energy, show a high degree of mutualistic and symbiotic relationships” (2002:167).

Paul Roberts, commenting on the future of the global agricultural system, offers sentiments which echo the intentions of permaculture design. He states that farms,

 “like all living systems, are unique collections of human, biological, and ecological elements and are constantly evolving; thus sustainable farming is farming that adapts itself to specific landscapes and seasons and conditions, and has the capacity to change as these elements change” (2008:276).

The objective is therefore to “replace the underlying system that required the synthetic inputs with a system that does not – a system modeled on nature’s own methods for circulating energy and nutrients, interrupting pest populations, and maintaining internal balance. Under such a model, livestock and crops are reintegrated” (Roberts, 2008:249). If the pulsing paradigm is any indication of the potential hardships for a society exhibiting unsustainable consumption forced to drastically reduce consumption, then restorative and holistic design in due time is a proper

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step. By preparing for the possibility of emerging energy descent, it would be possible to “rediscover opportunities to harvest and store immediately available (on-site) renewable energies and wasted resources across our rural and urban landscapes and in our households and local economies” (Holmgren, 2002:29). Doing so would not only promote culture and education, but could also be a step towards regaining a more widespread bond with food and traditional customs.

5.3 The Popularity of Permaculture The Transition Movement, started in 2005 by permaculture designer Rob Hopkins (Hopkins, 2008), has most recently been one of the largest actors in communicating permaculture’s benefits on a global scale. The Transition Movement works on creating and sustaining community resilience in an age of economic uncertainty, climate change, and peak oil, and uses permaculture as one tool to design altered lifestyles. Additionally, a larger offering of 72-hour Permaculture Design Certification Courses are currently available than ever, sales of permaculture literature continues to increase, and gardens and farms using permaculture principles have become more common.

5.4 Challenges Tied to a Shift Towards Permaculture Systems Despite the rising interest in permaculture, it is still largely unknown within the greater public. Therefore, its principles and ways of application would need to be communicated much more extensively than at present. This would be time consuming and there may be a lack of qualified and experienced teachers for widespread education. Furthermore, a transformation to a more locally acclimated food system would entail higher food prices for consumers. In addition, there would be a decrease in the year-round availability of certain foods. It is questionable whether consumers would be willing to accept either of these alternatives unless no other option was available. In fact, there sometimes exists a sense of entitlement regarding food prices and types of food (e.g., meat) established from routine and tradition. Further complicating these difficulties is a lack of awareness by some, as well as a feeling of indifference, to the issues discussed in this paper. All of these factors necessitate widespread recognition that changing the current ways of food production is a necessity. Farming occupancies and increasing self-sufficiency would also have to be revalued as attractive and sought-after as permaculture systems entail more labor-intensive food production. Political and industrial stakeholders are generally no more motivated to take on the battle of this “tightly integrated and interdependent” system “so reliant on the constant flows of material between regions and the ceaseless transactions among inputs industries, producers, processors, and distributors” (Roberts, 2008:301). Moreover, the powerful economic infrastructure surrounding the current global food system could even attempt to impede any effort at a wide-ranging shift to more localized food production. Finally, while permaculture provides a framework for globally applicable design, “adaptive management is never prepackaged” (Roberts, 2008:276). Therefore, trial and error would need to be employed in many cases, especially in the start-up of new gardens and farms. The transitional phase involved in such a change may have to be supplemented with the use of more traditional, large-scale food production to reduce the chance of food shortages.

5.5 Swedish Food Production and Consumption According to the Swedish Board of Agriculture, as of 2007, 78 percent of full-time commercial farmers in Sweden were 45 years or older and 52 percent were 55 or older (Jordbruksverket, 2008:13). This trend is consistent in most developed countries and affirms a loss of practical experience and theoretical knowledge in regards to food production.

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As of 2005, Sweden was self-sufficient in only grain and butter production. However, 56kg of grain per capita was still imported (Lindgren and Fischer, 2011). This is likely due to subsidies, the economic advantages of exporting, the use of grain for fuel, and dumping on the global market. In total, 40 percent of all food consumed in Sweden has its origins in other countries. Figure 3 illustrates the amounts of imported food to Sweden by category.

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Swedish Food Imports Kg Per Capita ‐ 2008

Figure 3 - Swedish Food Imports Kg Per Capita – 2008 (Lindgren and Fischer, 2011). These statistics illustrate Sweden’s reliance on imports to support current consumption standards. Also, as mentioned, land preparation, fertilizer and pesticide composition and application, transport, processing, irrigation, harvesting, packaging, and refrigeration are all dependent on access to fossil fuels. Thus, both international and domestic production of the food sold in Sweden exhibits low food security. Were an energy-related crisis to break out (e.g., electricity failure, transport stoppage, drastic increase in fuel prices), inhibiting food imports, most Swedes would only have about three days worth of food stocked at home. Were electricity to be unavailable during such a period, this timeframe would decrease to about one or two days (Lindgren and Fischer, 2011). As daunting as such a challenge would be, were it to occur during a portion of the year when sunlight exposure and temperature were low, the challenge would be even more difficult to manage. These facts portray the food insecurity of the country, as well as its reliance on imported foodstuffs. In recent years, Swedish consumer demand for organically produced food has risen starkly. Sales of Krav (Swedish organic food label) labeled products rose 11 percent from 2009 to 2010. In response to this higher demand, the number of Krav-certified farmers increased by 400 in 2010 to a total of over 4,000. This upsurge has led to about five percent of all Swedish commercial farmers being Krav-certified (Björklund, M., 2011). While this still does not account for a significant portion of consumption or production in Sweden, it does represent a trend, one which, according to Marianne Björklund (2011), is most common in urban areas. Although due to a number of factors, an increase in general public awareness of environmental issues linked to industrial agriculture and health benefits is likely one of main reasons for this change.

5.6 Farming in Uppsala The city of Uppsala boasts a long history of agriculture, dating back to grazing dominated practices in the 14th century. Land donations during the 17th century set the stage for agricultural expansion, and represent many areas of

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the present-day city. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Uppsala had grown to become one of the largest grain producing towns in central Sweden (Björklund, A., 2010). Today Uppsala is Sweden’s fourth most populous city, with around 150,000 residents (Uppsala 2010), and is the capital of Uppland province. Due to a continuous increase in population in the city, much of the land used for agricultural purposes in the preceding centuries was converted into suburbs for residences and businesses. Still, Uppsala is rich in gardening interest, being home to at least 24 allotment areas (Uppsala Nya Tidning) (Flogsta Food). However, the global trend of scaling up the size of and centralizing farms, as well as specializing on a low variety of crops, is no different in Uppsala and Uppland province. In addition, harvests are often exported from the province. One way this is most evident is on a consumer level, in that only one percent of the food sold in Uppsala’s grocery stores is said to originate from Uppland (Jonstad, 2009: 159).

5.7 Uppsala Vision 2030 In 2010 Uppsala Municipality published a report documenting its stated vision for the city’s development leading up to 2030. It is based on a projected increase of about 30,000-40,000 inhabitants and a policy for sustainable development, which is comprised of three main focuses: • Human rights, with an emphasis on each citizen’s equality in the sense of value, involvement, and influence. • A responsible use of resources in order to ensure the city environment, human health, and ecological diversity, as well as to deter climate change. • Growth which ensures the development of knowledge and skills and possibilities for entrepreneurship (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010). In addition to the focus on sustainable development, certain portions of the Uppsala Vision 2030 have been highlighted which will help to determine the feasibility of acquiring public land, as well as working in cooperation with the municipality to achieve its goals. First, the report puts emphasis on green spaces, both large and small, for their significance to the city’s sustainability. The benefits of green spaces are in improving health, ecological diversity, and air quality, as well as supporting microclimates, ecosystem services, natural water quality improvement, and minimizing the city’s influence on the climate. In green spaces located in the city center, social aspects are considered the highest-priority factors (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010). Also relevant to this study, Uppsala Municipality has given itself the task of working towards developing public lands as meeting places. Within such a development, there should be a focus on architectural quality, artistic design, and centrally located green spaces. Additionally, the municipality should work with local actors seeking to make available land for business spaces in the city (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010). The report additionally states that schools and preschools should have access to neighboring land, which is appropriate and stimulating for environmentally related studies and the students’ recreational time outdoors (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010).

5.8 Permaculture in Uppsala  Permaculture can be said to be gaining in popularity throughout Uppsala. This is likely due to a rising interest in locally and organically grown food and a large student population. Some examples of permaculture initiatives in the city are:

• An “Introduction to Permaculture” course in the suburb of Håga, held on four occasions, started in March 2011.

• The establishment of a permaculture inspired garden, “Cemus Trädgård,” in March 2011, located in an inner courtyard at the Department of Earth Sciences at Uppsala University. In conjunction with the garden, Cemus - the Center for Environment and Development Studies (CEMUS) at Uppsala University -

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administers a course in “Urban Agriculture, Permaculture and Local Food Systems.” (Note: The author is involved in both the garden as well as the course’s coordination.)

• Flogsta Food is a 900m2 garden containing 37 allotments and a community garden, located in a student housing area. It is represented by the non-profit organization sharing the same name and is steadily increasing its implementation of permaculture principles. The number of active members in the group is over 60. (Note: The author is the founder and acting chairperson of the organization.)

• Gottsunda Matparken, established in autumn 2009, is a non-profit organization which, through the participation of local volunteers, has created a vegetable garden. Courses and workshops are offered and in 2010 six pre-school classes partook in gardening activities. Matparken also arranges a plethora of social events and activities over the course of the year, often in cooperation with local and state organizations. Matparken employs strictly organic farming methods and strives for diversity in economics, people, and plants. Its programs also prioritize social capital building.

• Caroline Loohufvud and Anders Carlborg farm a 350m2 area in Hällby (a district of central Uppsala) using permaculture principles. Caroline also runs her own business selling fruit and vegetables from her garden, as well as other locally and organically produced food and cosmetics. By limiting transportation, marketing, and distribution costs, the prices which the items are sold at are lower than those of the same/similar local and organic items sold in regular grocery stores. Furthermore, Caroline offers courses on seasonal food and foraging.  

Despite these examples which utilize some permaculture principles, the concept is still widely unknown and often only partially understood. In addition, outside of the Uppsala academic community, permaculture is even less recognized. It does, however, bear mention that permaculture is likely being implemented to some extent, perhaps unknowingly, on smaller scales, be it in the form of gardening on balconies, allotments, or private properties.

