A Dissertation on Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution in Tons River of Dehradun District,...

7/30/2019 A Dissertation on Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution in Tons River of Dehradun District, Uttarakhand

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A

DISSERTATION REPORT

ON

NON-POINT SOURCE POLUTION

IN TONS RIVER OF DEHRADUN DISTRICT,

UTTARAKHAND

Under the supervision of

DR.C.K.JAINSCIENTIST F & HEAD,

ENVIRONMENTHYDROLOGYDIVISION

NATIONALINSTITUTEOFHYDROLOGYROORKEE

By

SHARIQUEANJUM

M.Sc. Environment Management (2011-1

ECOLOGY&ENVIRONMENT DIVISIONFORESTRESEARCHINSTITUTE

DEHRADUN

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the

Degree of

M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

2011-2013


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Dr. Ramesh K. Aima , IFS

Dean (Academic)Phone : 0135-2752682 (O)

Fax : 0135-2752682

EPABX : 0135-2224452(O)

E-mail : [email protected]

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (DEEMED) UNIVERSITY

(INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH & EDUCATION)

P.O.: I.P.E. KAULAGARH ROAD, DEHRADUN-248195

CERTIFICATEThis is to certify that the dissertation report entitled Assessment of Non -

point source poll ution in Tons River of Dehradun distri ct, Uttarakhand is a

bonafide work carried out by Mr. Sharique Anjum, student of M.Sc.

Environment Management course (2011-2013) of Forest Research Institute

(Deemed) University, Dehradun and submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for M.Sc. Environment Management course degree programme.

The work has been carried out under the supervision of Dr. C.K. Jain,

Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of

Hydrology, Roorkee.

Date: Dr. Ramesh Kumar Aima, IFS

Place: Dehradun Dean (Academic)

FRI University


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Dated:

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Divisional Attachment work entitled Assessment

of Non-point source pollu tion in Tons River of Dehradun distr ict, Uttarakhand

is a work carried out under my guidance by Sharique Anjum, student of 4th

semester M.Sc Environment Management course (2011-13) of Forest Research

Institute University, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE),

Dehradun submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for M.Sc

Environment Management, 2011-2013.

Place: DEHRADUN Dr. C. K. JAIN

Date:


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Page | 4

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTEIndian Council of Forestry Research & Education

(An autonomous body of Ministry of Environmental & Forests, Govt. of India)

P.O. NEW FOREST, DEHRADUN- UTTARAKHAND -248006

Dated:

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation work entitled Assessment of Non-point

source pollu tion in Tons River of Dehradun distr ict, Uttarakhand is a record

of bonafide work carried out by me under the guidance of Dr. C. K. Jain,

Scientist F & Head, Environment Hydrology Division, National Institute of

Hydrology, Roorkee for my partial fulfilment for the award of the M.Sc.

Environment Management. This project has not been submitted for any other

degree/ certificate in any institute/ university.

Place: Dehradun Sharique Anjum

Date: M.Sc. (EM) 4th Sem

2011- 13


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I consider the completion of this research as dedication and support of a group of people rather

than my individual effort. I wish to express gratitude to everyone who assisted me to fulfill this

work.

First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my guide, Dr. C. K. Jain, who has supported

me throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge while allowing me the room to work

in my own way. I attribute the level of my Masters degree to his encouragement and effort and

without him this thesis, too, would not have been completed or written. One simply could not

wish for a better or friendlier supervisor.

In addition, I would like to acknowledge Water Quality Lab, National Institute of Hydrology,

Roorkee especially Dr. Mukesh Sharma, & In charge of Water Quality Lab and Mr. Rakesh

Goyal Senior Lab Technician for providing the research facilities that allowed me the

opportunity to learn and expand my knowledge of Flow and Water quality data.

I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Mr. Manoj Kumar, Research

Officer, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division, FRI and Dr. Mridula Negi course co-

coordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me their precious suggestions and

opportunity to carry out my dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.

I also wish to extend my thanks to all my friends who really helped me in every possible way

they could.

I am very grateful to all other members for their helpful suggestions during my entire course

work of the Department of Environmental Hydrology and Director, National Institute of

Hydrology, Roorkee for providing all the facilities needed for this project work.


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I am also thankful to Forest Research Institute, Dehradun especially Dr. Mridula Negi course co-

coordinator M.Sc. Environment Management for providing me an opportunity to carry out my

dissertation work in such an esteemed organization.

Last but certainly not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents for their

encouragement. The goal of obtaining a Masters degree is a long term commitment, and their

patience and moral support have seen me through to the end.

And the most important I bow to Lord Almighty and thank him for being with me throughout my

work, and making it possible.

Dated (Sharique Anjum)


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ABSTRACT

Non point source pollution is an important problem related to the water quality and

environmental management of Rivers. There are number of studies aimed at understanding the

process of controlling non-point source pollution (NPS) concentration, fluxes in the river

systems and the quantification of the daily and annual pollutant loads to the rivers and streams

have been accomplished in the past. But in this regard, there are very few work in India. In the

present study, a surface water quality survey with special emphasis on nitrate, phosphate,

potassium and total suspended solids for non point source pollution in River tons of Dehradun

district, Uttarakhand has been done. The main objective of this study is to assess the non point

source pollution of Tons river and the associated streams that flow into the Tons and to analyze

the effect of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities on the surface water quality of Tons

river.


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title of Figures Page No.

Fig 3.1 Tons River and Sampling Points 24

Fig 3.3 General plan of the sampling points in Tons River 32

Fig 5.1 Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at

different sampling points 38

Fig 5.2 Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-)at


Fig 5.3 Chart showing Concentration of Potassium (K)at



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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title of Table Page No.

Fig 3.1 Soil Types of Dehradun 29

Fig 4.1 Conversion formula used for determining

daily pollutant load 35

Fig 5.1 Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at different

sampling points 37

Fig 5.2 Concentration of Phosphate (PO4-)at different

sampling points 39

Fig 5.3 Concentration of Potassium (K)at different

sampling points 41

Fig 5.4 Concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS)at


Fig 5.5 Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location 43

Fig 5.6 Concentration of Pollutant at all sampling location

and their relevant national & international guidelines 44

Fig 5.7 Table for converting concentration of pollutant into

daily pollutant load 45

Fig 5.8 Daily pollutant load in different streams 46


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BIS - Bureau of Indian Standard

CPCB - Central Pollution Control BoardEPA - Environment Protection Act

FAO - Food and Agricultural Organisation

GIS - Geographical Information SystemIS - Indian Standard

K - Potassium

Mg/L - Milligram per LitreMT - Metric Tonne(s)

NO3 - Nitrate

NPK - Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium

NPS - Non point SourcePO4 - Phosphate

Q - Discharge

SPCB - State Pollution Control BoardTSS - Total Suspended Solids

- Velocity

USEPA - United States Environment Protection Act

WHO - World Health OrganisationWMO - World Meteorological Organisation


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

CERTIFICATE i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1

1.1Nutrients 3

1.1.1 Nitrogen 5

1.1.2 Phosphorous 9

1.1.3 Potassium 13

1.2 Total Suspended Solid (TSS) 15

CHAPTER 2- REVIEW OF LITERATURE 16

CHAPTER 3-THE STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION 23

3.1Tons River 23

3.2 Dehradu district 25

3.3 Data Collection 30

CHAPTER 4-METHODOLOGY 34

4.1 Laboratory Analysis 27

4.2 Mathematical Approach 27

4.3 Remote Sensing and GeographicalInformation System (GIS) Applications 28


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CHAPTER 5-RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 37

CHAPTER 6-SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 47

REFERENCES 49


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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Water is important to individuals, society and natural ecosystems as life cannot exist without a

dependable supply of suitable quality water. The water in rivers plays an important role in

meeting the essential requirements for the development of a country and serves as a source of

water supply for domestic and industrial purposes, for agriculture, fisheries and hydro-power

development. With growth and development, the demand for water has increased tremendously

and its uses have become much more varied.

