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1978

A Cross-Cultural Study of Client's Expectationsand Preferences of Directive vs. NondirectiveCounseling ApproachesChing-Chuen ChanEastern Illinois UniversityThis research is a product of the graduate program in Psychology at Eastern Illinois University. Find out moreabout the program.

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Recommended CitationChan, Ching-Chuen, "A Cross-Cultural Study of Client's Expectations and Preferences of Directive vs. Nondirective CounselingApproaches" (1978). Masters Theses. 3224.https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/3224

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pdm

A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF CLIENT'S EXPECTATIONS

AND PREFERENCES OF DIRECTIVE VS. NONDIRECTIVE COUNSELING APPROACHES

(TITLE)

BY

CHING-CHUEN CHAN

THESIS

SUBMlmD IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

Master of Arts in Psychology

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL, EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY

CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

1978 YEAR

I HEREBY RECOMMEND THIS THESIS BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING

THIS PART OF THE GRADUATE D_�GJEE CITED ABOVE

t3r�z11,11 .h �,.tP�

WARTMENT HEAD

/

A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF CLIENT ' S EXPECTATIONS

AND PREFERENCES OF DIRECTIVE VS. NONDIRECTIVE COUNSELING APPROACH

BY

CHING-CHUEN CHAN

Mas t e r o f Arts in Ps y cholog y , U n i v ers i ty of Mi n n e s o t a, 1977

ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

S u bmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requireme nts For the Degree of Maste r of Arts in Psycho l o gy at the Graduate School

of Eas t e r n Illinois U n ivers i t y .

. 1

Abstract

Theoretical and data based research has suggested t hat clients'

expectation of counselo r an d co u nseling approaches are important variables

affecting the cou nseling procedures. Clients' preferences for diffe rent

theore tically derived approac h were also found to b e important deter-

minants of counseling outcome. Howev e r, litt l e research has bee n done

on the cross-cultural aspect of client' s expec tatio n and p refere nces

regarding counseling. The prese nt study examined and compared t he

diffe rences of expectationsand prefe rences of directive vs. n o ndirect ive

approach between Chinese a nd Ame rica n college stu dents. It w a s hypo the-

sized that t he au tho ritarian upbringing of C hinese students would in-

· fluence their preference and expect a tions of counseling in f avor of a

directive approach.

T hir ty-three Chinese college student s and thirty-thr e e American col-

lege students p a rtic i p a t e d in t he curren t study. A film of Carl Rog e r s

and Alb e r t Ellis from the film s eries "T h ree approaches to psychotherapy"

was shown a nd used as a mo del of a non directive a n d directive tech nique

r e s pe c t ively. T his film shows bo t h Rogers and Ellis using their approaches

with the same client. The Counseling Expectati o n Questionnaire (CEQ)

which measures students' e xpectation of directiveness in counseling

situatio n was adminis tered immediately prior to the film showing and the

Counseling Preference Question n aire ( CPQ ) which measures pr e f e rences

for a di rect ive vs . n o n d i re c t ive cou n se l i ng ap p roach was a dmini s t e r e d

imme d i a t ely a f t e� t he fil m showi ng.

Dat a a n alysis i ndicate d tha t s ignif i c a n t d iffe re nces existe d

(p<.01) be tween g roups o n t he expectatio n o f di r e ct ive n e s s in coun­

seling with C hinese student s i nd icat i ng a gre ate r expect a t ion f o r d i r­

ect ive n e ss i n cou n s e l i ng . Howeve r, n o s ignificant difference s we re f o u n d

betwe e n g r oup o n p r eference s a s measu r e d by t h e variab l e of pe rceiv e d

helpfu lness o f coun s e l o r; p refe re nce s f o r dir ective ness o n the g e n e ral

prob l e m s o l v i ng dime ns i o n and for the specific problem so lvi ng dime n­

sion . There we r e differences o n p refe r e nce s for direct ive ne s s along

the spe c i f ic problem s olving dimension within ea c h g r oup which suggests

that p reference s for directiveness in counselins might be a functio n of

specif ic p roblem orientation r athe r than nationality. Implications of

t he f indings we r e d i scu s sed along with recommenda tions for fu ture

related r e s e arch .

A bs tract • • • •

A c k n o w l e dgem ents •

List of Tab l e s •

Introduction • • • • •

R e v i ew o f Literature •

•

•

•

• •

Tab l e of Contents

•

•

•

• •

•

• •

• •

• • • • •

• • • •

• • •

•

• • • •

• • •

• • •

• •

Expectation o f directiveness in Therapy • •

• •

• • • • •

•

•

• •

• •

•

Cro s s-cu ltural Expectation on Directive vs. �ondirective

approach • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Preferences o f Therapy • • • • • • • • • •

Preferences on Directive vs. Nondirective approach

• • • • •

• •

Cros s-cultural Pre f e rences and Believed Effectiveness for

Directive vs. Nordirective Therapy • • • • • • • • • • • •

Method • • • • • • • • • •

Subjects • • • • • • •

Apparatus • • • • • •

• •

• •

• •

• • •

•

•

•

• • • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • • •

• • • • • •

• • • • • •

P r o c e dur e s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Data Anal y sis • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Res u lts • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Discu s s i o n • • • • • • • • •

Summary • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•

Implications • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

References • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

i

iii

iv

1

7

7

9

10

1 1

15

1 8

18

18

20

20

21

28

32

33

34

Appe n d i c e s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 39

App e nd ix A • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 39

Append ix B • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 40

Appe ndix c • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 41

Appe n d ix D • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 42

Ac k nowledgements

Many p e op l e have contributed the i r time and e f f o rts to the outcome

of thi s s tudy . Amo ng the s e are Dr . William Kir k , wi thout wh ose g u id a n c e

and knowle dge this the s i s would not have bee n pos sible.