5.9 Local Legislation Framework The legality of implementing certain aspects of a permaculture park on public land can come into question. This section will concentrate on assessing the situation in Uppsala and what is feasible in regards to animal husbandry, composting, the sale of produce and foodstuffs, and obtaining and applying for building permits.

5.9.1 Animal Husbandry and Beekeeping Integrating animals into one’s garden design is a common permaculture method. Doing so can provide food in the form of meat, eggs, or milk, provide pest control and benefits to soil and compost fertility, and increase system diversity. Due to large-scale industrial animal production and health concerns, animals incorporated into food producing systems in Uppsala, and most developed cityscapes for that matter, are all the more uncommon. Uppsala Municipality and the Swedish National Food Administration have constructed sets of laws regulating animal husbandry on a national scale and within Uppsala itself. These laws are intended to ensure the health and well-being of both animals and humans. It is necessary to submit a formal application for the caretaking of the following animals (which may be appropriate in a permaculture park): cows, horses, goats, lambs, pigs, as well as any poultry or furred animals not considered pets. The application cost is SEK 1,628, regardless of application results, but one application can be used for several animal types. The application must include details of the size of the animals’ living area, how manure will be handled, how fodder will be stored, and how many months of the year each animal type will live indoors and outdoors. A detailed plan of the animals’ living area must also be included in the application (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2004a). Chickens, rabbits, or guinea pigs, for example, fall under the description of pets, as long as they have enclosed living quarters, and do not require any permit or application (Uppsala Kommun, 2011a). Any activity involving beekeeping is regulated by the Swedish National Food Administration and requires an application for the creation of a food-producing business (Svenska Livsmedelsverket, 2009). This entails a description of the business’s activities and a fee of SEK 814 per hour for administrative processing (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2004b).

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5.9.2 Sales of Produce As with beekeeping, selling or donating any foodstuffs generated from one’s own production classifies a business or organization as a “primary food producer.” This requires an application for creation of a food-producing business (Svenska Livsmedelsverket, 2009) and payment of SEK 814 per hour for administrative processing (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2004b). There are also guidelines and routines which must be followed to ensure that no health risks exist concerning consumption of the food. The relevant routines are as follows:

1. Complete general hygiene requirements. 2. Ensure that adequate production conditions exist, including that:

a. Temperatures in storage facilities and the food itself follow state and EU guidelines. b. Any delivered goods are inspected thoroughly. c. Information is clear and readily available to customers, so they are not misled in any way.

3. Follow the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) principles to minimize the prospect of consumer illnesses and health risks.

4. The origin of all products should be traceable. 5. In the event that sold or consumed food products is deemed unsafe, primary producers should widely

inform potentially affected customers and recall any unsold food (Uppsala Kommun, 2011b).

5.9.3 Compost The use of organic materials is the best way to create regenerative soils. This is often done by mulching, fertilizing with animal or green manure, and composting. Effective composting is essential to any permaculture project. By composting, one can reduce or completely eliminate the need for outside inputs of soil and fertilizers. Uppsala Municipality has two separate classifications when it comes to compost: garden and household. Garden waste is any organic material which comes from a public or private territory. Examples include leaves and branches from trees and bushes, unwanted fruit and vegetables from one’s own production, and plant stalks and roots. It is legal to compost these materials in an open container or lay them straight onto the ground. No restrictions exist in regards to this type of waste (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2008). Household waste on the other hand has the potential to attract birds and pests, as well as increase the risk of disease. This is generally the case with meat, fish, cheese, and fatty foods. Therefore, this waste may not be composted in Uppsala. It is permitted to compost food scraps, fruit and vegetables, egg shells, coffee filters and grounds, and shells from crustaceans (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2009). To do so, however, it is necessary to have a closed compost container with holes for ventilation and drainage with a maximum diameter of 5mm. The bottom of the container can have direct contact with the soil and be made of wood, perforated sheet metal, netting, or bars, with holes no larger than 5mm. Residents can build their own container or purchase one at hardware or gardening stores (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2008). Closed compost containers range in price from about SEK 700 to SEK 2,000 (Plantagen, 2011). The city requires anyone who wants to compost household waste to apply to do so. There is no charge for applying (Uppsala Kommun Miljökontoret, 2009).

5.9.4 Building Permits  To erect any kind of structure in Uppsala, an application must be submitted to the city construction department (Stadsbyggnadskontoret) to obtain a building permit. The application requires descriptions of the type of structure, its purpose, which materials will be used, and a description of the project plan and other details regarding the project (Uppsala Stadsbyggnadskontoret, 2011a). The costs for application and approval vary depending on a range of factors. Among them are where the building is located, how much foundational and flooding factors must be investigated, whether neighbors must be consulted, whether electrical or waste water facilities will be installed, etc. In an interview with the Uppsala construction department, an estimate of between SEK 15,000-25,000 was given for application processing, area inspection, and neighbor consultations of a 100-150m2 construction. The cost of the same process for a small building at 10-20m2,

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which could be used, for example, for equipment storage, was estimated at SEK 3,000 (Uppsala Stadsbyggnadskontoret, 2011b).

6 Inventory and Cost Analysis The following is an estimated three-year cost analysis for the creation and maintenance of a permaculture park in Uppsala. The elements of the analysis, as well as their quantities, are highly dependent on the specific operation. Therefore, the analysis is meant as a template of sorts in order to give a general idea of what could be necessary and what the costs of implementation could be.

6.1 Tools and Supplies A wide variety of tools and supplies would be necessary to create and maintain a permaculture park. The tools and supplies and their amounts are highly dependent on the size and type of operation, as well as the specific land being used. Following is a list of potentially necessary and/or beneficial equipment: • 2 wheelbarrows • 2 garden hoes • 5 spades • 4 pitchforks • 2 rakes • 5 trowels • 2 pruning shears • 1 scythe • 2 hedge shears • 1 ax • 3 watering cans • 10 pairs of gloves • 2 hoses • 2 hose connection pieces and nozzles

• 1 water barrel • 2 buckets • 2 baskets • 2 handsaws • 2 hammers • 1 screwdriver set • 1 battery operated drill • 2 knives • 5 balls of string • 3 boxes of nails • 3 boxes of screws • 20 kinds of organic seeds • 10 bushes • 6 trees

The specific choice of tools and their quantities was determined based on the author’s experience purchasing supplies for a new garden applying similar principles and goals which a public permaculture park likely would have. In the case of many products, there were several options available at the retail locations where the costs were obtained. In these situations, experience was again used to determine the perceived long-term durability of the products and their value at the selling price. A price of SEK 15,000 was used for the first year of operation. Prices of SEK 4,000 in year two and SEK 2,000 in year three were based on an estimation of a significantly lessened need for tools and supplies after the first year’s investment. The cost analysis for the first years of this section, and the respective references, are found in Appendix 5.

6.2 Materials, Structures, and Transport To create regenerative soil conditions, some materials are initially necessary to give the soil a base rich in microorganisms and fertility. As Uppsala generally has fertile but heavy clay soils, much of the work in the initial phases would be to aerate and add organic materials. There are different methods of doing so. Plowing and tilling the soil is one option, but such processes would likely be fossil-fuel intensive and can act to destroy microbial bonds and soil structures, increase the risk of erosion, and can result in top-soil loss (Goddard, T., et al, 2008), and is therefore preferably to be avoided. Another is stacking organic matter on top of existing soils, or sheet mulching, which is often the technique used by permaculturists. This entails covering existing vegetation with cardboard or newspaper, which will decompose, to suffocate unwanted weed growth. Organic material such as compost, straw, manure, and soil can then be added to create immediately usable garden beds. Once the initial addition of these materials is performed, effective composting and continual mulching of the soil should prevent the need for repeating such inputs within the system.

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Permaculture entails turning the outputs of an area into the inputs of others to create as little waste (of any kind) as possible. Along with the previously mentioned “trapping” of energy, limiting all waste forms is essential in permaculture design to transform systems of linear resource usage into systems of cyclical resource usage. Therefore, resourcefulness and creative measures could be taken to obtain the necessary materials. Uppsala Municipality collects household waste, which is converted into nutrient rich compost soil. Access to this soil is free of charge, but not formally organized and must be collected. Horse manure can also be collected free of charge from the city district of Håga (likely in other districts as well). Straw is a byproduct of grain production and could to be obtained inexpensively or at no cost from local farmers. Otherwise, grass clippings or leaves can be used to create soil structure and/or as a mulch. Logs and rocks require transportation, but should be able to be obtained cheaply or free of charge from municipal storage areas. Thus, creating beneficial growing conditions would not be expensive. While organizing would be needed, the main costs, in both economic and energy terms, would be for transportation.

It is assumed that an automobile can be borrowed during the few times when one would be needed either from the existing municipal fleet or from others involved in the project. It is estimated that the cost to fill a mid-sized automobile (or station wagon) with gasoline is SEK 700. This is based on the authors’ first-hand experience in September 2011. A cost of SEK 800 has been used as an estimate for gasoline costs, with full fueling needed four times over the first year (totaling SEK 3,200). Both of these estimates are intentionally conservative, and in reality such a high investment is not likely to be necessary. The cost of renting a suitably sized trailer and gasoline costs are expected to decrease in years two and three of the operation due to a lessened necessity. It is estimated that most materials should be able to be obtained in the first year. Therefore, a third of the first year’s cost for transport has been assigned to years two and three.

In accessing other materials such as wood, plastic, glass, and metal for building greenhouses, compost bins, sculptures, benches, or storage sheds, the strategy of using waste materials can be used. Contact with construction companies and areas where renovation work is taking place can often lead to free resources, while limiting refuse and hence reducing costs and work in these areas. Current law in Uppsala prohibits the collection of waste materials at local recycling centers. If an exception could be granted, an enormous amount of materials otherwise destined for burning or burying in landfills could be put to use in a permaculture park. These materials can be used to build small structures. Therefore, for the sake of this study, it is assumed that there is no cost for any structures estimated in the cost analysis.  Based on first-hand experience and for the aforementioned reasons, no cost has been assigned to cardboard or newspaper, compost, manure, mulch material, wood, plastic, glass, or metal. The cost analysis for the first year for this section, and the respective references, are found in Appendix 6. Years two and three are likely to necessitate similar costs to continue any material collection and have therefore been estimated to be the same as the first year.