The term water quality was coined with reference to the quality of water required for human use

(i.e. drinking, agricultural and industrial purposes). This term entirely human prospective does

not hold true for all aquatic organisms or ecosystems (Dallas and Day, 1993). The quality of

water can be negatively influenced by natural phenomena, but the main reason for impaired

water quality is contamination caused by human activities. Urban and industrial development,

use of chemical and fertilizers in farming, mining activities, combustion of fossil fuels, stream-

channel alteration, animal feeding operations, and other human activities has changed the quality

of natural waters.

It has been found that the global freshwater consumption raised by six times at above twice the

rate of population growth from the literature during 1900 and 1995 (WMO, 1997). In Africa and

West Asia water quality problems are most sensitive but in many other areas, including China,

India and Indonesia water deficient is a major limitation to industrial and socio-economic growth

(Roger, 1998).

River systems can be considered as arteries of the land supplying life giving water to an

abundance of organisms whilst at the same time supporting modern civilizations (King et al.,

2003). Indian rivers are polluted due to discharge of organic sewage and industrial effluents. The

water quality monitoring of major rivers indicates that organic pollution and almost all the water

sources from surface are infected to some extent.


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The pollution that enters the receiving surface water diffusely at intermittent intervals refers to

the non-point source pollution. Nonpoint source of pollution are the hydrologic rainfall-runoff

transformation processes which is basically attached with water quality components (Notovny,

V. and Chesters, G., 1981) and mainly derived from activities on land, from urban runoff, waste

disposal, construction, irrigation modification in hydrology, agriculture, and individual sewage

disposal (Robinson and Ragan, 1993). Mainly in aquatic environments both nitrates and ortho-

phosphate is present in small amount to maintain the growth and metabolism of plants and

animals. Intolerable levels of nitrates and phosphates have been depleting the dissolved oxygen

levels by causing algae blooms. High amounts of phosphates and nitrates due to eutrophication,

is a main source of lake ecosystems destruction around the world.

The primary agricultural NPS pollutants are nutrients, sediment, animal wastes, salts, and

pesticides. Agricultural activities also have the potential to directly impact the habitat of aquatic

species through physical disturbances caused by livestock or equipment. Although agricultural

NPS pollution is a serious problem nationally, a great deal has been accomplished over the past

several decades in terms of sediment and nutrient reduction from privately-owned agricultural

lands. Much has been learned in the recent past about more effective ways to prevent and reduce

NPS pollution from agricultural activities.

A major threat to aquatic ecosystems which can be lead to severe pollution problem is nutrient

enrichment. Nutrients are important building blocks for healthy aquatic ecosystems and are

generally non toxic even in high concentrations; however this can change with alterations in

environmental parameters such as ph and temperature. Increased nutrient levels (especially

nitrogen and phosphorus) can result in over stimulated growth of aquatic weeds and algae and

can ultimately lead to oxygen depletion resulting in a eutrophic system. The occurrence of

nutrients in aquatic ecosystems is closely linked to activities in the catchment, such as natural

weathering, agricultural runoff and disposal of untreated or partially treated wastes (Medikizela

and Dye 2001; Kumari, 1984).


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Nutrients are essential elements for the primary productivity of any aquatic ecosystem (Williams,

et al., 2003) and include nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon among others. The nutrient dynamics

are influenced by different factors such as the weather, geology and soil type, drainage pattern

and weathering processes. Nutrients occur in various sources and forms. Within the aquatic

ecosystems, phosphorus and nitrogen roles can vary (Howarth, 1988; McCarthy, 1981. Nitrogen

occurs in numerous forms such as dissolved molecular nitrogen, a large number of organic

compounds such as amino acids, amines, proteins, nitrates, nitrite and ammonium (Wetzel,

1983). Sources of nitrogen include precipitation falling directly from onto the lake surface,

nitrogen fixation in the water and sediments, input from the surface and ground water recharge.

In marine ecosystems nitrogen is the liming nutrient for phytoplankton growth (Smith, 1984)

while phosphorus frequently is a limiting nutrient in fresh water systems (Howarth, 1988).

To manage the quality of natural water bodies that are subjected to pollutant inputs, one must be

able to predict the degradation in quality that results from such inputs.

1.1 Nutrients

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two major nutrients from agricultural land that degrade

water quality. Nutrients are applied to agricultural land in several different forms and come from

various sources. The agricultural sources of non point source pollution are discussed below.

Commercial fertilizer in a dry or fluid form, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium

(K), secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;

Manure from animal production facilities including bedding and other wastes added to

the manure, containing NPK secondary nutrients, micronutrients, salts, some metals, and

organics;

Municipal and industrial treatment plant sludge, containing NPK secondary nutrients,

micronutrients, salts, metals, and organic solids;

Municipal and industrial treatment plant effluent, containing NPK secondary nutrients,

micronutrients, salts, metals, and organics;

Legumes and crop residues containing NPK secondary nutrients, and micronutrients;


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Irrigation water;

Wildlife; and

Atmospheric deposition of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.

In addition, decomposition of organic matter and crop residue may be a source of mobile forms

of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential crop nutrients.

Surface water runoff from agricultural lands may transport the following pollutants:

Particulate-bound nutrients, chemicals, and metals, such as phosphorus, organic nitrogen,

and metals applied with some organic wastes;

Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals, and many other

major and minor nutrients;

Particulate organic solids, oxygen-demanding material, and bacteria, viruses, and other

microorganisms applied with some organic waste; and

Salts.

Ground water infiltration from agricultural lands to which nutrients have been applied may

transport the following pollutants:

Soluble nutrients and chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, metals;

Other major and minor nutrients;

All plants require nutrients for growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus generally are present in aquatic

environments at background or natural levels below 0.3 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. When these

nutrients are introduced into a stream, lake, or estuary at higher rates, aquatic plant productivity

may increase dramatically. This process, referred to as cultural eutrophication, may adversely

affect the suitability of the water for other uses.

Excessive aquatic plant productivity results in the addition to the system of more organic

material, which eventually dies and decays. Bacteria decomposing this organic matter produce

unpleasant odors and deplete the oxygen supply avail-able to other aquatic organisms. Depleted


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oxygen levels, especially in colder bottom waters where dead organic matter tends to

accumulate, can reduce the quality of fish habitat and encourage the propagation of fish that are

adapted to less oxygen or to warmer surface waters. Anaerobic conditions can also cause the

release of additional nutrients from bottom sediments.

1.1.1 Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is

usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic

nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of

nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium

nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen

comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994).

All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved

ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are

potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the

digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia),

resulting in brain damage or even death. The U.S. Environmental Protectiom Agency has set a

limit of 10 mg/l nitrate-nitrogen in water used for human consumption (USEPA, 1989a).

Nitrate can get into water directly as the result of runoff of fertilizers containing nitrate. Some

nitrate enters water from the atmosphere, which carries nitrogen-containing compounds derived

from automobiles and other sources. Nitrate can also be formed in water bodies through the

oxidation of other forms of nitrogen, including nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen

compounds such as amino acids. Ammonia and organic nitrogen can enter water through sewage

effluent and runoff from land where manure has been applied or stored.

As per government of India records as on 31-1-2007 the Indian Fertilizer Industry has made aproduction at 120.61 MT of nitrogen (N) and 56.59 MT of phosphate (P) nutrient.

Sources of Nitrogen: Although nitrogen is abundant naturally in the environment, it is also

introduced through sewage and fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers or animal manure is commonly

applied to crops to add nutrients. It may be difficult or expensive to retain on site all nitrogen


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brought on to farms for feed or fertilizer and generated by animal manure. Unless specialized

structures have been built on the farms, heavy rains can generate runoff containing these

materials into nearby streams and lakes. Wastewater-treatment facilities that do not specifically

remove nitrogen can also lead to excess levels of nitrogen in surface or groundwater.