I w ould also lik9 to expre s s my tha n k s to Dr. James K ant ner and

Dr. Boyd Spe n c er for their aid a nd con s t ruct ive s u gge s t ions per t a i n i ng

i i i

to the exper iment a l desig n and over a l l i ntegration o f t h e s t udy . Spe c i al

tha nks a re exte nded to th o se stude nts from Eas t ern Il l i no i s University

a n d the Univ e r s ity of M i nne sota who have p arti c ip at e d i n the s t udy.

Lis t of Tabl e s

1. C o mp a r i s o n o f Expect a tions of D i r e c t ivene s s i n Coun s e l i ng (Tabla 1 ) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

2. Chi Square of Prefer e n c e s o f Pe r c e ive d Helpf ulne s s o f Counselor ( Tabl e 2) • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • •

3. Chi Square o f Pre f e rences f o r Di rec tive Vs. Nondirective C ounseling Appr o a c h f o r General Problem S o lving ( Table 3a)

4. Percent Respon s e o f Dire ctive Vs. N o ndirect ive C o un s e l ing

• • • 22

• • • 22

• • 23

Appro ach f or Spe c i fic Probl em Solvin g ( Table 3b) • • • • • • • 23

5. R e s p o n s e s t o Pre f e r ence f o r a "Adv i s o r-l i k e" C oun s elo r (Tab l e 4) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 24

6. Perce nt Respon s e s o f Both Groups to Pe rson Prefere nces a s He l p e r s ( Tabl e 5) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

7. Sex Diffe renc e s o n P r e f ere nce of Direc t ive ness i n C o uns e l ing

• 26

(T ab l e 6) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 27

a. t-t e st o f Sex Differences on Expectati o n o f D i r e ctiveness i n Cou n s e l ing ( Table 7) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 27

1V

INTRODUCTION

There have been numerous investigations of client and counselor

variables that account for some of the variance noted in counseling

outcome studies (Cundick, 1963; Dittman , 1969; Goldstein, 1962;

Klien, 1958). These investigations have revealed that cognitive vari­

ables such as client attitudes, perceptions, expectations and preferences

regarding counselors and counseling procedures are often significantly

associated with the p rocess and outcome of counseling (Frank, 1968;

Goldstein, 1962; Sapolsky, 1965; Strupp & Bergin, 1969). Specifically,

previous research indicated that client's expectations of the

counselor and the counseling procedures are important determinants of

the effectiveness of counseling (Frank, 1959; Goldstein, 1962; Krause,

Fitzsimmons & Wolf, 1969; McGlynn, Reynolds & Linder , 1971). Goin,

Yamamoto and Silverman (1965) found that a patient was helped more

when he received therapy which was consistent with his expectation.

At the same time, the client's preference for different theoretically­

derived counseling approaches are also important variables relating

to the effectiveness of counseling outcome (Loar, 1965; Rosen, 1967;

Traux, 1966). Rosen (1967) concluded that clients often do have pre­

ferences regarding counselor characteristics and that such preferences

may affect client decisions regarding a) whether or not to seek coun­

seling, b) the duration of counseling, c ) the process of counseling,

and d) evaluation of the counselor and counseling experience.

1

Patterson (1958) has s hown that client expectations and preferences

in counseling and psychotherapy are learned and cond i tioned by social

and cultural factors. Thus a counseling relationship with a client

from a culture with which the counselor i s not f amiliar may involve a

different s e t of expectancies that may affect the process or outcome of

counseling. However, little research has been done on the cross-cultural

aspect o f counse ling expectation. Tan (1967) compared the counseling

expectancies of Asian and American college students and found that both

student groups are s o mewhat authoritnrian and much alike in their

counseling exp ectancies. Moreover, he found that for both group s there

was a higher authoritarian expectatio n s for male subjects than t he

females, which is co n sistent with the findings of Apfelbaum (1958) and

Tinsley and H a r ris (1976) regar ding sex difference for pre�e rence of

directiveness on therapy.

The is sue regarding the appropriateness of trad itional relation­

s hip-bas e d counseling approaches for culturally distinct clients has

remained unresolve d. Since mo st counseling procedures and practice s

are base d on certain inte rgr al Ame rican or western cultural bel iefs,

it may not be culturally applicable to t h e value system of a client

from a different culture . Therefore, such counseling procedur e s may

not appe al to o r be acce ptable by such a client ( Hoyt, 1964). A number

of authors have suggeste d t h at affective counseling techniques may

actually be c o u n t e rp r o d u c t ive for min o r ity clients ( Banks, 1972;

2

Calia, 1966; Sue, 1973; Sue & Sue, 1972; Williams & Kirkland, 1971).

While counselors are trained to be aware of situations in which a

directive counseling approach is effective and to be aware of other

instances in which nondirective procedure seem to be indicated, such

investigations of effectiveness of each therapeutic approach have

focused on personality factors (rernback, 1973; Hardy, 1948; Mahler, 1952;

Rogers, 1957; Secord & Backman; 1964; Sonne & Goldman, 1957); types of

client's problem {Bordin, 1955; Dipboyle, 1954; Fukuhara, 1973; Grater,

1964), and cognitive style of clients (Neufeldt, 1978). However, there

have been few studies on cross-cultural variables relating to the ef­

fectiveness of each therapeutic approach. There is soma theoretical

evidence that a directive approach is more appropriate for an African

culture due to their authoritarian upbringing ( Esen, 1972; Palleyblank,

1974). For the Afghan culture, Wonderling (1973) concluded that the

highly directive, diadatic nature of Rational Emotive Ti1erapy blends well

with the extremely absolustic authoritarian Afghan orientation. Sprang

(1965) has indicated that in counseling American- I ndian students, the

nondirective approach would be ineffective because the Indian student

is extremely nonverbal and passive. Arkoff, Thaver and Elkind (1966)

in studying the mental health and counseling ideas of the Asian and

American students have found that Asians, more than Americans, thought

of counseling or psychotherapy as a relatively authoritarian process.