6.3 Employees Ideally, the group to start up and run the project would employ at least three people. By having paid staff, continuity could be achieved and administrative processes could be carried out. Staffing three employees would also allow for vacation and sick leave. As permaculture is a method which takes a holistic and systematic view of systems, it would be important to have employees who are familiar with permaculture, and preferably have a certificate in permaculture design and experience implementing the concept. It would also be important for the employees to have different specializations catered to initiating and running the project. Some of the necessary specializations would be marketing and advertising, financing and budgeting, gardening, landscape design, building and construction, and pedagogical education and experience. Three employees should be able to cover all these areas. Due to Uppsala’s climate, activities from November through February would be considerably less time-intensive than during the rest of the calendar year. Therefore, three full-time employees could work at 50 percent (20 hours per week), where the majority of the work hours would take place during the more intensive period of March to October. A salary of SEK 21,700 per month (SEK 10,850 at 50 percent employment) was calculated using the average municipal gardener salary in the middle-eastern portion of Sweden from 2005-2009. During the five-year span (2005-2009), salaries in this line of work increased on average by 2.9% annually. Using this rate, the average

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salary of SEK 20,500 was increased for inflation by SEK 1,200 to arrive at the first year salary (Statistics Sweden, 2011).

6.4 Machinery If enough volunteers and proper tools are available, the need for heavy machinery could be greatly limited or totally avoided. For the purpose of this paper, it is assumed that machinery to plow or excavate land will be avoided for slower solutions. This could prove that a group effort can be effective and be an example to others who cannot afford to rent or buy such machinery. The only machinery included in the cost analysis is therefore transport vehicles, which is taken into account in the “Materials, Structures, and Transport” section.

6.5 Animals and Bees Due to their variety of functions within the system, as mentioned in the “Permaculture” section, animals are often an integral part of a permaculture garden. Perhaps the most convenient and appropriate place to purchase animals would be at a 4-H farm in Uppsala, which is a non-profit organization-backed farm specializing in preserving traditional and locally acclimated plant and animal types (Sveriges 4H, 2011). According to Lars Lans (2011), the animal manager at Gränby 4H-gård (located in a district of Uppsala) the cost per animal is roughly as follows:

Animal Type

Cost (SEK/animal)

Lamb 1,200 Bull/cow 6,000 Goat 500-1,000 Rabbit 100-300 Horse 10,000-20,000 Chicken 50 Duck 100-200 Pig 800

Figure 4 - Approximate costs per animal. (Lans, 2011)

These prices are considered approximate and vary due to season, supply, demand, and other factors (Lans, 2011). The materials needed to shelter the animals, as well as their fodder, were determined to be too varied to estimate. This is due to different breeds, the number of animals, and the size of the park itself, as well as other factors, leading to divergent costs which cannot be simplified for the purposes of this study. For these reasons, no animals have been factored into the three-year cost analysis, as their costs could potentially skew the analysis. A cost-effective option worth mentioning would be a small number of rabbits and chickens, as they would require no permit application, have small, easily constructed living quarters, and have generally lower fodder costs than other larger animals. Beekeeping, like animal husbandry, is another often-used integration technique, in this case for the bees’ ability to pollinate plants and produce honey. It is estimated that each colony costs SEK 800, the necessary equipment SEK 800, and a second-hand beehive about SEK 500 (Stenungsunds Biodlarförening, 2011). In total, one colony would therefore cost approximately SEK 2,100. Each additional colony and hive would cost about SEK 1,300 as the aforementioned equipment can be used. For the cost analysis, a first-year investment of SEK 4,000 has been estimated. The extra SEK 600 serves as a buffer to cover fodder (sugar water) and any other additional expenses. The same cost of SEK 600 is attached to years two and three and assumes that no additional colonies are purchased.

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6.6 Advertising To increase the project’s exposure, the group in charge would need to advertise the park and concept. The purpose of the park and the principles of permaculture can be explained through a systems view of industrial agricultural practices, climate change, and energy and economic instability. This could be done by giving tours to the public, posting signs and posters around the city and park, creating a website and a Facebook page, and contacting local media. This would not have to be done in an expensive fashion. Apart from the materials involved, all the work necessary could be part of the paid employees’ duties. A first-year budget of SEK 1,000 and budgets of SEK 500 in years two and three have been allotted in the cost analysis to maintain low costs and promote creative solutions.

6.7 Land A public permaculture park would obviously require support from the local government. As such an initiative would potentially benefit the city in a variety of ways, access to otherwise unused public land should be granted at low cost. The aforementioned project Gottsunda Matparken pays SEK 1,200 annually for access to seven hectares of arable land and four hectares of forested land (they actively use less than one hectare) (Queiroz, 2011). This figure is used as the standard rate in the cost analysis.

6.8 Applications As previously mentioned, keeping a wide variety of animals suitable in a permaculture park (e.g., horses, cows, pigs), involves a payment of SEK 1,628. Also, if beekeeping is performed and/or food is to be donated or sold, a fee of SEK 814/hour is charged for administration. In this cost analysis, it is assumed that both options are chosen, with the latter taking three hours to process. Additionally, the costs for the application and inspection of a 15m2 building to be used as a storage shed was added (SEK 3,000). This results in a total cost of SEK 7,070.

6.9 Additional Comments When setting up a socially and environmentally oriented project, it should be possible to receive bulk prices for tools, supplies, and transportation. In addition, Uppsala Municipality’s access to materials and supplies, and existing relationships with suppliers, wholesalers, and retailers should allow for lower costs. Furthermore, sponsorships and donations may be a possibility. Therefore, the prices listed are intentionally very conservative, and true implementation in partnership with Uppsala Municipality may be less expensive than this thesis’s estimate. Lastly, income generation is not included in the cost analysis. Potential profits from for example, food yields and course tuitions, could help reduce costs.

6.10 Three Year Cost Analysis Figure 5 below provides an estimate of what the investment would be to establish and sustain a permaculture park in Uppsala for three years.

SEK  Year 1 Year 2 Year 3    Tools and Supplies ¹ 15,000 4,000 2,000 Materials, Structures and Transportation ² 5,600 5,600 5,600

Employee Salaries + Insurance + Employment Tax + Vacation Pay ³ 571,860 588,444 605,509 Machinery 0 0 0 Animals 0 0 0

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Beekeeping set - two colonies 4,000 600 600 Advertising 1,000 500 500 Land 1,200 1,200 1,200 Applications 7,070 0 0        Total 605,730 596,344 613,409        3 Year Total     1,815,483        ¹ See Appendix 5 for details      ² See Appendix 6 for details      ³ Verksamt, 2011        

Figure 5 - Three-Year Inventory and Cost Analysis

7 Case Studies To apply the research done in this paper and bring relevant examples to light, case studies of two potential sites theoretically suitable for permaculture parks in Uppsala were undertaken (see Figure 6 below). Both case studies take into consideration the aforementioned local legislative framework and highlighted sections of the Uppsala Vision 2030 report. Each case study was conducted by completing a permaculture design checklist to analyze each site. Then a design of the respective areas was made, followed by creation of lists detailing the system elements, their functions, and their connections to each other. All three parts of the analysis were performed in an interconnected manner to obtain interdisciplinary and systematic perspectives on the areas, as well as to assess their resources, current and past uses, and, ultimately, their feasibility to implement a permaculture park in. The permaculture design checklists and the lists analyses can be found in appendices 1 and 2. The results of these three processes have been synthesized in the form of SWOT analyses to concentrate and condense the information. The respective designs are presented first, followed by SWOT analyses of each case.

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©Uppsala kommun

Figure 6 - Map of Case Study Areas (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009).

7.1 Ulleråker Ulleråker is a district of Uppsala located south of the city center. The area is steeped in history, especially in regards to Ulleråker Hospital, which became Sweden’s first psychiatric hospital in 1859 (Akademiska sjukhuset, 2011). Between the Fyris River and Ulleråker Hospital lies an area of unused land, a portion of which (outlined in yellow in Figure 7 below) was used for this case study.

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©Uppsala kommun

Figure 7 - Map of Area Proposed for Development – Ulleråker (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009). Previously, the entire area was used by various departments within the hospital as a form of green-rehabilitation and gardening project. The area housed a large greenhouse, built in the early 1930s, several surrounding garden beds of flowers and edible crops, allotment gardens, and fields of grain. This initiative was coordinated and managed by the psychiatric hospital staff. However, the greenhouse was taken down and the other garden portions were plowed and grass was sown in 1989/1990. This was apparently due to a number of reasons, including high rental fees for the land, employees no longer living in the Ulleråker area, and gradual interest loss in maintaining the garden. The land was later leased to a farmer who used it for grazing sheep, but it has not been used for any purpose for several years. Today the district of Ulleråker is home to residents, several pre-schools, one elementary school, and Lundellska High School. There are also a variety of departments of the Uppsala University Hospital located in the area. Among them are more than half of the hospital’s psychiatric departments (Akademiska sjukhuset, 2011).