Nitrogen ends up in the environment mainly through agricultural processes, and thereby also

ends up in water. The main sources of nitrogen compounds in water are fertilizers that mainly

contain nitrate, but also ammonia, ammonium, urea and amines. The most widely applied

nitrogen fertilizers are probably NaNO3 (sodium nitrate) and NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate). After

fertilization, crops take up a relatively small part of added nitrogen compounds, namely 25-30%.

The residue ends up in groundwater and surface water through soils, because nitrates are water

soluble. Organic fertilizers mainly contain nitrogen as proteins, urea or amines, which havedifferent mechanisms of absorption. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and

potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. They may also grow legumes

and leave crop residues to enhance production. When these sources exceed plant needs, or are

applied just before it rains, nutrients can wash into aquatic ecosystems (USEPA, 2005).

Nitrogen transport poses a concern when present in excess of plant needs and when water is

available to transport it into water bodies. Nitrate and nitrite both are mobile and available, but

nitrate is present in soil and water in far larger quantities. Nitrite is the intermediate step in

nitrification, and it exists under most soil conditions for only a short amount of time in low

concentrations (NM 3). Leaching of nitrate and nitrite and potential movement into ground water

is most likely with high precipitation, volatilized ammonia gas may be deposited directly on

surface waters or transported first to terrestrial areas and then to water bodies (NM 3).

Ammonia is toxic to fish and aquatic vegetation when it exists in excessive amounts. It may also

react with acidic gases in the atmosphere, forming ammonium salts that impact soil and water

when deposited.

Forms of Nitrogen:Nitrogen is required by all organisms for the basic processes of life to make

proteins, to grow, and to reproduce. Nitrogen is very common and found in many forms in the

environment. Inorganic forms include nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), ammonia (NH3), and nitrogen

gas (N2). Organic nitrogen is found in the cells of all living things and is a component of


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proteins, peptides, and amino acids. Nitrogen is most abundant in Earths environment as N2 gas,

which makes up about 78 percent of the air we breathe.

Nitrate (NO3) is highly soluble (dissolves easily) in water and is stable over a wide range of

environmental conditions. It is easily transported in streams and groundwater. Nitrates feed

plankton (microscopic plants and animals that live in water), aquatic plants, and algae, which are

then eaten by fish.

Nitrite (NO2) is relatively short-lived in water because it is quickly converted to nitrate by

bacteria.

Ammonia, another inorganic form of nitrogen, is the least stable form of nitrogen in water.

Ammonia is easily transformed to nitrate in waters that contain oxygen and can be transformed

to nitrogen gas in waters that are low in oxygen. Ammonia is found in water in two forms - the

ammonium ion (NH4+), and dissolved, unionized (no electrical charge) ammonia gas (NH3).

Total ammonia is the sum of ammonium and unionized ammonia. The dominant form depends

on the pH and temperature of the water.

The reaction between the two forms is shown by this equation:

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

Effect of Nitrogen: Nitrogen-containing compounds act as nutrients in streams and rivers.

Nitrate reactions [NO3-

] in fresh water can cause oxygen depletion. Thus, aquatic organisms

depending on the supply of oxygen in the stream will die. The major routes of entry of nitrogen

into bodies of water are municipal and industrial wastewater, septic tanks, feed lot discharges,

animal wastes (including birds and fish) and discharges from car exhausts. Bacteria in water

quickly convert nitrites [NO2-

] to nitrates [NO3-

].

Eutrophication is the slow, natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes and is responsible

for the "aging" of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Excessive amounts of nutrients, especially

nitrogen and phosphorus, speed up the eutrophication process. As algae grow and then

decompose they deplete the dissolved oxygen in the water. This condition usually results in fish


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kills, offensive odors, unsightliness, and reduced attractiveness of the water for recreation and

other public uses. These poor conditions have been observed in eastern North Carolina in the

Neuse, Chowan, and Pamlico river systems. However, this condition occurs only when excessive

nutrients are present; a certain amount of nitrogen and phosphorus is essential for any life to

exist in water.

Excessive nitrate (NO3) in drinking water can cause human and animal health problems,

particularly for small babies. The United States Public Health Service has established a specific

standard of 10 milligrams of nitrate nitrogen per liter as the maximum concentration safe for

human consumption. Problems in adults that drink water with excessive nitrate are essentially

nonexistent and are rare in infants. The principal sources of nitrate and nitrite (NO2) for adults

are vegetables and cured meats, which supply more than 95 percent of the total nitrate in typicaldiets. Less than 1 percent is from drinking water if it comes from a low-nitrate source, as is

usually the case.

Nitrate toxicity does occur in livestock, and the nitrate concentrations that produce toxicity are

much higher than those for humans. Nitrate poisoning in livestock depends more on nitrate in

feed than in water. Nitrate-contaminated water is usually a problem only when it adds to high

nitrate concentrations already present in some feeds.

Nitrites can produce a serious condition in fish called "brown blood disease." Nitrites also react

directly with hemoglobin in human blood and other warm-blooded animals to produce

methemoglobin. Methemoglobin destroys the ability of red blood cells to transport oxygen. This

condition is especially serious in babies under three months of age. It causes a condition known

as methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" disease. Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l

should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrate levels

below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish.

1.1.2 Phosphorus

Phosphorus exists naturally in rocks. An important source of phosphorus is phosphate rock,

which contains the mineral apatite. Rocks release phosphorus as they erode under normal

weather conditions. Phosphorus enters freshwater systems in four main ways: (i) atmospheric


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inputs, including rain and dust; (ii) point (discrete) sources, including sewage treatment plants

and industrial effluents; (iii) non-point (diffuse) sources, including stormwater, agricultural, and

land clearing runoff; and (iv) non-point sources from within the water system, including washout

from riverbanks and re-suspension from sediments (internal loading). The rate at which

phosphorus loads enter freshwater systems varies with land use, geology, morphology of the

drainage basin, soil productivity, human activities, and pollution (CWQG, 2005).

Phosphorus is an essential element for plant growth and agricultural productivity. Fertilizer

commonly supplies the crop phosphorus requirement or replenishes P removed from a harvested

crop biomass. High value crops demand intensive management in order to remain competitive.

In these cases, farmers tend to hedge their bets by fertilizing in excess of the crop requirement

determined by a calibrated soil test. Over the long term, this practice will increase soil P

accumulation, the risk of off-site movement, and leaching in sandy-textured soils.

Animal agriculture also contributes to increased buildup of phosphorus in soils. Intensive

confined livestock production areas or cattle feeding accumulate large amounts of both solid and

liquid manure, which through land application are used as nutrient sources for crop production.

A typical dairy lagoon waste has a 1.2:1 ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus. If manure is applied

based on the nitrogen needs of the crop, phosphorus will also be applied in the same proportions

irrespective of the soil test based crop phosphorus requirement. Manure transport is often not

economical with extended distances, so the surrounding land area generally receives much of the

manure, and with the manure comes additional, often unneeded phosphorus. In due course,

phosphorus buildup in the soil will result. High levels of phosphorus may saturate the capacity of

the soil to hold P, increasing the risk for off-site movement and negatively impacting the quality

of the receiving water bodies.