Fukuhara (1973) concluded that both Japanese and American college students

pre f e r re d a rather dir e c tive sty l e s in the helpin g relationship. And

finally, in c o unse ling Chinese-American students , Sue & Sue (1972)

theorized t h a t a d ire ctive and more ac t ive approach o n t h e part o f t h e

counselo r wou l d b e mo re appro p riat e . Thus the literature s ugge sts

a mo re dire c tive approach in wo rk ing with Af rican , A fghan, Ame r i c an­

Ind i ans, Japanese and Ame ric an-Chine s e stu dents. Ho wever, no empi r i c a l

r e s e a rc h ha s b e e n done regardi ng the preferen ces for directive or

nondir e ctiv e approaches of Chi nes e c o llege s t u de nts.

Since an increasing nu mbe r o f Chinese students are s tudy ing in

the u.s., and s inc e client's prefe rences for the rapeutic approach has

be e n demonstrated t o be an i mpo rtant f ac tor in s u c ces s ful counseling,

it woul d be be n e f i c i al in wo r king with Chine s e c o l l e g e students to

kno w what t he ir expectations and pre ferenc es for therapeutic approaches

are. Moreover, sinc e weste rnization ha s be e n a pro c e s s affe c ting

C hinese stu d ents i n the u.s., it woul d als o ba helpful to def ine and

c o mp are the ir preferences and e xpe c�ati o n fo r therap e utic a p proac h with

their Ame ric a n counterp a r t s.

The purp o s e o f the pre s ent s tudy was to examine and c omp are the

e xp e ctations and pref e re nce s o f dir e c t ive vs. nondirective counseling

appro ach of Chinese and Ame r ican c oll e ge st u d ents. In t h is study a

the o retical po sition is t ake n that Chine se c o lleg e s t udent s expect a n d

prefer a mo r e d i r e c tiv e approach. That p o sition i s b a s e d on the f ollo w­

ing theoretic al e vidence:

4

1. As described by Sue (1973), Chine s e f amilies are more

patriarchal, "with c ommunic a t i on and authority flowina vertically

from top to bot t om. 11 (p. 144) Thi s structure for interaction seems

more comratible with cognitive , t r ait factor and rat i onal-emotive

approach e s to counseling, for instance, than many relationship­

based app roaches.

2. Because o f the social ization in well-defined roles , there is

a ten d enc y for A s ian s tudents to feel more comfortable in structured

situations and to feel unc omfo rtable in ambigious ones. And since

the direction that many cou nseling sessions take is ambigious by

de s ign (Buchheimur & Balogh, 1961), one c an understand the cultural

conflic t i t c reat e s for Asian student s .

3. Su e (1973) states that since Chinese stu dents from tradit ional

fami l i e s a re taught t o deny their feel ing s and to rest rain potenti ally

disrup t ive emotions , they might f o und it difficul t in working with a

counselor who deal with a f f e ct.

4. Since mutual dependency i s hig hly p riced in Asian c ul t ure,

As i an c l i ent s mig ht not be com f or t able with the individualized approach

of weste r n counseling a nd psychotherapy s tyl e s . Conversely, ind ivi­

dualism i s emphasized in wes t e rn c ultural c ounseling & psychotherapeutic

prac t ice s wher eas it i s de emp hasized in Asian culture.

5

Conside ring the above data the foll owing null hypo the s e s were gene rated :

1. There w il l be no s igni f icant d i ffe renc e s between Chine se and

Americ a n c ollege s t u de n ts expec ta t i on o f di rec ti v e ness i n c o u n se l ing

app ro a c h as mea s ured by the Co unseli ng Exp ec tation Qu es tio nn a i r e (CEQ).

2. The r e wil l b e no s i gni fic ant di f f e renc e bet ween Ch i n e s e a n d

Ame ric an c o l lege s tudents p erc eptions o f and pref erences f o r di­

rec tiveness in c o unsel ing, as me asure d by th e Cou n seling Prefer enc e

Ques tio nna ire (CPQ) o n the f o l l owing variables:

a . help f ulne s s o f t he c ounsel or.

b. general pro blem s o lving .

c. s p ec if ic p ro blem s o lving.

i ) educational-vo c atio nal-vo c a t i onal p r oblem.

ii) e m o t ional p r obl e m.

iii) f amily problem.

iv) fina nc i al p r oblem.

d. Pre ference f o r whom t hey will ap pro ach f o r c ounsel ing o t her

than a tr a i ned c ounselor.

e. Pre ferenc e for an "a dvis or-li k e" c o u n s el or.

f. The s ex of the s tude nt i s n o t rela t e d t o his/he r prefere nc e

f o r direc tiv e nes s i n c o u n s e l i ng.

6

Literature Review

f_xpectation of directiveness in therapy

Seveninsen (1966) investigated the rel ationship bet ween e x­

pe ctations and perceptions o f counseling t o counseling satisfac t i o n.

In th i s s t udy, clients rated t he degree of l e ads t h a t they expect ed

and t hei r perceptions o f actua l counselor l eading . The results showe d

that clients expected the counselor t o be authoritative and to deal

7

more with f acts t han with feelings. Satisfaction, ho we v e r, was related

more t o discrepancy be t we en expectation a nd perception then to t he pe r­

ceived role of the counselor. In o t he r wo rds, t he matc hing of c l ients'

e xp ectati o n and pe rce p t i o n play a mo r e impor t ant role on counseli ng

satisfaction than t h e r o l e the c o u n s e l o r w a s taking. However, the

problems o f the cli e nts in this study were mainly educ a t i o n al-vo cat i o n al,

thus the f i n d ings might be somewhat limited by the problem orientation.