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7.1.1 Design Ulleråker

Figure 8 - Design – Ulleråker

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Zone 0 – In order to attract visitors, as well as to have a place to hold courses, a straw-bale house is included in the design. The clay, straw, and wood needed for the structure are all materials that can be sourced locally, and building could be done in coordination with a natural building class and/or with the help of local volunteers. Within the structure, a small café serving a few drink options and home-made cookies and cake, as well as selling products from the park, is included. Also, a small portion of the rectangular classroom/indoor dining area could include a corner showcasing artwork from nearby schools. In addition, the third room in the structure could be used to house tools and other materials. The southernmost side of the house includes a greenhouse. The structure could be designed to collect all rainwater from the roof to be stored in large containers upraised from ground level. In this way, the water could be gravity-fed for irrigation in the greenhouse, as well as the zone 1 gardening locations. With the launching of a café, clean drinking water would need to be provided. Either a municipal source could be established or the rainwater could be filtered.  Heating the building could be done by installing a fireplace and using a compost method called Jean Pain Mounds. This is where wood and bark chips are soaked in water and formed into a cylinder-shape (held in place using simple wood beams and wire mesh). A tube feeding cold water is then tightly wrapped around the cylinder, with the other end of the tube subsequently returning outside of the area. More water-soaked woodchips are then stacked around the cylinder to create a mound around 3 meters in height by 6 meters in diameter. Temperatures inside the mound can reach 60 degrees Celsius and the returning water departs the mound and can be used to heat the building and provide warm water, while the methane from the composting material can be collected for electricity. The mound can remain in use for upwards of 18 months. Then it can be disassembled and added to areas to create new garden spaces or to composts (Mad River Valley Energy, 2010). Only greywater waste would be produced from the café, which could be led to a greywater sump. In this method, the pipe collecting the structure’s greywater is led underground about 20 meters, having a total declination of about 15cm and using gravitational force. The pipe feeds into a dug hole (about 2.5 meters long x 1 meter wide x 1 meter deep) which is filled with stones. Large stones are placed in the bottom of the hole, decreasing in size towards the top, to which the smallest stones are on top and seen on ground level. Wetland trees like elderberry, perennial flowers like blue and yellow irises, and grassy plants like those of the juncus genus, with deep-reaching roots can be planted on the stones, which will filter the water and leave the surrounding areas dry (Faust, 2011). Solar panels can be mounted on the roof to provide electricity to the structure. Additionally, along the northern side of the café a biochar grill (CharBQ) could be built to cook, produce electricity, and demonstrate the technique. A biochar grill uses pyrolysis, which is “a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures above 430 degrees Celcius” (Center for Public Environmental Oversite, 2011). The remaining carbonaceous mass can be added to composts or directly into gardening soils, rather than being released into the atmosphere, to increase fertility. The pyrolysis process can also yield syngas, which can be used as a fuel source for electricity in the straw-bale house (International Biochar Initiative, 2011).  Zone 1 – A poly-tunnel greenhouse, constructed of polyethylene and recycled metals, could be built for plant propagation in the spring, and subsequently for other vegetables requiring a warmer climate later in season. The greenhouse could also be naturally heated by the Jean Pain Mound(s), by the body heat of chickens and rabbits living in the greenhouse during the months when they cannot live outdoors, and by hot composts located inside the greenhouse. The raised beds to the east of the zone 0 straw-bale house could be used to showcase the importance of crop rotation. The different beds could be planned with a rotation as follows:

 1. Potatoes 2. Green manure (e.g., clovers, lucerne) 3. Legumes (beans and peas) 4. Root vegetables (e.g., carrots, onions, leeks, beetroots, and parsnips) and lettuces 5. Green manure 6. Brassicas (e.g., cabbages, broccoli, kale, turnips, swedes, and cauliflower)

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Such a rotation could also include herbs, flowers, and other crops. Mandala keyhole gardens (seen in more detail in Figure 9), bordering the zone 0 structure to the west, have the advantages of maximizing a small area, being accessible from all sides, and potentially being irrigated with sprinklers located in the center of each circular bed to evenly distribute water. A variety of annual, biennial, and perennial plant types can be grown here. Companion planting could also be used to research and experiment with the beneficial relationships of plants. A trellised, southern-facing fence can be constructed along the northern boundary of both the Mandala keyhole gardens and the raised beds to block prevailing southern winds, create space for climbers like hops and beans, and form a shadier area on its opposite side for composts and worm farms.

Figure 9 - Mandala Keyhole Gardens – Ulleråker

Zone 2 – To the south of the straw-bale house, the area could house a chicken tractor and a rabbit hutch/coop. A chicken tractor is a mobile chicken coop placed on the ground (without a floor). The size of the tractor could be fitted to match garden bed widths, in order to have the chickens fertilize and aerate the beds. The tractor could then be circulated around the park depending on the status of the respective garden beds. The rabbits would provide fertilizer, entertainment for visitors, and finally, meat. An amphitheatre could be constructed using recycled materials to create an outdoor classroom area, performance location, and meeting place. Another social area fit into the design to the west of the straw-bale house shows an area reserved for a playground, an outdoor seating and dining area, and bocce and badminton courts. This location would also allow some separation from the animals to give them more privacy and lessen any olfactory disturbances for people eating or drinking. To display the value of human waste, as well as to inform citizens of the downsides to the current disposal processes (e.g., water and energy needed for disposal and cleaning, excess nutrients returned to other bodies of water, and the loss of potential forms of fertility enhancers), urine-separating compost toilets are included. A hedge and strong smelling flowers around this area could be planted to provide privacy and lessen any odor. The urine could later be added to composts or to mulching materials to increase nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus levels (Kirschmann and Pettersson, 1994). Zone 3 – This area should be designed to need less regular tending than zones 1 and 2. Forest gardening is a method often used within permaculture where one consciously applies “the principles of ecology to the design of home scale gardens that mimic forest ecosystem structure and function, but grow food, fuel, fiber, fodder, and fertilizer” (Edible Forest Gardens, 2008). Zone 3 is therefore a suitable area to establish a forest garden as it usually contains

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perennials and requires less attention than regular garden beds. In the design, the forest garden is placed along the northern border of the area to serve as a wind shield for strong southern winds. The forest garden could feature some sculptures as well as some seating/quiet areas. A variety of different plant options suitable to the Uppsala climate are listed on the bottom of Figure 8. They all fill at least one of the aforementioned functions (food, fuel, fiber, fodder, and fertilizer), and could be beneficial to the greater whole of the park. A sculpture park, where local artists could construct artwork suitable to the project in some way (e.g., using only recycled materials), could be combined with some gym materials (e.g., pull-up bars and sit-up benches) and an obstacle course, both made mostly from local wood. This could attract visitors and promote outdoor activity and physical health. Another element which could be included in zone 3 is a worm farm. A vermiculture area is an easily established and maintained system where high quality soil can be obtained, as well as a liquid fertilizer and compost worms. In order to maximize water retention, a swale could be dug on contour. This is shown in the design in Figure 8 along one of the only areas onsite displaying topographic disparity. The soil dug out to create the swale could then be piled up directly alongside and downhill of the swale, to create raised beds. By mulching the beds, in addition to reaping the benefits that a swale brings (collect eroded soil, naturally slow the flow of water, and create microclimates), no irrigation should be necessary for the raised beds. Storing food could be done in an onsite earth cellar. An earth cellar can be built using mostly discarded car tires packed with clay soil forming a hilled structure. Growing grass or other perennial crops on top of the cellar would help regulate and stabilize the temperature. Zone 4 – The wettest portion of the park, due to its low topography, could feature a buffer zone of tree growth. Water-loving species like elderberry, willow, alders, and white swamp oak planted in this area could work as a windbreak and as flood protection. Also, quick growing and malleable tree types like willow could provide weaving and trellis material. All trees could be harvested periodically to eventually be used as fuel in the biochar grill or as building materials. A section of black locust trees could be planted to act as a windshield for the raised bed located by the swale in zone 3. Black locust is a fast growing, nitrogen-fixing species which is very rot resistant and provides hard timber. It could be harvested to be used as firewood or building material for natural building classes held onsite. The southern border of the area receives the most shade and has moist conditions. This area could therefore bode well for mushroom cultivation. Trees surrounding the mushroom cultivation area could provide even more shade if necessary. A grazing area is included in the design as a place where local sheep could be brought to graze. Here rotational grazing techniques could be showcased. Zone 5 – This zone is untouched natural landscape, reserved for foraging and observing. The nearby forest can serve this purpose. Therefore, no zone 5 exists in the design.

7.1.2 SWOT Ulleråker Strengths

 • The area is located alongside a heavily frequented walking/bike path. • It can be considered centrally located. • An allotment garden association in operation for over 50 years is located next to the proposed area. This

can be considered a strength due to the long-term experience of gardening in the area, possible input for the design, and potential volunteers and networking contacts. Some of the gardeners even worked with the aforementioned garden project and would have insight into soil qualities and previous land uses in specific areas.

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• There are several departments of the university hospital located in Ulleråker, which may be open to the idea of green rehabilitation programs.

• There is an abundance of comfrey and nettle which could be used as natural fertilizers. • A group has been created with the goal to increase local businesses and social projects in Uppsala. The

author has had contact and participated in meetings with the group, which has since added the plan of a green rehabilitation permaculture park to its development proposal for the Ulleråker area.

• The proposed park area receives a substantial amount of sunlight. • The climate lends to enough precipitation and therefore less of a need to irrigate. • The soil onsite is fertile. • Public transportation is available to the nearby hospital, from which the area is a 5-10 minute walk. • Frost, due to the vicinity to the river, is less of a factor. • Regular automobile traffic is not permitted directly to the potential park location, but a road exists which

could be used to transport materials to and from the area.

Weaknesses

• To use the area for creating a park, there could be high rental fees due to the perceived value of the land. • The large, unused surrounding area could dwarf the park’s size and subsequently its image and impact. • As automobile access is not available to the public, some potential guests may shy away from visiting. • There is a lack of established infrastructure (water, garbage collection, electricity) present. There would be

additional costs and work if they were deemed necessary. • Uppsala County Council, the owner of the land, may be unwilling to develop the area, perhaps because the

land was previously used for similar purposes and was subsequently shut down. Through discussions with the aforementioned group working on a proposal to develop Ulleråker, the author has learned of rumors of discussions on the eventual sale of the land for development of a residential area. These discussions have neither been denied nor confirmed by the County Council.

• As with any project relying on volunteers, motivation and marketing efforts would need to be conducted often, and carry an important weight.

• While centrally located, the area would require a relatively long commute for some. This adds to the possible difficulty in obtaining voluntary help.

• While the location’s open area allows for high amounts of sunlight, it can lead to very strong winds. • The growing season in Uppsala is short due to its latitude, limiting the hours of sunlight. Thus, the long

winter poses challenges to growing and planning. • The soil, while fertile, is mostly heavy clay and therefore hard to handle and prepare. • Any building would require a permit.

Opportunities

• The project has the potential to create a new social hub and meeting place in central Uppsala. • The project has the potential to become a location for courses held on related topics. • It could act as a showcase garden, possibly influencing further projects concentrating on social or

environmental issues, as well as inspiring the spread of permaculture and other methods of low resource input food production systems.

• The project could create job opportunities. Uppsala faces high student unemployment in the summer months, a time when the park could use both volunteers and seasonal staff.

• The unused surrounding areas could be used to harvest mulch materials. Also, there are apple trees and currant bushes which could be harvested from, as well as perhaps Uppsala’s largest area of raspberry bushes.

• The area could be revitalized as a rehabilitation location. • The project could work towards preserving an historical area rather than having it become a new residential

living area. • If portions of the land were indeed developed for housing, the park could improve the value of the land and

attract buyers.

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• A formal network within Uppsala for urban agriculture and/or permaculture does not currently exist. Such a park could work towards achieving this.