Sources of Phosphorus:Non-point source of potassium include natural decomposition of rocks

and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric

deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; nutrient losses from manure and waste products

spread over large agricultural fields, sediment from eroded soils, nutrient leaching or runoff from

residential or agricultural areas, etc. Sediment particles may carry adsorbed phosphorus

molecules along during runoff. Industrial agriculture, with its reliance on phosphate-rich

fertilizers, is the primary source of excess phosphorus responsible for degrading rivers and lakes

(Carpenter, 2008). Industrial wastes and domestic sewage are the major urban sources of nutrient


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overload, responsible for 50% of the total amount of phosphorus unloaded into lakes from

human settlements ( Smith, Tilman and Nikola, 1999). Subsequently this phosphorus may

eventually detach and become soluble in water. Because most water bodies are phosphorus

impoverished, even a minute amount of soluble phosphorus can result in algal blooms and

become an environmental concern. Point sources are easily located and controlled, whereas non-

point sources of pollution are often very difficult to control in spite of complex management

practices. Therefore, prevention approaches are more effective solutions to the problem than

post-occurrence management.

Nonpoint sources of phosphorus include soil erosion and water runoff from cropland, lawns and

gardens, home waste treatment systems, livestock pastures, rangeland, and even forests. Urban

areas may produce significant nonpoint source phosphorus runoff due to over-application of

fertilizer to lawns and gardens. Homeowners who apply fertilizer without following soil test

recommendation eventually build up very high soil test phosphorus levels that can become

significant sources of phosphorus in runoff. And most importantly, fertilizer, pet waste, and lawn

clippings left on driveways, sidewalks, or streets are a direct source of pollution through storm

drains in urban areas (Smolen).

Forms of Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the key element of concern because the natural occurrence

of P in surface water bodies is minimal. Therefore, even a minute amount of phosphorus entering

a water body can trigger a significant algal boom (although Nitrogen (N) and Carbon (C) are

required for algal growth), lowering light penetration and dissolved oxygen levels; it also causes

aesthetic degradation of surface water bodies. In some extreme cases, algal blooms can be

harmful to human health.

Phosphorus has a complicated story. Pure, "elemental" phosphorus (P) is rare. In nature,

phosphorus usually exists as part of a phosphate molecule (PO4). Orthophosphate is in a form

that is immediately available to aquatic biota. Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations

in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas

and Day, 1983). Phosphorus in aquatic systems occurs as organic phosphate and inorganic

phosphate. Organic phosphate consists of a phosphate molecule associated with a carbon-based

molecule, as in plant or animal tissue. Phosphate that is not associated with organic material is


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inorganic. Inorganic phosphorus is the form required by plants. Animals can use either organic or

inorganic phosphate. Both organic and inorganic phosphorus can either be dissolved in the water

or suspended (attached to particles in the water column).

Effect of Phosphorus: On a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation

between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder,

2002). Since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing as the use of

phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more common

(Litike, 1999). Consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than would be

naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001). Even increases in

minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and

Green, 2006). According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an

algal bloom to the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)

Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for larger

organisms, including: zooplankton, fish, humans, and other mammals. Plankton represents the

base of the food chain. Initially, this increased productivity will cause an increase in the fish

population and overall biological diversity of the system. But as the phosphate loading continues

and there is a build-up of phosphate in the lake or surface water ecosystem, the aging process of

lake or surface water ecosystem will be accelerated. Theoverproduction of lake or water

bodycan lead to an imbalance in the nutrient and material cycling process. Eutrophication (from

the Greek - meaning "well nourished") is enhanced production of primary producers resulting in

reduced stability of the ecosystem. Excessive nutrient inputs, usually nitrogen and phosphate,

have been shown to be the main cause of eutrophication over the past 30 years. This aging

process can result in large fluctuations in the lake water quality and trophic status and in some

cases periodic blooms of cyanobacteria.

In situations where eutrophication occurs, the natural cycles become overwhelmed by an excess

of one or more of the following: nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, or organic waste. The

excessive inputs, usually a result of human activity and development, appear to cause an
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imbalance in the "production versus consumption" of living material (biomass) in an ecosystem.

The system then reacts by producing more phytoplankton/vegetation than can be consumed by

ecosystem. This overproduction can lead to a variety of problems ranging from anoxic waters

(through decomposition) to toxic algal blooms and decrease in diversity, food supply and habitat

destruction. Eutrophication as a water quality issue has had a high profile since the late 1980s,

following the widespread occurrence of blue-green algal blooms in some fresh waters. Some

blue-green algae can at times produce toxins, which are harmful to humans, pets and farm

animals.

Underaerobic conditions, the natural cycles may be more or less in balance until an excess of

nitrate (nitrogen) and/or phosphate enters the system. At this time the water plants and algae

begin to grow more rapidly than normal. As this happens there is also an excess die off of theplants and algae as sunlight is blocked at lower levels. Bacteria try to decompose the organic

waste, consuming the oxygen, and releasing more phosphate which is known as "recycling or

internal cycling". Some of the phosphate may be precipitated as iron phosphate and stored in the

sediment where it can then be released if anoxic conditions develop.

In anaerobic conditions, as conditions worsen as more phosphates and nitrates may be added to

the water, all of the oxygen may be used up by bacteria in trying to decompose all of the waste.

Different bacteria continue to carry on decomposition reactions; however the products are

drastically different. The carbon is converted to methane gas instead of carbon dioxide; sulfur is

converted to hydrogen sulfide gas. Some of the sulfide may be precipitated as iron sulfide. Under

anaerobic conditions the iron phosphate precipitates in the sediments may be released from the

sediments making the phosphate bioavailable. This is a key component of the growth and decay

cycle. The pond, stream, or lake may gradually fill with decaying and partially decomposed

plant materials to make a swamp, which is the natural aging process. The problem is that this

process has been significantly accelerated.

1.1.3 Potassium

Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. Because large amounts are absorbed from

the root zone in the production of most agronomic crops, it is classified as a macronutrient.

Minnesota soils can supply some K for crop production, but when the supply from the soil is not


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adequate, K must be supplied in a fertilizer program. This publication provides information

important to the basic understanding of K nutrition of plants, its reaction in soils, its function in

plants, and its role in efficient crop production.

Potassium occurs in various minerals, from which it may be dissolved through weathering

processes. Examples are feldspars (orthoclase and microcline), which are however not very

significant for potassium compounds production, and chlorine minerals carnalite and sylvite,

which are most favourable for production purposes. Some clay minerals contain potassium. It

ends up in seawater through natural processes, where it mainly settles in sediments.

Elementary potassium is extracted from potassium chloride, but does not serve many purposes

because of its extensive reactive power. It is applied in alloys and in organic synthesis.

A number of potassium compounds, mainly potassium nitrate, are popular synthetic

fertilizers.95% of commercially applied potassium is added to synthetic fertilizers. Potassium

salts and mixtures of magnesium and calcium compounds are also applied regularly.

Regeneration releases wastewater that is hazardous when discharged on surface water, and that is

difficult to purify.

Forms of Potassium: The main forms of potassium that effect human health are potassium

bromated, potassium fluoride and potassium cyanide.

Sources of Potassium: Potassium is also present in various minerals and, after a weathering

process, it can go to the oceans through the rivers. However, potassium content in rocks and soils

is lower than that of sodium and, therefore, a lower potassium ion content in the river water is

expected. Besides, sodium salts are more soluble in water than potassium salts and, frequently,

potassium settled in sediments. Most of the potassium ion content in rivers comes from

fertilizers, particularly from the potassium nitrate present in them. Farmers apply nutrients such

as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge

(USEPA, 2005).

Effects of Potassium: Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does

play a key role in a vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein

synthesis to maintenance of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in

high concentrations in soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds.

Generally, wastewater contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants


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theoretical demand, and use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative

environmental impacts (Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995).Potassium is an dietary requirement

for nearly any organism but a number of bacteria, because it plays an important role in nerve

functions.

Potassium plays a central role in plant growth, and it often limits it. Potassium from dead plant

and animal material is often bound to clay minerals in soils, before it dissolves in water.

Consequently, it is readily taken up by plants again. Ploughing may disturb this natural process.