Ziemeli s (1974) studie d t h e e f f ect s of two cli e n t-cognit ive

variab le s on counseling process and out come, name l y , client prefe r e nce

fo r a spe cifi c type o f c�unselor a n d cli e n t expectatio n of whe ther o r

not his prefe r e nce will b e met . H i s result wa s while matching c l i e nts

w ith either more-p r e f e r re d o r less-preferred c ou n selors had only

slight ( but reli able ) effects on client and counselor evaluation of

counseling p rocess and ou tcome , such matchi ng strong l y affect e d the

quality of in vivo i nterview behav i or as r ated by nonpa rticipant observers.

Tinsley and Harris (1976) e x amined col l e g e student's expectations

for cou n s e l i ng. An 82-item questi o n n a ir e w a s use d to i nv e stig a te 287

unde rgr aduate students' e x p ectatio n of counsel ing. They r eport e d th a t

the respondent's str o ngest expecta n c ies were of seeing a n e x p e rience d,

genu i ne, e xpert , a n d acc epting c o u nsel or the y could trust. Expectan-

cies that the co un s e lor w o uld be understa nding and direct ive a nd that

a beneficial outcome woul d be experience d , were somewhat lo wer . More-

over, significant sex di ffe rence s were f ound between the expect ancies

of dir e ct i v eness of a p proach, with females indicating a greater expec-

tation of a c ceptance and males indicating a greater expectation o f

directiveness. T h e aut hor cau t i oned the r e ader t o n ote that the dif-

ferences were numeric a l ly quit e small and the imp lic ations of these

f ind i ng s for practitio ners are by no means c l e ar.

The result of literatu re related to s e x difference on exp e c t ancies

of directi v e ne s s in therapy w as co n s i stent with that of Apfelbaum (1958) '

who f ound that female c l ie nts expect the cou n se l or to be accepting and

nonjudgemented, wh il e m a l e s anticipate a mor e directive cr it i c a l and

a n alyt ical co u n s el or . Tan (1967) al s o has si mil ar f i ndings in c ompar i ng

the coun sel ing e xp e ctanc ie s of Asian a nd Am e r i c an college stud e nt .

In s umm ary, the lit e ratu re has reported that m at c hing cl ient' s

exp e c t atio n and p erception o f co unsel i ng with a p referr e d counselor

w a s an impo rta nt v a riable af f ecting counseling o utcome . Also the re

app e a r s to be a sex difference on expec�at ion of directiveness in

8

9

counseling with males having a greater expectation for directiveness

than female.

Cross-cultural expectation on directive vs. non-directive counseling approach

Arkoff, T h ave r and Elkind (1966) ex amined the mental health and

counseling ideas of Asian and American student s by using a 60-item

questionnaire devised by Nunnally (1961). They found no significant

differences between the two American groups nor among the four Asian

groups, but each of the American groups significantly differed from

each of the Asian groups. Asians, more than Americans, thought of

counseling or psychotherap y as a relatively authoritarian process.

He stated his findings as follows:

An over-all impression, then, is that the Asian student would be

lass knowledgeable about counseling and less ready to make use of counseling facilities. If he were involved in such process, he would be more likely to expect the counselor to be a strong and authoritarian figure who would provide him with advice or a specific course of action. By contrast, the American s tudent would be more likely to explorJ his own thoughts and feelings and to pursue insight within a less authoritarian structure. ( Arkoff et al., 1966, P• 69)

In comparing the expectancies of counse ling across Asian and

American college students to a group of graduate counselors in train-

ing, Tan (1967) found the Asian groups were similar in their counseling

expectancies but as a group tended to differ from the United States

group. All Asian groups considered counseling primarily as an "advice-

and-information-giving" process by an experienced person. When the

American and Asian student group were compared against the professional

group, both student groups appeared t o be rather alike and authori­

tarian in their counseling expectancies. Those foreign students who

have been in the United States longer were found most similar to the

American students.

Preferences of therapy

There has been little research on therapy preference. fancher

and Gatkin (1971) found that college students preferred the insight

therapies when given an 800 word description of e ach of two insight

therapies and two behavioral therapies. However, preference for a

description of an approach may be only tenously related t o the pre­

ference f or the approach itself.

Barabasz, Mccowan and Barabasz (1972) demonstrated behavioral

treatments were pre ferred over client-centered treatments by ninth and

tenth grade high school students.

Holen and Kinsey (1975) studied the preference o f college students

towards behavioral, client-centered and psychoanalytic approaches as

reflected on demonstration tapes. They found the behavioral approach

was preferred.

More recently, Hillner (1975) examined the differences in subject

preference and attitude towards four counseling approaches ( two

behavioral and two insight ) by using 800-word descriptions o f e ach

10

a p p r o ach. He f ound t hat c o l lege s t ud ents p re f erre d c l ient-c e n t e red

t he rapy for "general" a n d "mi l d diso r d e rs", and (b e havi o r a l ) r e c ip ro c al

inhibition is preferre d "for severe disor d e r".

In summary , when comp aring behavio ral and ins i g ht therapy t here

has been incons i s t ent results i n the research on prefe re nces of thera­

pies. In mo st instances , behavio ral appro aches we re p ref err e d over

client -c e ntere d and ps y c ho analytic approac hes. Further inves tigation

is nee d e d in this area.

Pre f ere n c e s on Dire c t ive vs. non-directive appro ach

Mahle r (1952), in st udying the a t t it ud e of hig h s c ho o l j unio rs and

seniors t o ward c o unse ling p roce dur e , f o un d a d irective re acti o n to a

statement o f a stude nt 's probl e m to be prefe rr e d b y more hig h scho ol

junio r s than seni o r s . H e a l s o f o und t hat g i rls p r e f erre d a mor e d i r­

ective response t han boys.