• Borrowing animals from local farms (most likely local 4H farms, which occasionally lease animals for educational purposes) or having own animals onsite could be an attraction for people of all ages, as well as exemplify the potential of integrating animals into gardens and urban settings.

• Such a project would likely organize events, providing learning opportunities as well as cultural experiences.

• There is potential to receive sand, gravel, timber, mulch, and stone from a state-owned storage facility located within a 3 minute walking distance of the area.

• There is a potential to cooperate with Lundellska High School, which has programs in natural science and health care, besides being a state-certified school for sustainable development (Lundellska Skolan, 2011).

• If residential areas are established in the vicinity, there could be opportunities to combine efforts and collaborate from an early/planning stage.

• Internships for students from high schools/university could be offered. Threats

• Deer, hares, moles, slugs/snails, mice, foxes, and other animals could potentially be threats to plants and animals in the park.

• If the project is allowed to start, there could be no contractual guarantee that the land wouldn’t subsequently be sold.

• As with any public garden, food can be stolen and vandalism could occur. • Similar projects in other locations have had promising and successful starts, only to be shut down after a

lack of continuity. Therefore, there could be longevity concerns. This is especially relevant if there are one or few main drivers of the project and park.

• Flooding could occur due to the proximity to the river as well as to the expanses of low-lying land. • Uppsala experiences a population decrease in the summer months, like many Swedish cities, due to people

vacationing. This could potentially pose issues with employed staff and customer visitation. • As a similar initiative has existed in the same location, there may be a reluctance to allow another

opportunity.

7.2 Eklundshof The Eklundshof area is a so-called “green wedge” in central Uppsala. It is unique to most places in the city in that it has great topographical variance in a small area. This is due to its location along the Uppsala esker. This lends to precipitation and water run-off retention and very fertile soil quality in the valley. Not surprisingly, Eklundshof is home to a large, well-established allotment garden. There are also two pre-schools, “Polacksbackens förskola” and “Förskolan Da Vinci.” In addition, the 10km cross-country skiing and walking path, “Gula Stigen” (The Yellow Path), crosses through Eklundshof. The path was created in the 1930’s and spans several districts of the city. When traversing the entire path, one seldom leaves natural landscapes (Gula Stigen, 2007). Uppsala Municipality prioritizes maintaining natural landscapes around the path, and in Eklundshof in general. The area is surrounded by the majority of the university hospital’s departments, Uppsala Science Park, the technical and mathematical campus of Uppsala University, residential housing, and Studenternas IP, two larger sporting facilities for soccer, track and field, and bandy. The specific area of Eklundshof used for the purpose of this case study is seen in Figure 10 below. Marked in blue is the courtyard of “Förskolan Da Vinci,” a pre-school focused on sustainable development. The area outlined in red is between the two pre-schools and alongside “Gula Stigen” (marked in yellow) and is not currently being used for anything in particular.

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©Uppsala kommun

Figure 10 - Map of Area Proposed for Development – Eklundshof (Uppsala Kommun Flygbilder 2009, 2009).

7.2.1 Design Eklundshof As the design includes a school courtyard, the zone planning for the Eklundshof area is a bit different than usual. Also, as the pre-school children range in age from one to three, the area must be adapted to fit their size and capabilities. Therefore, the zone planning has been broken up into two disparate, yet related parts. First, the design for Förskolan (Pre-School) Da Vinci is as follows (and can be seen in Figure 11):

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Figure 11 - Design – Förskolan Da Vinci – Eklundshof

 Zone 0 – The schoolhouse, including its adjacent deck, is where the teachers and children spend the most time, and thus is zone 0. Some propagation of plants and design work could be done inside the structure. Zone 1 – Centrally located and in the schoolyard’s sunniest location, a keyhole garden for edible plants could be established. Protecting these plants from southern winds could be a trellised, rounded fence, facing south and surrounding the garden beds. Climbing plants could be grown to utilize vertical space on the trellis. An herb spiral could be built in the center of the keyhole garden. Herb spirals are often used in permaculture design as they maximize the growing possibilities within a small area (usually 3m2) by having a winding structure tallest in the middle and lowest around the base. Herb spirals also create multiple micro-climates due to differed degrees of moisture, shade, and sun variance. In this particular design the spiral would have to be smaller than usual to provide access for young children. Along the existing metal fence, three to four stepped beds could be created to fit the slope of the hill. Lastly, two unkempt areas bordering a path which the children have created themselves could be developed into garden beds for flowers or vegetables. Zone 2 – Along the southwestern corner of the existing fence, small beds can be established with shade tolerant plants, due to the high amount of overhanging tree foliage. The school has a desire to partially obstruct the views into the schoolyard, so tall, bushy plants may be appropriate. Bordering the westernmost side of the schoolhouse is an otherwise unused area which could be used to plant local wildflower types. Finally, two long beds already exist on both sides of the front entrance of the schoolhouse. Here, different vegetables which need less attention can be grown due to the high amount of sun exposure. Zone 3 – Complementing the three existing fruit bushes in the western corner of the schoolyard with eight additional fruit bushes could be accomplished quickly and easily using root segments or plant cuttings from existing bushes in the area. This could be done to create a semi-enclosed area for the children.

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The design for the larger, hilly area (marked in red in Figure 10) is as follows (and can be seen in Figure 12):

Figure 12 - Design –Hill – Eklundshof

Zone 0 – Along the southeast boundary, bordering “Gula Stigen”, a relatively flat area has been designated as zone 0 (seen as a half-circle-shaped social area in Figure 12). This spot was chosen due to its accessibility and vicinity to Polacksbackens förskola and “Gula Stigen”. Also, the existing tree growth should provide some shade in the otherwise sunny area. Here benches are included, as well as a small covered area which could be used for shelter and for short meetings. This could be a base for employees and volunteers, and thus be ideal for zone 0. A small shed for tools is included beside this social area. Zone 1 – To take advantage of the topographical attributes of the hill, seven small ponds have been included in the design. Using contour maps of the site, the ponds were placed in positions where the water currently flows through. Using a GST approach with an emphasis on climate change uncertainties and pulsing weather patterns, it was determined that water should be stored for irrigation in dry times, but have self-regulating mechanisms which lead the water down slope and away from the site in times of potentially damaging levels of precipitation. This could be done by creating small streams from the ponds which carry water which has filled past the desired level. The streams connect to the lower-lying ponds and act as catchments for rainwater collection. Drip irrigation lines could be led to both sides of all ponds. Pumps (if necessary) could be powered by hydropower generation from the existing stream. Uphill from the ponds hardy, perennial trees and shrubs can be planted to fix nitrogen, yield fruit, nuts, and vegetables, as well as stabilize the soil and prevent erosion/landslides. Embankments around each pond are created for stability and include plant species which thrive in moist environments. The ponds should also provide suitable environments for wetland species, which can be designed to include edible crops. Also, rainwater could be

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led using gravitational force from the neighboring high-lying structures to accumulate in the ponds. The spouts on the structures could be directed back to their current drainage positions if water levels in the ponds increase too much. In addition to the ponds, some swales are included. They are designed to be very slightly off contour in order to prevent flooding and landslides, and can be designed to feed the ponds or lead water downhill. Raised beds can be created on contour, nearly parallel to the swales, and be mulched using comfrey leaves and other plant waste. One experiment could be to build raised beds using the Holzer technique, where a base of bulky organic materials is established to retain and release water to plants, as well as acting to aerate the soil. This method also provides stability to beds on a sloped surface and significantly reduces the need for irrigation (Holzer, 2004). The beds can be alternated as desired with annual/biannual crops, perennial crops, and green manure. By having intermittent rows of perennial vegetation further stability can be established, as well as act to lessen the need for yearly propagation and sowing. The zoning of these beds will vary depending on the crops planted. Between the ponds, rainwater collection from neighboring structures, swales, drip irrigation, and mulched beds, the need for additional irrigation should be unnecessary. Zone 2 – Some windshields would be required to create due to the site’s vulnerability as a clearing. The windshields could be made as trellises with climbing plants like hops, ivy, or beans, or by grouping shrubs and trees where desired. They could be placed on the southern sides of exposed ponds for shade and to lessen evaporation. Step bridges could be constructed over the existing stream to increase access to all locations of the area, as well as over the newly built streams running to and from the ponds. Two social areas, in addition to the one in zone 0, are included to promote visitation of the entire site. A fire pit could be built for cooking vegetables and for use during events. Benches in sunny and shady locations could be constructed from various natural materials and be placed in these areas. To limit the need to walk across the entire site to the tool shed, an additional storage shed is placed uphill along the northwestern border of the site. Rows of perennial flowers and/or edible hedges (e.g. Siberian peashrubs and aronia berries) are included along the two existing pathways and are included in zone 2. Zone 3 – Along the northwestern edges of the site, a forest garden is included. Having nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs highest on the hill would benefit the entire area, as well as need limited maintenance. The majority of plant species chosen could be perennial to lessen future inputs. The list of possible forest garden species found on the bottom of Figure 8 are relevant for this location as well. Fruit and nut trees are included in various spots of the site to further stabilize the soil on steep slopes, as well as to experiment with the types of nut trees which can be grown in the Uppsala climate. Zone 4 – Two areas in the design are designated as small sculpture parks where local artists can exhibit their work.

7.2.2 SWOT Eklundshof Strengths

• Any cultivation efforts would be greatly benefited by the area’s fertile and generally well-drained soil, as well as its access to water in the form of rainwater and run-off. As ditches and streams already exist around the lower-lying areas, flooding should not be an issue.

• There is potential to cooperate with the two neighboring pre-schools and the members of the existing allotment garden association.

• Both comfrey and nettles are abundant and could be used for fertilization and mulch.

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• The high natural value of the land, as well as the municipality’s reluctance to develop anything that does not maintain or enhance biological diversity, means there is little to no competition in use of the land.

• The possibility to use sloping land is an advantage in catching and storing water. • The author already has contacts at Da Vinci pre-school and has begun to implement the design for the

school courtyard. The pre-school staff has also been encouraging in regards to developing the surrounding areas.

• The area is somewhat hidden, despite being centrally located in the midst of so many other populated structures.

• A storage shed for tools exists, as well as the school structure. While space would likely be limited, the project could possibly forgo any need of a large-scale building.

• Due to the slope and surrounding trees, there is a mix of sunny and shady areas, which creates challenges but also several different microclimates.