Consequently, potassium fertilizer are often added to agricultural soils. Plants contain about 2%

potassium (dry mass) on average, but values may vary from 0.1-6.8%. Mosquito larvae contain

between 0.5 and 0.6% potassium, and beetles contain between 0.6 and 0.9% potassium (dry

mass). Potassium salts may kill plant cells because of high osmotic activity.

Potassium is weakly hazardous in water, but it does spread pretty rapidly, because of its

relatively high mobility and low transformation potential. Potassium toxicity is usually caused by

other components in a compound, for example cyanide in potassium cyanide.

TheLD50value for rats is 5 mg/kg. For potassium bromate this is 321 mg/kg, and for potassium

fluoride this is 245 mg/kg. Examples of LD50 values for water organisms include 132 mg/L for

fish and 1.16 mg/l for daphnia.

One of three naturally occurring potassium isotopes is40

K, which is radioactive. It is suspected

this compound causes plant an animal gene modifications. However, it does not have a radio

toxicity class, because of its natural origin. There is a total of twelve instable potassium isotopes.

1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not pass

through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many types of industrial

Waste water. TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse materials

such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in the

definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are

measured by TSS.
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Sources: There are also nonpoint sources of suspended solids, such as soil erosion from

agricultural and construction sites.

Effects: As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity

of aquatic life. Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water temperature

and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen (warmer water holds less oxygen than

cooler water). Some cold water species, such as trout and stoneflies, are especially sensitive to

changes in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis also decreases, since less light penetrates the water.

As less oxygen is produced by plants and algae, there is a further drop in dissolved oxygen

levels. TSS can also destroy fish habitat because suspended solids settle to the bottom and can

eventually blanket the river bed. Suspended solids can smother the eggs of fish and aquatic

insects, and can suffocate newly-hatched insect larvae. Suspended solids can also harm fish

directly by clogging gills, reducing growth rates, and lowering resistance to disease. Changes to

the aquatic environment may result in a diminished food sources, and increased difficulties in

finding food. Natural movements and migrations of aquatic populations may be disrupted.


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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Indias major, minor and several hundred small rivers receive a large amount of sewage,

industrial and agricultural wastes. Most of the rivers in India have been degraded to sewage

flowing drains and harmful chemicals present in it during past two decades. There are serious

water quality problems in the towns and the villages due to flow of un-hygienic water through

these areas. The organic and inorganic chemical fertilizers applied in agriculture fields and the

effluents from industries have the greatest detrimental effect on the stream. Models are required

to predict the outcome of various processes operating within a system and the change in

concentration of substances within fluid systems. The analysis of enrichment of nutrients (i.e.

nitrate, phosphate and potassium) in a reach of a river has occupied a large portion of the

literature on water quality modeling. These nutrients are basically responsible for eutrophication

of water bodies which make it unsuitable for use for many purposes. It allows growth of

microorganism which further adds to degradation of these water bodies. Excess nitrogen cancause overstimulation of growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these

organisms, in turn, can clog water intakes, use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and

block light to deeper waters. Lake and reservoireutrophication can occur, which produces

unsightly scum of algae on the water surface, can occasionally result in fish kills, and can even

"kill" a lake by depriving it of oxygen. The respiration efficiency of fish and aquatic

invertebrates can occur, leading to a decrease in animal and plant diversity, and affects our use of

the water for fishing, swimming, and boating. Too much nitrogen, as nitrate, in drinking water

can be harmful to young infants or young livestock. Excessive nitrate can result in restriction of

oxygen transport in the bloodstream. Infants under the age of 4 months lack the enzyme

necessary to correct this condition ("blue baby syndrome"). In parts of Eastern Europe where

groundwater is contaminated with 50-100 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of nitrate, pregnant women

and children under 1 year of age are supplied with bottled water.

Many eminent researchers had worked previously on non-point source pollution in rivers and

streams with emphasis on agriculture runoff which helped me a lot for my dissertation work.
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The effect of algal growth and bacterial action on oxygen deficit was studied by OConnor and

Di O Connor (1970).

The biochemical oxygen demand exertion rate exhibits a higher value at higher concentration of

microorganisms. (Agarwal and Bhargava, 1977).

It has been reported Orthophosphate is in a form that is immediately available to aquatic biota.

Phosphorus is seldom found in high concentrations in non-polluted water due to the fact that it is

utilized by plants and sequestered by cells (Dallas and Day, 1983).

Study of the temporal trend of Niagara River with respect to pH, alkalinity, total phosphorous

and nitrates using statistical approach (EI-Shaarawi et al.,1983).

A hydro-chemical study of natural waters with reference to the waste effluent disposal in the

upper part of Hindon basin in Saharanpur area (Patel, 1985).

The changes in the concentrations of BOD and DO due to non-point sources within the river was

studied. (The Thomman and Muller model, 1987).

A large proportion of the annual phosphorus loads may be exported during short periods of high

flows, particularly after a long period of low flows, during which there is high retention of

phosphorus (e.g. Dorioz et al., 1989).

All forms of transported nitrogen are potential contributors to water quality problems. Dissolved

ammonia at concentrations above 0.2 mg/l may be toxic to fish. Nitrates in drinking water are

potentially dangerous, especially to newborn infants. Nitrate is converted to nitrite in the

digestive tract, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (methanoglobinemia),

resulting in brain damage or even death (USEPA, 1989)

The chemical characteristics of surface water of the Hindon river system and the ground water

with the objective to assess the synoptic quality of the water for various specified uses. (Seth,

1991).

Experiment shows that since 1950, phosphorus inputs to the environment have been in - creasing

as the use of phosphate-containing fertilizer, manure, and laundry detergent has become more

common (Litike, 1999).

A one-dimensional water quality model addressing nutrient transport and kinetic interactions of

phytoplankton, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand and dissolved

oxygen into the water column in river system by adopting a finite segment approach were

developed (Karim and Budruzzaman, 1999).


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It has been recorded that consequently, humans release 75% more phosphorus to the soil than

would be naturally deposited by weathering of rock (Bennet, Carpenter, Caraco, 2001).

Dissolved oxygen mass balance was computed for different reaches of river Kali to obtain the

reaeration coefficient (K) a refined predictive reaeration equation for the river Kali was

developed (Jha et al.,2001).

The concentrations of metal ions determined in major effluent drains joining the Yamuna River

are assessed. It is apparent from the results that the concentrations of metal ions vary

significantly in different drains depending on the nature and flow of waste effluents. In general

the concentration of metal ions were found higher in post-monsoon season (Imran and Jain,

2001).

A modeling showing relationship between land use and surface water quality. From the model

results, it was apparent that runoff from agricultural as well as impervious urban land use had

much more nitrogen and phosphorus. (Tong and Chen, 2002).

It has been reported that on a global basis, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation

between total phosphorus inputs and algal biomass in lakes (Anderson Gilbert and Burkholder,

2002).

Long term annual mass balance studies of phosphorus have highlighted the great variability of

phosphorus retention at catchment scale (Meyer and Likens, 1979; Baker and Richards, 2002).

The repeated use of water and irrigation-induced erosion are related to phosphorus enrichment in

the irrigation water. As some of this water runs off into streams and rivers, it can enrich river

water phosphorus levels. The total phosphorus in the Malheur River is very high during spring

runoff in February and March, after which time the phosphorus level drops in April, only to rise

again with the onset of the irrigation season in May and June (Shock and Pratt, 2003).

There is a wide variety of factors that influence how nutrients derived from particular types of

sources, such as ag land runoff, impact the fertility of water bodies receiving this runoff. An area

of particular concern to agricultural interests is the availability of phosphorus in ag land runoff to

support algal growth in the waters receiving this runoff (Lee et al, 2004).