Rog e r s (1957) i n me asuring the attitu d e of c o l l e ge s ophomo r e s

and seniors toward counse l ing p ro c e dur e also f ound t h at p r e f e re nce s

f o r a d ir e ct iv e c o unse l or respo nse was g re at e r f o r c o lleg e s ophomores

11

than seniors, men than wome n, and priva t e scho o l t han publi c scho o l

s t u dents. Wo men wit h gre at e r pref e r e nc e f o r ini tia l coun se l or dir e c t ­

ive nes s were reporte d t o b e mo r e extr ove rte d than the o t h e r wome n stude nt s .

Sonne an d Goldman (1957) e xamined the relat ionship betwe en c oun­

se l ing approac h and t he aut h o r i tarian-equalit arian dime nsion of

personality. The California r scale was used as an instrument to mea­

sure authoritarianism. And he found that high school seniors preferred

directive to client-centered counseling, but a significantly higher

proportion of equalitarian as compared to authoritarian personalities

preferred the client-centered approach. The author theorized that

since client-centered therapy emphasized client self-direction and

the avoidance of a dependent relationship as important principles of

counseling. The authoritarian personality on the other hand, was

characterized by an underlying trend of dependency and a rigid and

external set o f values, thus it would follow that an authoritarian

personality type would f ind it difficult to establish a client-centered

relationship.

fernbach (1973) studied tha relationship between authoritarian

personality and preference f or therapy by using the California r scale.

The two groups of authoritarian and nonauthoritarian subjects were asked

to view two films by Rogers and Ellis. The authoritarian group were

found to prefer Ellis whereas t he nonauthoritarian group preferred

Rogers. Fernbach theorized that this preference was probably due to

authoritarian client's pre ference for the strong leadership role that a

directive therapist would provide.

The relationship between individual's cognitive characteristics

and their preference s for behavior or insight counseling was investi­

gated by Neufeldt (1977, 1978). Fifty-eight unde rgraduates were

12

examined with 9 Piagetian tasks to ascertain their capacity for formal

thoughts. Subjects were also asked to read transcrip ts of behavioral

and insight-oriented counseling interviews. Subjects who chose the

insight counselor had a significantly higher capacity for f ormal thought

than subjects who chose the behavior counselor. The results suggest

·that the client ' s cognitive characteristics are indicative of their

expectations and preference in counseling.

Grater {1964) studied client preferences for affective or cog-

nitive counselor characteristics and first interview behavior. He

found that clients who deemed counselor affective characteristics {warm,

friendly, kind, accepting) more important than cognitive ones {logical, ,

knowledgeable, efficient, poised) focused more on personal-social

problems than educational-vocational problems in the first interview

than did those clients favoring cognitive characteristics. His findings

were similar to that of Bordin (1955) who reported that the character-

istics the client deemed desirable f or a counselor we re related to the

kind of problems the client presented in the interview; i.e., counselees

who felt that personal characteristics o f a counselor more desirable

t�nded to seek counseling that involved personal-social concerns. And

clients who felt that impersonal characteristics ware more important

than personal characteristics most frequently sought help with educa-

tional, vocational difficu ltie s.

In summary, the literature suggests that preferences for directive

1 3

vs. nondirective ther apy have been related to personal ity variables,

specif ically the higher amount of authoritarianism the higher the

preference for directive approach. Preferences for therapy have

also been found to be related to cognitive style, with concrete think­

ers, as in piagetian term, preferring the behavioral approach; and with

formal thinkers preferring the insight therapy. And finally, the pre­

ferences for affective or cognitive counselor characteristics were

also related to the presenting problem of the client . Clients who

prefer af fect i ve counselor characteristics are more likely to focus

on personal-social problems whereas clients who prefer cognitive coun­

selor characteristics ars more likely to focus on educational-vocational

problems.

14

Cross-cultural Preferences and Believed effectiveness for Directive

vs. Non directive Theranv

Esen (1972) and Palleyblank (1974) have theorized that a directi ve

approach is more a �p r op riate for A frican culture. Esen (1972) in �ork-

ing with student s from Africa have stated that:

African s are more likely to have passed through an authoritarian, other-directed upbringing • • • It is conceivable that clients in African schools would see their counselors as authority figures. Nothing will be achieved if the counselors require early in the counseling process that a client to operate on the "do-it-yourself" principle if he is not used to. An uncompromising nondirective approach in the manner of the west, which of decision and choice and the responsibility of self-direction, might only make a client feel threatened and/or anxious. A more directi ve approach, at least in the beginning, would meet the client where he is.

( �p. 793-794)

Wonderling (1973), investigating the expacted receptiveness of

Afghans to RET, has su�gested that "the s uitability of RET is not

contra-indicated in Afghanistan s ince the highly directive, didactic

nature of RET blends 1uell with the extremely absol ustic, authoritarian

Afghan orientation." (p. 1288)

Sprang (1965) in working with American-Indian students stated

t hat 11if one is non-directive the counsel ors would be ineffective

because the Indian student is extremely nonverbal and passive. Thus

a · nondirectiva counselor would certainly have to adjust to either

becoming an electic or d irective type counselor if he is to be eff ective

as a counselor of Indian s tudents" . (p. 16)

15

fukuhara (1973) compared the pre ferences of Japanese students

with American students totJ.tards counseling. A questionnaire, a coun-

seling-problem test, and a counselor-preference test were administered

to 185 Japanese and 72 American students. The results showed that both

students seeme d to like the directive style such as evaluation or

probing rather that nondirective or permissive styl e. The findings

were stated as follows:

Although American students were familiar with and accepting of counseling, their preference for style (process expectation) was not necessarily from deep understanding of it from genuine need of counseling. Or they might have known that nondirective or supportive styles were also common to counseling but, still, they wanted a counselor to deal with their problems in the same directive way as might be see n in counseling relations (rather than helping rel ations) with friend or even with parents (fukuhara, 1973, P. 189)

Atkinson, Maruyama and Matsui (1978) studied the effects of

counselor race and counseling approach on Asian Americans' perception

of counselor credibility and utility. Two tape recordings of a con-

trived counseling session in which the clients' responses were identical

but the counselors' responses differed, one depicting a "directive"

counseling approach and one a "nondirective" approach. Each tape

recording was paired with two different introductions, one in which

the counselor was identified as Asian American an d one in which the

counselor was described as Caucasian American. The results showed that

counselors were rated as more credible and approachabl e when employing

the directive counseling approach than when using the nondirective

16

c ounseling approach. Moreover, they saw Asian-American counselors as

more c redible and approachable than Cauc asian American c ounselors.

In a study identifying c ultural values and their effects on

counseling Chinese-American, Sue & Sue (1972) suggested that "Since

many Chinese-American students tend to feel more c omfortable in b1ell­

structured and unambigious situations, counseling by providing guide­

lines in the form of explanations and suggestions may be helpful.

In addition, the Chinese-American's emotional inhibition and lower

verbal participation may also indicate the need for a more active ap­

proach on the part of the counselor." {P. 473) Furthermore, Sue (1973)

described a family socialization process that suggests Asian Americans

would- likely feel less c omfortable with relationship counseling than

with a more directive c ounseling approach.

In summary, the literature suggests a more directive approach

in working with African, Afghan, American-Indians, Japanese and

Chinese-American groups. Even though there is some theoretical evidence

that Asian group would prefer a more directive approach, empirical

research in this area is greatly lacking.

17

M e t h o d

Subjec t s

A total o f 6 6 s t u d8 n t s a t E as t e r n Il l i no i s Univ e r s i t y a n d Univ e r­

sity of M i n ne s o t a p a r t i c ip at e d i n t h e study . Half o f t h e s ubj e ct s were

C h i n e s e c o l l R g e s t u d e n t s at the U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a and h a l f of

t he s ub j e c t s we re A m e r i c a n col l ege s t u de nt s from E as te r n I l l inois

U n i v e r s i t y .

T h e A me ri c a n c o l l e g e s amp les c o mp o s e d o f 1 2 g r a d u a t e s t u d e nt s ,

21 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ; 1 3 m a l e s , 2 0 f e m a l e s ; 2 4 liberal a r t s ma­

jors , 1 sc ience majo r , and 6 b u s i n e s s ma j o rs . They ranged in age f ro m

1 8-29 ;

The C hinese s ampl e was composed o f 19 males , 1 5 females ; 15

g ra du ate s t u d e n t s , 18 undergraduate s t u de n t s ; 4 l i b e r al a r t s majo rs ,

15 s c i e nc e majors , and 10 b u s i ne s s majo r s . They ranged i n· a g e f r o m

18-2 8 . Their stay i n t h e U . S . r a ng e d f rom 9 mont h s t o 7 y e ars w i t h a

me an re s idence o f 4 .9 y e ar s .

App a r a t u s

1) Two f i l ms we r e shown f ro m the fil m s e r i e s "Three ap p ro a c h e s t o

psychotherapy " . Th is s e r i e s o f well-known films depict e d C a r l Ro ge rs ,

A l b e r t El l is , and F r i t z Pe r l s d e mo n s t r a t i n g their t he r a p e u t i c app ro aches

wi t h t he s ame client . A s the intent o f t h e s t udy was t o survey a

1 8

nondire c t ive a n d dire c t ive tec hniqu e , t he f i l ms o f R o g e r s a n d El l i s

were s e l e c t e d a s e x e mp l ary o f t h e s e t w o a p p r o a c h e s , r e sp e c t i v e ly .

2 ) The C ou n s e l i n g E x p e c t at i o n Que s t i o nn a i r e ( CE Q ) W R S de r i v e d f r o m

a que s t i o n n a i r e u s e d b y T i n s l e y a n d Harris ( 1 976 ) a n d w a s admi n i s t e re d

be f o re t h e f i l m w a s s ho w n . The C E Q w a s u se d t o me asure s t u d e nt s '

e xp e c t a t i o n o f c o u n se l i ng s p e c i f i c al l y w i t h re g a r d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g

v a r i ab l e s : e xP, e r t i s e , o u t c o me , t r u s t , g e n u i ne ne s s , d i r e c t i v e n e s s ,

accep t a n c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i ng . T h i s q u e s t i o nn a i re c o n s i s t e d o f ma j o ri t y

of i t e m s p r e v i o u s l y e v a l u ate d b y L az a r u s ( 1 97 1 ) , Traux & C a r k h u f f ( 1 967 )

and V o l sky e t a l . ( 1 967 ) . T h e o r i g i n al qu e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i st e d o f

· �

82 i t e ms a n d t h e C E Q u s e d i n t he p r e s e n t s t u dy was a s h o r t e r v e r s io n w h i c h

c o ns i ste d o f 43 i t e ms . T h e pre s e nt s t u dy w a s d e s i g n e d t o s pe c i f i c al ly

me a s u re t he v a r i ab l e o f d i r e c t i v e n e s s ; howe v e r , t h e e n t i re q u e s t i o n-

naire was admin i s t e re d t o a v o i d he avy l o a d i ng o n o n l y o n e v a r i ab l e .