• There is potential to work with “Gula Stigen.” Weaknesses

• The growing season in Uppsala is short due to its latitude, limiting the hours of sunlight. Thus, the long

winter poses challenges to growing and planning. • As with the Ulleråker soil, the heavy clay onsite can be difficult to handle and prepare. • Any additional buildings would require a permit. • Marketing to attract volunteers, potential sponsors, and visitors would need to continue over time and

perhaps be widespread throughout the city. • The vicinity to two pre-schools makes having animals onsite difficult, due to allergy concerns.  

Opportunities

• It would not be difficult to incorporate educational visits from the neighboring pre-schools. Learning opportunities for children are also highly valued by the municipality. This may make obtaining support easier.

• With two different areas proposed for usage, they could display different methods and designs. This could make for a diverse showcase garden for the public.

• Financing for materials could potentially come, in part, from the pre-schools. • By involving both pre-schools and the allotment association, a contact network could be established. This

could facilitate the search for funding and obtaining materials, as well as potential volunteers and trans-generational interactions.

• Employment opportunities could be created. • The establishment of the park could create a rehabilitation location. • Food produced could be provided to the schools for student lunches. • As with the Ulleråker design,

o such a project could inspire other projects with holistic and food-productive systems. o the park could help in founding and occasionally hosting a network for urban agriculture and/or

permaculture. o animals could be borrowed from local farms. o the project could be utilized to organize events that provide learning opportunities and cultural

experiences. o internships for high schools and/or university students could be offered.

Threats

• The area is frequented by deer and hares, as well as snails and slugs. This could create challenges in protecting crops from being eaten. Fencing may be necessary.

• Involving young children is another design and construction challenge as structures and plant growth could be at risk.

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• There could be longevity concerns due to short land lease terms, reduced financial backing, or the loss of key stakeholders.

• The aforementioned decrease in population in the summer months could make finding volunteers difficult and lead to fewer visitations during the time when much of the area is in full bloom.

• There may be high costs incurred in obtaining access to the land, employing workers, and purchasing the materials needed.

• There may be difficulty motivating volunteers as there are few residents in the direct vicinity of the proposed location.

• Due to the area’s status as a highly regarded “green wedge,” there may be reluctance to develop the land. This could also limit the possibilities even if access is given.

8. Discussion Potential Benefits Based on the findings presented in this thesis and using a GST approach for a holistic perspective, a number of benefits have been identified as possible as a result of creating of a public permaculture park in Uppsala. These are listed below in three separate, yet interrelated categories: Ecological

• Displaying what is possible in the local climate using regional resources. • Exemplifying how to maximize the output of small land areas, up-cycle wastes, and extend the short

growing season. • Highlighting and teaching about less common plants which are edible, can be used medicinally, or are

beneficial for other reasons. • Positively impacting climate change. • Drawing attention to the issues surrounding the current industrial agricultural system, as well as giving a

tangible example of an alternative method of food production. Economic

• Generating employment opportunities. • Learning about and spreading information regarding opportunities for obtaining operations or expansion

financing (Possible benefactors include the European Union, Uppsala Municipality, the Swedish church, local schools, university departments, the Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen), and corporate sponsorships.).

• Lessening the local reliance on external market forces. • Giving consumers direct access to food producers, lowering the costs of seasonal products, and reducing

transportation chains. If demand were to exceed supply, the marketability of local and organic food, as well as the feasibility for more producers to begin operations, could increase.

Social

• Creating a place for rehabilitation. • Collaborating with university departments researching renewable energy or agricultural techniques. • Spreading the concept of permaculture through theoretical and practical education. • Re-introducing traditional food customs and heirloom varieties. • Underlining the importance of saving seeds, and promoting seed and plant diversity. • Providing local and healthy food to school cafeterias or hospital departments. • Creating a meeting place for socially and environmentally motivated citizens, as well as a city landmark

and a tourist attraction. • Motivating similar projects in urban agriculture and/or permaculture. • Improving food security in the city, albeit slightly. • Providing opportunities for research and development of new sustainable food production techniques.

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It should be noted that of course not all of these factors may be relevant to each specific permaculture park. Thoughts and Suggestions To lessen the costs and work involved in starting such a project, as well as to make it attractive for investment and support from private and public organizations, the following thoughts and suggestions are given: • Finding areas where buildings already exist (if they are necessary to the project) can lessen the time, effort, and costs required in the application and planning processes. • Locations where relationships can be established with people who have gardening experience in the area can help facilitate the design process and lead to valuable contacts. • Contact and cooperation with schools and rehabilitation centers before the design process begins would gauge interest and aid in incorporating their ideas into the design. • Organizations and businesses should be contacted in an attempt to receive sponsorships and discounts for materials and services. Also, applying for grants and scholarships could help fund the project. • Establish a customer network for the food produced. • Investigate topics for courses, as well as where they can take place. • Involve the local municipality and/or other relevant organizations from the beginning to learn which land they prefer using. Then integrate their priorities and goals in such a project. • Form a group interested in working to create the garden/park. This can lead to new ideas, a delegation of responsibilities based on specialization and interests, and improved designs. • Start small and in phases to increase the likelihood of success, and thus create a positive image to the public and increase support for the project and its further development. Additional Comments There are a plethora of methods of food production being used around the world which, similar to permaculture systems, attempt to mimic natural environments while producing high quantities of food. Examples include agroecology, agroforestry, certain types of organic agriculture, biodynamic farming, analogue forestry, and alley farming. Any and all of these techniques can be integrated into a permaculture system as they prioritize organic, soil improving farming based on holistic, long-term thinking. Therefore, this study does not suggest that permaculture is the only solution to the large-scale problems that industrial agriculture creates and faces. Rather, a mix of creative ideas and systems that rely on information and social cooperation, as opposed to high inputs of energy and/or labor, is preferable and necessary. It should also be noted that in order to concentrate this study’s subject matter, permaculture as a design method has focused primarily on its application to food production and achieving food security. However, as a far-reaching, holistic approach, permaculture could be used as a framework for other projects and initiatives in Uppsala as well. These could include, but are certainly not limited to, establishing riparian buffer zones for increased flood protection, large-scale landscape assessment efforts, bioregional resource management planning, general site repair, waste management schemes, and creating ecological models for economic development. The launching of a public permaculture park could merely be a first step in subsequently accomplishing some of these ideas.

9. Conclusions With two introductory level courses about permaculture held for the first time in Uppsala in 2011, exposure to the concept has increased, if only slightly. The extent to which permaculture is currently practiced in Uppsala is however still very low. Only a few principles or aspects of the concept are being implemented, and they are done so separately and in disparate areas of the city. Most of the examples where components of a permaculture design system are being used are oftentimes done without knowledge of it. It is therefore concluded that there is no clear or tangible example of a permaculture system in Uppsala. An analysis of Uppsala Municipality’s public report (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010) detailing the aims and priorities of the city’s progress towards 2030 verified sustainable development as the highest priority. The city’s definition of

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sustainable development, in this context, emphasizes three categories: (1) maintaining and improving the rights of all citizens; (2) responsible use of resources to preserve the city environment, enhance human health and ecological diversity, and make the city climate neutral; (3) the promotion of growth which increases citizens’ opportunities to develop knowledge and skills, as well as to expand opportunities for entrepreneurs in diverse fields (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010). In regards to the first category, the establishment of a public permaculture park would need to be inclusive to public visitors and could additionally integrate students of varied ages and levels, gardeners from neighboring areas, people needing rehabilitation, employees, and volunteers. As for the second category, the “Inventory and Cost Analysis” section of the thesis discussed that the use of as many locally sourced and recycled materials as possible is central to any permaculture initiative, especially when taking into consideration the GST perspective and the Pulsing Paradigm. This is as important for keeping the costs of establishing the park down as it is for showcasing uses for waste materials and lessened material and resource inputs in productive food systems. All of this can be accomplished with a limited ecological footprint. Additionally, physical labor, park visitation, and heightened consumption of organic, locally produced food would also be steps towards improving public health. Furthermore, permaculture systems stress diverse and integrated plant growth to achieve system stability and resilience. Therefore, techniques are used for naturally improving soil conditions and ecosystem health. Diversity can also be achieved by using a variety of plant and animal species, including heirloom and locally acclimated varieties. If established as a showcase garden and a course location, the third category of developing knowledge and skills could be achieved. The project itself could also be an example of entrepreneurship, which could promote similar initiatives. For these reasons, it is concluded that if properly planned and implemented, the establishment of a public permaculture park could adhere to all three aspects of the municipality’s goals for sustainable development of the city. Other points which the municipality’s vision for 2030 emphasizes are: (1) the sustainable usage and preservation of existing green areas, especially in the city center, (2) public lands being available as meeting places and business ventures, and (3) that students of all ages have access to nearby green spaces which are educationally and recreationally stimulating (Översiktsplan 2010, 2010). While this short summary does not encapsulate all the remaining goals in the municipality’s report, it does highlight the ones most central to permaculture and social initiatives. In terms of the first point, a permaculture park would definitely be considered a green area, although its establishment in certain locations, e.g., fields or forests reserved for preservation or wild animals, may not be preferred over the existing situation. While still feasible in this respect, an appropriate land area would therefore need to be chosen for a prospective permaculture park location. In regards to the second point, both case studies identified the potential for a park to act as a social center, as well as a meeting place for groups focusing on permaculture, and urban agriculture. The case studies also detailed possible income generating activities such as food sales, course administration, rehabilitation work, sponsorships, and grants. In this way, the project would be considered a business venture as well. Lastly, if a permaculture park were established in the vicinity of a school, it could offer learning opportunities in a diverse and unique green space.  The county and city legislation potentially affecting elements of a permaculture park is part of a comprehensive legal system. In the case of certain elements such as animal husbandry and selling food yields, these regulations can result in a long administrative process and accumulated fees without any certainty of approval. However, the guidelines necessitating the most preparatory work and payment are in place to ensure food safety and health, two important aspects of permaculture. Therefore, it has been determined that the legislation does not prohibit any aspect of a permaculture park per se, but may hinder quick implementation. On the other hand, it may simultaneously act as an official guarantee of safe, high-quality foods, which in turn could be used to improve product marketing efforts. Also, any application rejections could cause a great deal of extra planning and design work, as well as additional application submissions, and potentially halt certain proposal attempts. However, permaculture is an approach which aims to adapt to available conditions, and short-term hardships may need to be overcome. Another factor is that while information on relevant laws is readily available to the public online, it is not found in a concentrated format. This can entail long research times for larger and more diverse project designs. That being said, contact with any and all legislative agencies is possible, which can simplify the planning process. Perhaps the largest issue surrounding the local legislation is the necessity to pay for costly application fees, as is mentioned in the “Inventory and Cost Analysis” section. This can hinder proposals from progressing past conceptual or planning