A reaeration coefficient (k2) predictive equation based on Froude number criteria and least

square algorithms by evaluating different commonly used predictive equations for the reaeration

rate coefficient using 231 data sets obtained from the literature and 576 data sets measured at

different reaches of the river Kali in western Uttar Pradesh was developed. (Jha et al., 2004).


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It has been reported that sensitivity of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen

levels may be beneficial during early growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later

flowering and fruiting stages, consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater,

can be used as a fertilizer early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other

sources of water later in the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 2004).

It has been reported that excessive phosphorus in a freshwater system increases plant and algal

growth. This can lead to: changes in number and type of plants and animals; increases in animal

growth and size; increases in turbidity; more organic matter falling to the bottom of the system in

the form of dead plants and animals; and losses of oxygen in the water. When there is no oxygen

at the bottom of a freshwater system, phosphorus that previously had been locked in the sediment

can be released back into the water. This is called internal loading and exacerbates the problem

of excessively high productivity(CWQG, 2005).

The re-aeration coefficient (k2) using data sets measured at different reaches of the Kali River in

India by using the artificial neural network (ANN) method was estimated (Jain and Jha, 2005).

In Udhampur district (Jammu and Kashmir) water samples were collected from wells, springs

and rivers in parts of the during pre and post monsoon seasons were analyzed to evaluate

drinking water quality on the basis of BIS and irrigation water quality on the basis of salinity,

residual sodium carbonate and concentration of toxic elements. (Singh et al., 2005).

A modified approach based on the conservation of mass and reaction kinetics has been derived to

estimate the inflow of non-point source pollutants from a river reach. Two water quality

variables, namely, nitrate (NO3) and ortho-phosphate (o-PO4), which are main contributors as

non-point source pollution, were monitored at four locations of River Kali, western Uttar

Pradesh, India, and used for calibration and validation of the model (Jha et al., 2005).

It has been reported that even increases in minute amounts of the nutrient can stimulate

tremendous growth and productivity (Addy and Green, 2006).Hydrochemistry of surface water (pH, specific conductance, total dissolved solids, sulfate,

chloride, nitrate, bicarbonate, hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium) in the

Mahanadi river estuarine system, India was used to assess the quality of water for agricultural

purposes. Chemical data were used for mathematical calculations (SAR, Na%, RSC, potential

salinity, permeability index, Kellys index, magnesium hazard, osmotic pressure and salt index)


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for better understanding the suitability river water quality for agricultural purposes(Sundaray et

al., 2008 ).

According to an estimate, 400 grams of phosphates could potentially induce an algal bloom to

the extent of 350 tons (Sharma, 2009)

It has been reported TSS is not a measure of all pollutants carried by water runoff. Coarse

materials such as street sand and trash, and dissolved chemicals like chloride are not included in

the definition of TSS. Only fine particles of sediment, and the pollutants that attach to them, are

measured by TSS (David, 2009).

An estimation of the water quality of Mahanadi and its distributary rivers and streams,

Atharabanki River and Taldanda Canal adjoining Paradip was studied in three different seasons

namely summer, premonsoon and winter by (Samantray, 2009).

An estimation of Point and Non Point Sources PollutionA Case Study of Timah Tasoh Lake in

Perlis, Malaysia was carried out and it reveals the level of BOD, COD, DO, E-coli and turbidity

were identified as polluted water quality were classified into classes which range of IIA to V

according to classification of river water standard, NWQS for Malaysia and DOE Water Quality

Index Classification. The level of pH and NH3-N was classified into Class I which is acceptable

concentration. Both point and non point sources pollution of Tasoh River and Pelarit River, both

have potential to increase the pollution rate in the lake areas and also Korok River

(Kamarudzaman et al., 2011).


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Chapter 3

STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION

Present study was carried out in the Tons River and three major streams that flow in it namely

Nun, Nalota and Birhant River which lie in the Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. The study area

lies between 3020 to 3024N and 7758 to 785E. The Himalayan Mountain ranges have

very youthful and rugged topography with deep river gorges, steep valley slopes, wide flood

plains, asymmetric river basin with sinuous rivers and streams.

3.1 The Tons River

The Tons river is which lies between 7739E to 7813E and 3026N to 312N the largest

tributary of the Yamuna and flows through Garhwal region in Uttarakhand, touching

Himachal Pradesh. Its source lies in the 20,720 ft (6,315 meters) high Bandarpunch

mountain, and is one of the most major perennial Indian Himalayan rivers. The three major

streams has been identified for the assessment of non point source pollution in tons river in

which anthropogenic, agricultural activities effluents, sewage, etc. are degrading the surface and

ground water quality.

The Tons river proper comes into being at a place named Devasu Thoch where two rivers

Harkidun Gad from Jaundar Bamak glacier and Ruinsara Gad from Bandarpunch glacier meet. It

travels for a distance of about 190 km before it confluences with river Yamuna at Haripur. It

course is sinuous, which flows roughly in North East-South West, North South and North West-

South East directions respectively from its source in the North to the outlet in the south (Munda

and Kotiyal, 2005).


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Fig 3.1: Tons River and Sampling Points

3.2 Dehradun district


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Location of the Dehradun District: Dehradun, is the capital city of the Uttarakhand state, lies

between latitudes 29 55' and 30 30' and longitudes 77 35' and 78 24' Fig. 1.1. It comprises

townships of Vikasnagar, industrial area of Selaqui and townships of Rishikesh. The district head

quarter lies in an intermontane Doon valley surrounded by the lesser Himalayan ranges in the

north and Siwalik hills in the south, the river Ganga in the east, and the river Yamuna in the

west. The water divide of Ganga and Yamuna passes through the city. The study area has humid

subtropical to tropical climate with heavy precipitation during July to September, moderate to

high sunshine, humidity and evaporation. The average annual precipitation is about 205 cm in

Dehradun district and about 150cm in Haridwar district (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

The climate of the district, in general, is temperate. In the hilly regions, the summer is pleasant

but in the Doon Valley, the heat is often intense. The temperature drops below freezing point not

only at high altitudes but also even at places like Dehradun during the winters, when the higher

peaks are under snow. The summer starts by March and lasts up mid of June when the monsoon

sets in. Generally May and June are hottest month with mean temperature ranging from 35-38C.

Winter starts from November and continue up to February. The average temperature during

winter remains between 17-20C.

Monsoon starts by the mid of June and lasts up to September. The district receives an average

annual rainfall of 2073.3 mm. Most of the rainfall is received during the period from June to

September, July and August being the wettest months. The region around Raipur gets the

maximum rainfall, while the southern part receives the least rainfall in the district. About 87% of

the annual rainfall is received during the period June to September.

Physiography of Dehradun District: In the Shivalik range of outer Himalaya, there are number

of longitudinal valleys called Duns. The Doon valley is a synclinal depression between the

Lesser Himalayan Mountains in the north and Sub Himalayan Siwalik hills in the south. Aligned

parallel to the general trend of Himalaya, it is veritable intermontane valley, bottom of which is

filled up with thick detritus shed from overlooking hill slopes. Broadly the Doon valley can be

divided into three different slopes: Northeastern slope of Siwalik, Doon Valley proper and

southwestern slope of outer Himalaya range. The northeastern slopes of Siwaliks are quite steep

in higher reaches and have fewer gradients lower down. These are cut by a large number of


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short, shallow and boulder stream which carry discharge into As an, Susa and Song rivers. The

southern slopes are very steep and are covered with poor vegetation (Bartariya and Bahukhandi,

2012).