E ac h i t e m i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s p re f ac e d b y t h e w o r d s "I e xp e c t t o "

o r " I e x p e c t t h e c ounse l o r t o '' a n d w a s p re s e n t e d i n t he L i k e rt f o rmat

wit h t h e f ol lowi ng f i ve re s p o n s e a l t e r n a t i v e s : n o t true ( 1 ) , s l i g h t l y

t r u e ( 2 ) , s ome what t rue ( 3 ) , mo s t l y t ru e ( 4 ) a n d d e f i n i t e l y t r u e ( 5 ) .

( s e e appe n d i x A)

3) T h e C ou nse l i n g P re f e re n c e Q u e s t ionnaire { C PQ ) was admi n i s t e r e d to

me asure the p r e f e re n c e f o r t h e rapy style . The C PQ was a dmini s t e r e d

afte r t h e s u b j e c t s v ie we d b o t h f il ms . The CPQ w a s b a s i c a l l y t a k e n

from t he part II o f t h e p r e f e re n c e inventory u s e d by Sonne and Gol dman

( 1 957) . The o riginal que s t ionnaire has s e v e n items , however , six items

were ad ded to measure s uc h additional counsel ing problem p refe re nce

are as suc h as f a m i l y p ro b l e m s , e m o t i o nal p rob l e ms , and financial p rob­

l e ms . ( see A pp e n d i x B ) .

Procedures

T h e sub je cts were t o l d , p rio r to v iewing t he f i l ms, that the

experime n t e r w a s interested in studying their p e r c e p t i o ns of two

diff eren t types of therapies . They we re furth e r tol d t hat before

viewing t he fi l ms , t h e y ne e de d t o fil l o u t a ques tionnaire o n t he i r

expect�tions o f counseling and a f t e r viewing t he film they wou l d be

asked t o fill ou t a p r e f e r e n c e inven t ory . I nst ruc t ions arg p rov i d e d

in Appendix c . For hal f t he s u b j e c ts , t h e film sequence was Rogers­

Ellis ; f or hal f t he sub j ects t he f i l m se qu e nce was El l is-Rog e rs to

counter act an orde ring a f f e c t .

Data A n a l y s i s

The Counsel ing E x p e c t at i o n Que stionnaire ( CEQ ) was us ed t o measure

the e xp ec t ation of dire ctiveness in counseling . The s c a l e v a l ue on

exp e c t a t i o n of dire ct iveness w a s obtaine d f o r e ach subject by cal cu­

l at ing t h e me an re sponse t o t he s i x items on t he s c al e . A t-t e s t was

e mp l o y e d b e tween s c a l e s v alue of those t wo g ro up s .

� u

A C h i-s q u a r e te s t was emp loye d t o de te rmine the dif fere nce o f

pre fere nce for directive v s . nondirective counseling app roach as

measure d by t h e Counsel ing P r e f e r e nce Q u e s t i o n naire ( C P Q ) . A s for

item 8 o n the CPQ , a perce nt age count was u se d .

Rosul t s

A t-test ( Table 1 ) b e twe e n g r o up means on t h e s c a l e measuring

expectation o f d i r e c t i v e n e s s i n counse l ing r e v e a l e d a significant

difference b e twe e n Chinese s t u d e n t s and A me r ican s tudents ( t=3 . 45 ,

df=64 , p . 0 1 ) . This i n d i c a t e s th at C h i n e s e s t u d e nt s s ho w e d a g reater

expectat i o n for dire c t iv e ne s s .

The C h i-square te s t ( Table 2 , Tabl e 3 a , Tab le 3b ) were non-signi-

f i c a n t f o r h y p o t h e s e s 2 a , 2b and 2 c which c o nce r n e d p re f e � 9 nc e f o r

directive v s . nondirect ive counsel i ng ap p roach o n t h e v a r i a b l e o f

hel p fulness o f counsel ors , general prob le8 solv ing , and sp e c i f i c p ro b l e m

s o l v i ng . S ig n i f icant differences we r e f o u n d , howeve r , betwe en b o t h

g r o u p s o n t h e v ari ab l e which me asure d p e r c e p t i o n and preferences for

an ' ' a d v i s o r-l i k e " c o u n s e l o r ( i . e . I pre fe r a counselor w h o wou l d t e l l me

how to solve my prob l e m ) . I n re s p o n s e to this ite m ?B . 8% o f C h ine s e

students in t hi s study preferre d a c o u n s elor w h o wo u l d tell them h o w

t o solve t heir proble ms where a s 63 . 6% o f American students did not p re-

2 fer such a c ou n s e l or (x =1 0 . 6 3 , df=1 , p . os ) .

21

Nationality

Chinese

American

*P< . 0 1

Tab l e 1

Comp ariso n o f Expe c t ations of Directiveness

in Counsel i ng for Both Groups

N

3 3

33

M

3. 24

2. 5L�

Table 2

so

o . 76

D . 87

C h i S quare o f Pre fe rences of Perc e ived He l p f u lne s s

o f Counselor

Chinese

American

Ellis

1 9

16

Rogers

1 4

1 7

t-v alue

3. 45*

Chi S quare

. 2433 1 8

22

L .J

Table 3 a

C h i Square o f Pre f e r e nc e s f o r Directive vs . Nondirective C o u n s e l ing

A p p r o a c h f o r General Probl e m S o l v i n g

E l l is R o g e r s C h i S qu ar e

C h i ne s e 1 7 1 6 1 . 55

Ame r i c a n 1 1 1 2

Tab l e 3b

Pe rcent R e s p o n s e s o f D i re c t ive v s . Non directive Counsel ing A p p r o a c h

f o r S p e c i f i c Pro b l e m S o l v i ng

C h i ne s e A merican

Spe c i f ic P r o b l e m E l l i s Rogers El l i s Rogers C h i Square Sol ving N cf N rt N % N % /iJ /Cl