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phases. It is therefore likely necessary for any individual or group creating a proposal to have start-up funds available. Taking all of these factors into consideration, it has been concluded that the city and county legislative framework does not prohibit the establishment of a permaculture park. However, it does have the potential to limit possibilities in specific cases. The “Inventory and Cost Analysis” section of this thesis shows that a cost of about SEK 2 million would be necessary to establish and run a modest permaculture park in Uppsala for three years. While this is an estimate which in actuality could change significantly when using different elements (e.g., more regulated and expensive animals), it does not take into account any form of sponsorships, donations, bulk or discounted price levels, existing municipality resources (apart from one automobile used on a few occasions), or possible revenue from food sales, course administration, or rehabilitation work. Therefore, it has been concluded that although an initial investment would be necessary from an external source, it could be significantly reduced through some of the measures mentioned here. The project’s feasibility should not be limited by the economic aspects of such an operation as long as there is backing for the project from the municipality and other relevant local government bodies. The two case studies conducted each included permaculture design checklists, designs, lists detailing the system elements, their functions and their connections to each other, and SWOT analyses. The Ulleråker case study entailed a large area (about 3.5 hectares) and implemented potentially costly and elaborate elements (e.g., a large structure to house a café, classroom, and storage room, as well as the construction of an amphitheater, and the procurement of numerous plants). The Eklundshof design showed a more modest approach by planning for only three small structures (a tool shed and covered area) and no animals, but included seven small ponds. The result of the case study analyses indicated that a public permaculture park in Uppsala was a viable option. This can be deduced from the fact that both case studies, as designed, can realistically help in achieving the municipality’s goals and visions for 2030, while abiding by local legislation. Both the Ulleråker and Eklundshof designs would, however, likely need to be adjusted to stay within the “Inventory and Cost Analysis” section’s budget. This study has shown that there exists supportive legislation, appropriate land and resources, and a local government with similar hopes and visions for the future to those which permaculture strives for. From a long-term perspective using GST, current industrial agricultural methods of food production and their reliance on non-renewable resources create an unsustainable food system. The general trend of intensive natural resource management and environmentally degrading practices, seen from a systems view, exhibits the same unsustainable pulse. Permaculture as a design method, due to its holistic approach concentrating on interconnected relationships, can be a suitable framework for systemic change. Creating food-producing, self-regulating, and regenerative systems which model natural ecosystems are some of the ultimate goals of permaculture design. With this, using permaculture as a design method has the potential to improve local ecosystems and stimulate local social networking and economies. As a result, this study concludes that it definitely is feasible to establish a public permaculture park in Uppsala and that doing so could lead to further sustainability initiatives in the city.

10. Recommendations Based on the results of the thesis, the following recommendations, if applied, could help to promote local initiatives and improve food security:

• Exemptions to legally obtain waste materials from local recycling centers should be granted to citizens involved in sustainability projects and initiatives. This would allow for lessened resource investment and create a higher potential for new and innovative uses of waste materials.

• Local government could take steps to encourage new projects which involve local food production and attempt to strengthen the city community. This could be done by offering employment opportunities for establishing and managing such projects, holding design competitions to encourage ideas (with project financing as the prize), starting design and implementation projects with Uppsala University and/or the Swedish Agricultural University (SLU), offering reduced or no fees for applications concerning food

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production projects, and immediately beginning soil preparation and improvement efforts in suitable and/or otherwise unused areas.

• Lower the costs of applying for a beekeeping permit as bee populations have been reduced and threatened around Europe (vanEngelsdorp, et al., 2009).

11. Acknowledgements  Particular recognition is due to Daniel A. Bergquist, my supervisor, colleague, and friend. Daniel’s enthusiasm for the topic at hand in the form of assistance in structuring and writing and practical application was enormously helpful. Thanks to my father, David Wegweiser, and my friends Christian Williams, Solène Prince, and Tor Kihlberg for giving me invaluable feedback regarding my thesis. Thanks to Per Karlström, Carolina Nordfors, and Adam Yates for their photography work. Thanks to Karin Högdahl for her time and effort in her role as the thesis coordinator for the Masters Program in Sustainable Development. I would also like to thank those involved in Flogsta Food who continue to influence me to learn more and implement ideas in the local community. Helena and Stefan von Bothmer of Kosters Trädgårdar gave me the opportunity to intern at their permaculture garden, an invaluable experience for learning about permaculture, food production, and food security. Thanks to Andrew Faust, Keith Morris, Lisa DePiano, and Mark Krawczyk at Yestermorrow Design and Build School for their excellent administration of the Permaculture Design Course I attended in October 2011. Thanks to those at Uppsala Municipality who were extremely helpful in obtaining information and maps. Lastly, thanks to those working at the Center for Environment and Development Studies (CEMUS) at Uppsala University for creating one of the best work environments I have ever been part of.

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13. Appendices

13.1 Appendix 1 - Design Checklist – Ulleråker Topography: Relatively flat, slightly downward sloping on the easternmost fourth of the defined area and raised in towards the south-western corner. The walking paths beside the west, north and east are upraised approximately .75 meters. Shade: Apart from some shading along the eastern, southern and western borders (provided mostly by tall maple trees), the rest of the garden receives full sunlight exposure. Wind: Mainly southern and southwestern winds. Northwestern winds are rarer, but still occur. Winds are potentially very damaging. Climate: Normal Uppsala climate – long, dark winters lasting 4-5 months, heavy precipitation over the course of the year, risk for frost in the late spring/early autumn. Summers exhibit varying degrees of temperature and precipitation, with a great amount of light. The location is at a low altitude – about 10 meters. The area presently has microclimates on the southern and western borders due to shade and wind protection. Soils & Geology: The area has clay soil, which is relatively loose and grainy for area standards. This is probably due to composted plant clippings, relatively undisturbed organism activity, and exposure to water. The quality varies depending on the topographical characteristics and the different plants on-site. Generally speaking, the area shows signs of relatively high fertility. Hydrology: Occasional flooding is a realistic factor, especially in the eastern part of the area, and the other low lying areas. The rest of the area (about ¾) appears to drain water well. There is a ditch along the western border, two in the center of the area and another which is along most of the eastern border. Fyris river is approximately 13 meters from the eastern border. The ridge between the river and the neighboring walking path provides relatively stable protection from flooding and erosion at a height of approximately three meters. Views: The area has beautiful views along the walking paths around the eastern, southern, and western sides, all with tree avenues. Also to the west, the view of the hospital uphill is pleasant. The area itself has natural life aplenty surrounding, and would likely be considered positive by most visitors.

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Utilities: Access to drinking water is available in the area in the form of pipes previously used for irrigation. It would need to be seen if they are still usable. Electricity exists in the nearby structures but would need to be established. Sewer systems would not need to be used due to greywater recycling and compost toilets. Council Activities: Public transport is available to the nearby hospital, from which the area is a 5-10 minute walk. Trash and recycling is currently collected from the house next to the area, so this does not seem to pose a significant problem. Traffic and access: The area is accessible by traffic, but is only allowed in the case of maintenance and state vehicles. There is pedestrian traffic along the eastern side of the area, along the river. Structures: The area has no structures, but neighbors include a residential house, a garden allotment area, a psychiatric hospital, and a school, all within 5 minutes walking distance. Vegetation: Trees - Maple is the dominating tree type. Aspen is highly prevalent below the maples along the western border. Aspen is also found in the eastern, lowered portion of the area. There are also some willow trees and a few apple trees on site. Bordering the area are numerous old apple and pear trees. Bushes - The northwestern side of the area has an abundance of raspberry bushes. There are also a few current bushes. Low lying vegetation - include thistles, dandelions, grasses, and comfrey. The vegetation seems healthy in general. Fauna: Perhaps the most obvious fauna are birds, which can be heard singing and seen flying at all times during their season. On site there are many snails and bees. Also, butterflies, ants, and spiders can be seen. Ducks may occasionally traverse up from the river, where they reside. The area is known to have deer and foxes and the ground is covered in small holes which could be from snakes, moles, mice, etc. The inhabitants of these holes are still unknown as the owners are good at hiding. History: The fields in which the design area is a part of housed a large greenhouse, built in the early 1930s. There were numerous other areas surrounding the greenhouse where there were garden beds of flowers and edible crops. This was coordinated and managed by the mental hospital staff and was used for green rehabilitation. Due to high rental fees and staff moving from the area, the greenhouse was taken down and the other garden portions were plowed and grass was sown in 1989/1990. This is apparently due to high rental fees of the area. However, it was, and is still state owned. It was later rented to a farmer who used it for grazing sheep, but it has not been used for anything in several years.

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Rules and Regulations: There do not seem to be any zoning constraints. However, any plans to build on the site would require a permit, as would getting electricity and water on-site. Future plans for the area: Owned by Uppsala County Council, the future plans of the area are unclear. From secondary sources, it has been discovered that the area may be sold, used for new housing, or rented out to farmers for grazing pasture. Resources within and outside the boundaries of the land: There is a high school as well as several departments of the university hospital (mostly psychiatric care). There is potential to receive sand, gravel, timber, mulch and stone from a state owned storage location located within a 3 minute walking distance.