Geology of Dehradun district: Geological structure of Doon valley is characterized by two

major faults, crustal and fractures along with rock slabs of mountain mass have been uplifted and

moved southward. The Doon valley and Siwalik range is principally composed of the rocks

classified into the Lower, the Middle and the Upper Siwaliks. The southern limb of the Doon

valley and Siwalik range are made up of the Middle and Upper Siwalik. The Middle Siwalik area

composed of 1500 -1800 m thick fluviatile sediments. They consist of sandstone mudstone

couplets in the lower part and a multistory sandstone complex in the upper part with few pebbly

horizons to the top. This sequence of the Middle Siwalik passes transitionally upwards into

thickly bedded conglomerate of the Upper Siwalik. The conglomerates are composed

predominant of pebbles and boulders of sandstone, limestone and quartzite derived from the

lower Himalaya similar to that of Mussoorie range. The lower Siwalik is exposed on limited

outcrops on the northern limb of the Doon valley. It is made of purple clay and sandstone. The

rock of Siwalik Group overlain by the Doon gravel, sand and boulders with clay bands, filled up

the large part of the Doon valley. The thickness of Doon gravel is variable from 52 to > 500

meters in the central of the valley (Bartariya and Bahukhandi, 2012).

Drainage Pattern of Dehradun: An intermontane, Doon valley is characterized by the As an

and Song river. A single valley, apparently, consists of two shallow valleys, the western and the

eastern Doon valley respectively. The two rivers are separated by a low water divide, running

from Mohand Pass to Landour at Mussoorie. The river tons are the main tributary of As an in

western part of the valley discharging their water to Yamuna. Rispana, Bindal, Suswa, Jakhan

are in the eastern part of the Doon valley and discharge their water to the Song and then to

Ganga. The perennial rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, emanating from glaciers are forming the

eastern and western limit of Doon Valley. Other source of water include spring present in Lesser

Himalaya and Siwalik range and dug wells (though mostly abandoned at present), hand pump


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and tube well drawing water from shallow and deep aquifers respectively (Bartariya and

Bahukhandi, 2012).

Hydrogeology of Dehradun: Initially by Saxena (1974); Kainthola et al. (1988), and Roy, A.K.

(1991) has provided the initial hydrogeological framework of the Doon Valley. Latter, Bartarya

(1995) has given detailed hydrogeology of the Doon valley. Geohydrological, the structurally

controlled intermontane Doon Valley is divisible into three zones (Bartarya, 1995):

1. The Lesser Himalayan zone;

2. The Synclinal Central zone; and

3. The Siwalik zone.

The steeply sloping Lesser Himalayan Zoneconsisting of rocks of the Lesser Himalayan

formations (phyllites and quartzite, shales, sandstone, greywackes, slates, dolomite and

limestone of Jaunsar, Blaini-Krol-Tal sequence) has secondary porosity and permeability, and is

characterized by springs and seepages. The Syncli nal Central Zonea synclinal depression

between Lesser Himalaya and Siwalik is occupied by Doon Gravel. The Doon gravels have

primary porosity and permeability and forms the main aquifer in the area. The groundwater is

present in multilayered aquifers under unconfined and semi confined conditions. The subsurface

geohydrology indicates that the horizons comprising boulders and gravels set in a coarse sandy

matrix are the main water-bearing horizons. The discharge from the tube wells varies from 600

to 3000 l/min through a tapped horizon of 30 to 50 m with a depression of 2 to 7 m.

The Siwal ik zoneconsists of rocks of Middle (friable, medium grained, grey-coloured massive

sandstone and mudstone) and Upper Siwalik (alternate polymictic conglomerate and subordinate

grey micaceous sandstone). Groundwater is present under semi-confined and confined conditions

and the water table is relatively deep. Although, the conglomerate unit of the Upper Siwalik is

highly porous and permeable, water quickly leaves the area as surface runoff.


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Geomorphology and Geomorphic Divisions: Dehradun district may be divided into four

geomorphological units namely alluvium, piedmont fan deposits, structural and denudational

hills and residual hills.

Alluvium: This unit is represented by unconsolidated and loose admixture of sand, gravel,

pebbles, silt and clay of varied grades deposited in the form of terraces along Asan, Song, Tons,

Yamuna, Ganges etc. and in the intermontane valley as well. These are represented by

unconsolidated material like sand, gravel, silt and clay. The terraces are formed by river cuttings

followed by deposition of eroded and transported material in step like features along the river.

Piedmont Fan Deposits: The area comprising of Dun gravels formed of numerous coalesced

fans constitute this unit. The older Dun gravels belong to the upper realm of principal Doon fans

whereas the younger and youngest duns belong to lower realm of principal Doon fans and dip

controlled pedimont fans respectively.

Denudational and Structural Hills: The denudational and structural hills comprise Siwalik and

Lesser Himalayan Ranges. The Siwaliks are exposed as a narrow band all along the southern

boundary of Doon Valley and also in isolated patches. These hills have undergone severe

denudation, weathering and erosion, making steep to moderate slopes.

Residual Hills: The residual hills are mostly formed by erosion and are the remnants of post

Upper Siwalik deposits. These are called Older Doon Gravels or Langha Boulder Beds. Boulder

beds, shales and red clay represent this unit. The residual hills are present in Doiwala and Vikas

Nagar blocks.

Soil Types: The nature and soil type play an important role in agriculture and have direct elation

with groundwater recharge. Physiography, climate, drainage and geology of the area are the

factors responsible for the nature and type of soil and soil cover. The soil type also depends upon

the slope and rate of erosion. The soil types of district Dehradun are given in Table 3.1:

Table 3.1: Soil Types of Dehradun


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Physiography Characteristics Taxonomic Classification

Mountains Moderately deep, well-

drained, thermic coarse loamysoils on steep slopes, strong,

stoniness, associated withshallow excessively drained,loamy skeletal soil.

Loamy skeletal, Dystric

Eutrochrepts, Fine loamylithic and typic Hapludolls-

Loamy skeletal typicUdrothants

Soils on Upper piedmont

plains

Deep, well-drained, coarse

loamy cover, fragmental soils

on heavy gentle slope withloamy surface and slight

erosion.

Associated with excessively

drained soils with loamy

surface and slight to moderateerosion

Deep, well- drained, fine tocoarse loamy surface and

slight to moderate erosion

Udifluventic

Ustochrepts

Typic Ustipsamments

Udic Ustorchre

Soil on Lower piedmont plains Deep, well- drained, coarse

loamy cover over fragmentalsoils on nearly level plains

with loamy surface.

Associated with deep, well

drained, fine loamy soil withloamy surface.

Deep, well drained, fine silty

soil on very gentle slopes withloamy surface and slight

erosion

Deep, well drained, fine to

coarse loamy surface andslight to moderate erosion,

silty soil with loamy surface

Udifluventic

Ustochrepts

Udic Ustochrepts

Udic Haplustolls

Udic Ustochrepts

3.2 Data CollectionTo collect water quality samples for measurements, nine sampling points at different locations in a

stretch of 9 km of river Tons have been selected. A line diagram of Tons river basin along with

sampling points is shown in Figure 3.2 To add, water samples collected from 9 points located along

Tons, Nun, Birhant and Nalota River were included in the study used for the analysis. Also, for


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calculating stream discharge and daily maximum loads of pollutants like (NO3, PO4, K and TSS),

data regarding width of the streams, depth and velocity of water in streams have been collected from

5 sampling points viz. Tons upstream Nalota (TUNL), Nalota (NAL), Birhant (BIR), Nun (NUN)

and Tons downstream Nun (TUNI).

The monitoring and analysis of water quality data and hydraulic parameters in field were conducted

during February and March, 2013. Some of the important variables monitored and analyzed in the

field are categorized as:

Nutrients: Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K).

Hydraulic Parameters: Width of River, Depth of Flow, Flow Velocity and Cross-

sectional areas.

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

All the samples were collected at about 15 cm. depth from three location across the river and

stored in pre-cleaned polythene bottles.

The depth of flow across any section of the River Tons was measured by the measuring rod and

velocity was measured using by floating of standard floats.

For nutrients Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4) and Potassium (K) and for Total suspended Solids

(TSS), water samples were collected from different river reaches were preserved by adding

appropriate reagent. The samples were brought to the laboratory, in sampling kits maintained at 4C,

for detailed chemical analysis.


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Important water quality variables reactive in nature and hydraulic variables were also monitored

at all the sampling points simultaneously. The descriptions of all the sampling points are

discussed below:

Tons river upstream river Nalota is the 1st

sampling location (TUNL).

Nalota river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 2nd

sampling location (NAL).

Tons river downstream river Nalota is the 3rd sampling location (TUNL).

Tons river upstream river Birhant is the 4th sampling location (TUBI).

Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 5th sampling location (BIR).

Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 6th

sampling location (TDBI).

Tons river upstream river Nun is the 7th sampling location (TUNI).

Birhant river before flowing down to the Tons River is the 8th sampling location (NUN).

Tons river downstream river Birhant is the 9th

sampling location (TDNI).


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Chapter 4

METHODOLOGY

Tons river in Uttarakhand, India is one of the most important tributaries of Yamuna River.

Within its 190 kms length various human based community live and it has a significant socio-

economic value for nearby areas. It receives many point and on-point source of pollution due to

various anthropogenic activites occurring on its sides such as, tourists, effluents, agriculture, etc.

The methodology adopted for the present study is described below:

4.1 Laboratory Analysis

Water samples were collected from nine sampling points starting from Tons before Nalota River

to Tons after Nun river in the Month of February and March 2013 to estimate Nitrate, Phosphate,

Potassium and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). All the samples were collected at about 10-15 cm

depth to avoid floating material from these points.

The cross sectional area, water depth and velocity parameters were monitored at five sampling

sites to compute variation in river discharges over a specific time period.. The flow data were

obtained in the same period in which water samples were collected for analysis of NO 3, PO4, K

and TSS concentrations.

Sample of nitrate determination were preserved by acidifying with ultra pure concentrated

sulphuric acid to pH


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Therefore,

The velocity of the flow ( ) = Time taken by float (sec)

20 mts

Discharge (Q) = Area (A) Velocity ( )

Daily load: To convert from concentration and flow to daily load in metric tons, multiply the

product of concentration and flow by the appropriate constant. This is shown in table 4.1:

Table 4.1 Conversion formula used for determining daily pollutant load

Concentration Units Flow Units Constant

mg/L m3/sec 0.0864

g/L ft3/sec 2.447

mg/L ft3/sec 0.002447

g/L m3/sec 86.4g/L m3/sec 0.000864

(Richards, 1997)

For example, if the flow is 375 m3/sec and the concentration is 1.32 mg/L, the daily load is

L = 375 * 1.32 * 0.0864 = 427.68 metric tons

4.3 Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) ApplicationsFor mapping the study area of River Tons, Dehradun topo sheet (base map) No. 53F15 and 53J4

of Dehradun were procured fro survey of India. These maps were later digitized with the help of

ERDAS IMAGINE, ARC GIS, Global Mapper and Google Earth softwares for the extraction of

basin boundary, drainage pattern, point maps of spot height and built up area. The maps were

stored as point map, segmented map and polygon map.

Chapter 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a necessary primary macronutrient for plants that stimulates plant growth and is

usually added as a fertilizer but can also be found in wastewater as nitrate, ammonia, organic

nitrogen or nitrite (FAO 2006). The most important factor for plants is the total amount of


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nitrogen (N) regardless of whether it is in the form of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium

nitrogen (NH4-N) or organic-nitrogen (Org-N) but by reporting in the form of total nitrogen

comparisons can be made (Ayres and Westcot 1994). If excess nitrogen is applied to the crop it

can result in: over-stimulation and excessive growth which attracts pests; delayed maturity; or a

reduction in the quality of the crop. The concentration of nitrogen required varies according to

the crop with more sensitive crops being affected by nitrogen concentrations above 5 mg l-1,

whilst most other crops are relatively unaffected until nitrogen exceeds 30 mg l-1. The sensitivity

of crops also varies with the growth stage; high nitrogen levels may be beneficial during early

growth stages but may cause yield losses during the later flowering and fruiting stages,

consequently high nitrogen water, including domestic wastewater, can be used as a fertilizer

early in the season but should ideally be reduced or blended with other sources of water later in

the growth cycle (Ayres and Westcot 19944).

Table 5.1: Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-) at different sampling points

S.

No.

Sampling Points Nitrate (NO3-)

Mg/L

WHO

Water

Standards

IS

2296

Water Standards

IS

10500

Water Standards

1 TUNL 5.28 30 mg/L

Nitrate in

permitted

drinking water

20 & 50 mg/L

Nitrate is

permitted in

Surface Water

45 mg/L water is

permitted in

drinking water.2 NAL 4.84

3 TDNL 2.64

4 TUBI 11

5 BIR 3.52

6 TDBI 1.76

7 TUNI 3.08

8 NUN 3.08

9 TDNI 3.52

Nitrogen is known to be a sensitive component in rice culture because excessive nitrogen

application can cause lodging of rice plants (Yoon et al. 2001). In general, the nitrogen levels in

the project area were fairly low and were all below 20-30 mg/l.. The total nitrate concentration of

the surface water was below the WHO (1998) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. The

concentration of Nitrate across different sampling point is shown in Table 5.1.


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Fig 5.1: Chart showing Concentration of Nitrate (NO3-)at different sampling points

Nitrate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 1.76-11mg/l

(Fig.5.1). Almost all the sites have shown significantly high (p


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Municipal wastewater with 6-20 mg l-1 phosphorous increases the productivity of the crops and

when the concentration exceeds 20 mg l-1 the availability of copper, iron and zinc is reduced in

alkaline soils (WHO 2006). Wastewater normally contains low amounts of phosphorous, so its

use for irrigation is beneficial and does not negatively impact the environment. This is the case

even when wastewater effluents with high concentration of phosphorous are applied over long

periods of time although, because phosphorous builds up at the soil surface, it can affect surface

waters through soil erosion and runoff (WHO 2006). The concentration of Potassium across

different sampling point is shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Concentration ofPhosphate (PO4)at different sampling points

S. No. Sampling Points Phosphate (PO4) Mg/L WHO

Water Standards

1 TUNL 0.1 Up to 5 mg/LPhosphate is

permitted in drinking

water

2 NAL 0.14

3 TDNL 0.18

4 TUBI 0.26

5 BIR 0.04

6 TDBI 0.27

7 TUNI 0.09

8 NUN 0.24

9 TDNI 0.31


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Fig 5.2: Chart showing Concentration of Phosphate (PO4

-) at different sampling points

Phosphate concentration of Tons river in various sampling point fluctuated from 0.04-0.27 mg/l

(Fig 5.2). These findings are in accordance with Indian standard and WHO standards. High

concentration of these parameters had derived from anthropogenic sources like untreated

domestic sewage, agricultural watershed & storm water containing phosphorous and nitrogenous

compounds and sometimes increased nitrate content may also be caused by acid rain and exhaust

gases (Kido et al., 2009).

Potassium

Potassium is not an integral part of any major plant component but it does play a key role in a

vast array of physiological processes vital to plant growth, from protein synthesis to maintenance

of plant water balance. Potassium is a macro-nutrient that is present in high concentrations in

soils but is not bio-available since it is bound to other compounds. Generally, wastewater

contains low potassium concentrations insufficient to cover the plants theoretical demand, and

use of wastewater in agriculture does not normally cause negative environmental impacts

(Mikklesen and Camberato, 1995). The concentration of Potassium across different samplingpoint is shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Concentration ofPotassium (K)at different sampling points

0.1

0.14

0.18

0.26

0.04

0.27

0.09

0.24

0.31

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

TUNL NAL TDNL TUBI BIR TDBI TUNI NUN TDNI

Phosphate (PO4-) Mg/L

7/30/2019 A Dissertation on Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution i

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