13.2 Appendix 2 - Design Checklist – Eklundshof As Eklundshof has two distinct areas, each will be examined individually. The areas are: Da Vinci Pre-School and the larger, hilly area. Information has been condensed where possible. Topography: Da Vinci Pre-School - The land is highest in the western corner, being about three meters taller than the leveled portion of the schoolyard. Hill - The area is quite steep by Uppsala’s modest topographical standards. The highest locations are in the west and southwestern borders of the design boundaries (about 26meters above sea level), and the lowest along the northeast boundary (about 17meters above sea level). The area has a northeastern aspect. Shade: Da Vinci Pre-School - One of the largest challenges of developing the schoolyard is the large amount of shade provided by the bordering and well-established tree vegetation. The western areas of the schoolyard are most affected and have only limited sunlight exposure. The rest of the yard on the other hand receives considerable light. The area generally suffers from less light exposure due its location in the valley between forested areas. Hill - The surrounding tree growth is sparsest on the southern side of the area. Lying topographically higher makes the area less affected by the valley conditions than at Da Vinci Pre-School. In fact, shady areas will likely need to be created in certain parts of the site. Wind: Da Vinci Pre-School -

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The area is shielded by surrounding tree growth from southern winds, while being most susceptible to northern winds. Any eastern or western winds should be shielded by the existing surrounding plant growth. Hill - The less dense vegetation on the southern side of the area can lead to the allowance of strong northern winds. All other directions are relatively protected from incoming winds. However, wind pockets may be present and should be observed over a longer time span. Climate: Normal Uppsala climate – long, dark winters lasting 4-5 months, heavy precipitation over the course of the year, risk for frost in the late spring/early autumn. Summers exhibit varying degrees of temperature and precipitation, with a great amount of light. The entire area is a microclimate of sorts due to its location in the valley. Notes specific to each area follow: Da Vinci Pre-School - Frost and generally humid conditions may be less regular due to surrounding water sources. Most of the areas which are proposed for development on the design would retain snow shorter than other areas due to their low-lying statures. Hill - This area is slightly warmer due to its heightened exposure to sunlight. Also its slope creates pockets of snow retention, but generally there should be quick run-off/melting. Soils & Geology: Da Vinci Pre-School - Grass lawns have been sown in the schoolyard. Due to the low-lying stature in the valley, soil qualities are very nutrient rich. Surrounding vegetation indicates nitrogen and phosphorus rich clay soil. Hill – The soil is heavy clay, but very fertile. This is due to years of nutrient rich plants like comfrey and nettles growing onsite, which have died back and replenished the soil. The lack of use and visitation to the area also results in less compaction of the soil. Nutrient runoff has likely occurred on the highest-lying portions of the area. Hydrology: Da Vinci Pre-School - Drainage in the area is generally good, due to the bordering ditches and slope of the area. Hill - The area is sloped relatively steeply and drainage is therefore very effective. Also inhibiting drainage are two connecting ditches which can be seen in Figure 12. Views:

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Da Vinci Pre-School - A small bridge over one of the ditches can be seen, as well as forest, Polacksbackens förskola (the other area pre-school), a bike path, water streams, ‘Gula Stigen’, and unkempt fields. Hill - One can also see ‘Gula Stigen’, Polacksbackens förskola, forest, and the unkempt fields from this area, as well as some buildings within Uppsala Science Park. Utilities: Da Vinci Pre-School - The school area is equipped with running water, electricity, and sewage and bathroom facilities. Hill - There are no utilities known to be available. Council Activities: Da Vinci Pre-School - The school currently has waste disposal and recycling. Hill - The neighboring buildings within Uppsala Science Park have waste disposal and recycling which might be able to be shared. The same might be true for the pre-schools. Traffic and access: There are several buses which stop within a five minute walking distance on the southern, western and northern sides of all the areas. Da Vinci Pre-School - There is full access to the area by automobile. There are also several biking and walking paths which pass the schoolyard. Hill - There is automobile access to the Uppsala Science Park area on top of the hill (west/southwest) and to the pre-schools (east and south), but not directly to the area itself. A walking path exists. Structures: Da Vinci Pre-School - The school itself, a large ramp attached to the school, a fence surrounding the school yard, and a neighboring storage building make up the structures of the pre-school.

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Hill - No structures are present. Vegetation: Da Vinci Pre-School - Trees – Maple and a handful of ash trees. Bushes – Planted currant and raspberry bushes. Low lying vegetation – Grass and comfrey. Hill - Trees – Rowan, maple, ash, and birch trees. Bushes – Rose hip and wild raspberries. Low lying vegetation – Comfrey, grasses, nettles, thistles, and dandelions. Fauna: Da Vinci Pre-School and Hill - Birds, snails, bees, butterflies, ants, squirrels, ticks, and spiders. Hill - Deer, hares, and foxes frequent the area. Moles, mice, and snakes are also about. History: Da Vinci Pre-School - The building was originally part of one of the many structures within Uppsala’s military regiment as a cafeteria for high ranking military officers. This ceased in the 1980’s, upon which it was used as a hotel and conference center. Due to leaking and poor insulation, this was discontinued. After years of the building not being used, the proposal of a new pre-school was put forth in order to partially lessen the high demand for and the low supply of pre-school availability. In January 2010 the pre-school was officially in operation. Hill – This area has not been found to have been used for anything in particular in the past. Rules and Regulations: Da Vinci Pre-School - The school and school yard are ‘kulturmärkta’ areas (classified as historically significant by the state). No changes can be made to the schoolhouse that do not help preserve its current appearance. Any changes to the schoolyard must first be brought up with the responsible parties within Uppsala Municipality. In the author's correspondence with the school staff, it has been said that this process is time consuming and can be difficult.

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Hill - There do not seem to be any zoning constraints. However, any plans to build on the site would require a permit, as would installing utilities. Future plans for the area: Da Vinci Pre-School - The pre-school is recently established and has no plans of stopping operations in the near future. Hill - There are currently no plans to develop or change the management in these areas. Resources within and outside the boundaries of the land: Resources could be obtained from the forest as long as it is in reasonable amounts which do not have any measurable effect on the forest itself and the organisms which depend on the forest. Comfrey is abundant for fertilization and mulch material. Water can be taken from the surrounding streams, rooftop runoff, and municipal water sources. The neighboring university departments and bio-tech companies may be interested in getting involved, be it by way of sponsorship or volunteers. The garden allotment association (Ruddammsdalens Odlarförening) should be able to inform about their experiences with the soils in the area as well as provide some volunteer help. There is the possibility to collect composted horse manure and composted household waste from locations in Uppsala at no cost. The same could be true for other waste materials which could be collected from construction sites and used for building. Several beehives are located about 150meters north of Da Vinci pre-school. Da Vinci Pre-School - The parents of the students are said to be interested in starting a garden in the schoolyard. Cooperation with this group would give access to a diverse network of contacts.

13.3 Appendix 3 - Elements, Functions and Connections – Ulleråker Straw bale house • Can be built using local resources (clay, straw) • Water collection • Greywater led to sump to negate needs for a sewer system • Course room • Art exhibition from local schools Chickens • Eggs • Manure • Meat • Eat food waste • Insect control • Warmth in greenhouse • Portable home • Public attraction

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Rabbits • Warmth in greenhouse • Manure • Meat • Eat food waste • Public attraction Biochar stove/grill • Warmth • Electricity • Cooking method • Display • Experiment • Carbon Storage • Soil improvement • Burning biomass Mandala Keyhole Gardens • Wind protection • Suitable for central water sprinklers to provide even irrigation • Maximization of a small area and height • Aesthetical • Create shade • Produce compost • Create microclimates • Diversity in a small area Forest Garden • Showcase garden • Experimental area • Potential course project • Perennial plants improve soil structure • Wind protection Outdoor greenhouse • Winter shelter for chickens and rabbits • Place for plant propagation • Wind protection • Heated with Jean Pain Mounds • Irrigated with gravity-fed rainwater from the straw bale house Swale and raised bed with black locust windshield • Gravity-fed irrigation • Create a microclimate for plants • Experimental area

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Amphitheater • Music • Theater • Course use • Presentations Social Areas – Sculpture park, outdoor gym, obstacle course, badminton and bocce courts, playground, picnic area • Attract a variety of visitors • Promote physical and outdoor activity • Encourage social networking Willow, alders, elberberry, and swamp white oak trees • Wood to build trellises • Weaving material • Biomass • Possible biofuel • Windshield Worm Farming • Fertilizer tea • Compost worms • Benefit from shade

Entire Project • Showcase garden • Green rehabilitation • Diversity • Learning center – permaculture, food systems, gardening, design, social projects, food preservation, sustainability issues

13.4 Appendix 4 - Elements, Functions and Connections – Eklundshof Ponds, Swales and Raised Beds • Water management technique • Use sloped surfaces by slowing the flow of water in order to utilize for irrigation • Allow water to flow off of the land in times of heavy precipitation Fruit Bushes and Trees • Add to soil stability on slope • Produce a yield • Aesthetically pleasing

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Fire Pit • Cooking area • Ash can be used in composts or on fruit bushes • Social area Covered Area • Provides shelter • Possible course location • Meeting place Worm Farming • Fertilizer tea • Compost worms • Benefit from shade

Forest Garden • Showcase garden • Experiment • Course project • Perennial plants improve soil structure Entire Project • Showcase garden • Green rehabilitation • Educational opportunities for pre-school children, local students, and visitors • Produce can be sold or can be provided to the nearby hospitals or schools

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13.5 Appendix 5 – Tools and Supplies – Inventory and Cost Analysis Table

Tools and Supplies   Quantity   Cost (sek)  Total (sek)

             wheelbarrows¹   2   349   698 garden hoes ¹   2   199   398 spades ¹   5   329   1,645 pitchforks ¹   4   359   1,436 rakes ¹   2   149   298 trowels ¹   5   50   250 pruning shears ¹   2   89   178 scythe ¹   1   1,000   1,000 hedge shears ¹   2   399   798 ax ¹   1   299   299 gloves ¹   10   20   200 watering cans ¹   3   30   90 hose (20m) ¹   2   139   278 hose connection pieces and nozzles ¹   2   169   338 water barrel (200L) ¹   1   279   279 buckets ¹   2   60   120 baskets ¹   2   40   80 handsaws ¹   2   199   398 hammers ¹   2   70   140 screwdriver set ¹   1   200   200 battery operated drill ¹   1   1,000   1,000 knives ¹   2   150   300 string ¹   5   19   95 nails ¹   3   50   150 screws ¹   3   50   150 seeds ²   20   25   500 bushes   10   0   0 trees ³   6   600   3,600            

     Total Cost   14,918

¹ - (Bauhaus, 2011)            ² - (Runåbergs Fröer, 2011)            ³ - (Plantagen, 2011)            

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13.6 Appendix 6 – Materials and Transport – Inventory and Cost Analysis Table

Materials       Cost                 Cardboard or newspaper       0    Compost       0    Manure       0    Mulch material       0    Wood, plastic, glass, and metal       0                              Transport   Quantity   Cost (sek)   Total (sek)              Automobile fuel   4   800   3,200 Rental of trailer ¹   6   395   2,370                      Total Cost 5,570              ¹ - OK (2011)