E d-V o e 1 7 5 1 . 5 1 6 4 8 . 4 23 69. 7 1 0 30 . 3 1 . s a

Emo t i o n 1 3 39 . 4 20 6 0 . 6 8 2 4 . 2 2 5 7 6 1 . 1 1

Family 8 24 . 2 25 76 7 2 1 . 2 2 6 78 . 8 0

Financ i a l 2 1 6 3 . 6 1 2 3 6 . 3 28 84 . 8 5 1 5 . 1 5 2 . 85

Tab l e 4

R e s p o n s e s to Pre f e r e n c e s f o r a " A d v i so r - l i k e " Counselor

Nat i o n a l i t y

C hine $e

A m e r i c a n

True

2 1

7

F a l s e

1 2

2 6

C h i S qu are

1 0 . 63*

24

The results o f r e s p o n s e s o f i n qu ir e s d i r e c t e d toward which non­

counselor t hey would s e e k he l p f r o m a r e a s f o l l o w s : 64% of t he C h i n e s e

stude nt s i n dic a t e d t h e i r f r i e n d s , 1 5% i ndi ca ted their mot he r , 6% i nd i­

cat e d p a s ter , 3% i n d i c ate d bro t h e r an d 7% d i d n o t indicate a choice.

As for Ame r ic a n s t u d e n t s , 67% of t h e m indic ated f r i e nds , 9% indicat e d

mother, 6% i n d i c at e d f i ance , 3% i n di c a t e d s i s t e r and 1 5% di d not i n d i­

cate a c hoice.

As f or t h e sex d i f fe r e n c e s on e x p e c t at i o n s (T abl e 7 ) and prefe renc e s

(Table 6 ) for direct iveness i n c o u n 5 e l i n g , there was no signific ant

difference ei t her within o r betwe e n g roups .

25

26

Tabla 5

Pe rce nt Re s p o n s e s o f B o t h G r ou p s t o Pe rson Prefe rences as He l p e r s

Mhom they wil l American C h ine s e

se ek h e l p from N % N %

friend 22 67 2 1 64

Mo t h e r 3 9 5 1 5

P a s t o r 0 0 2 6

Teacher 0 0 0 0

f amily doc t o r 0 0 0 0

F'iance 2 6 0 0

Sister 1 3 0 0

Brother 0 0 1 3

Di d not indicate

a c hoice 5 1 5 4 9

E l l i s

R o g e r s

P o p u l at i o n

Chi n e s e

Ame r i c a n

Ta b l e 6

Sex D i f f e r e nc e s o n P r e f e r e nce of D i re c t i v e n e s s

Ame rican

f'la l e

5

8

in C o u n s e l i ng

F emale

6

1 4

2 x

D . 2 8

T ab l e 7

C hi n e s e

Mal e Female

1 0 7

9 6

2 x

0 . 0 0 3

t-t a s t of Se x D i f f e re n c e s o n E xp e c t ation o f D i re c ti v e n e s s

i n C o u n s e l i ng

N M SD t f'l a l e 1 9 3 . 2 9 0 . 57

F e m a l e 1 5 2 . 99 o . 6 5 1 . 1 1

�la l e 1 3 2 . 5 6 1 . 0 0

Female 2 0 2 . 50 a . so 0 . 27

2 7

D i s c u s s i o n

I n the c o 8p a r i s o n o f students o f t he t w o nat i o n al i t ie s r e g a r d i n g

their e x p e ct at ion o f rl i re c t i v e n e s s i n c o u n se l i n g a p p r o ac h , t he re s u l t s

show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t ue e n t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n i n w h i c h

C h i n e s e s t ude n t e xp e c t mo r e d i r e c t i v e nes s i n c o u n s e l i n g . T h i s f i nding

w a s s i mi l a r t o t h o s e o f Tan ( 1 967 ) a n d Arkoff et a l . ( 1 966 ) w h o f o u n d

t h at A s i a n c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s had a h i g h e r expect at ion f o r d i r e c t i v e ­

n e s s than t he i r A me r i c a n c o u n t e rp ar t s . T h i s f i n d i ng a l s o s u p p o r t s the

the o r y t h a t aut h o r i t a r i an C h i n e se-r e a ring p r a c t i c e s may i n f l u e nc e ex­

p e c t at i o n i n a h e l p ing rel a t i o n s h i p . H o w e v e r , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n e x­

p e c t at i o n mig h t al s o be due t o C hinese s t u d e nt s ' u nf a mi l i a r i t i e s with

a c o u n s e l i ng s i t u a t i o n . S i nc e Chinese s tude nts t e nd t o p e r c e i v e a c a­

dem i c p e r s o n n e l as " e xp e rt " ( Fukuhara , 1 973 ) a n d this mi ght i n f l ue nc e

h o w they r e l ate d t o a n d w h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d f ro m a c o u n s e l o r i n a n ac a­

d e m i c s e t t i ng , t hu s t he y m i g h t hav e a h i g h e r e x p e c t a t i o n o n t he r o l e

of counselo r .

A s f o r t h e p re fe re nc e o f co u ns e l i n g s t y l e , there w a s n o s i g n i f i­

c a n t d if f e re nc e b e t we e n groups except o n t he v ar i abl e me a sur i ng

p r e f e r e nce f o r a n " a dv i s o r-l ik e " c o un se l or . The re s u l ts s u g g e s t t h at

C h i ne s e c o l l e g e s t u de nt s prefe r a c o u n s e l o r w h o wo u l d t e l l t he m how t o

s o l v e their p r o b l e m w h e r e as A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s t u de nt s d i d n o t p re f e r s u c h

a c o u n se l o r . T h i s f i n d i ng su g ge s t s t h at A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s v al u e t h e

28

independe nce of j u dgement in p roblem solv ing w h e r e a s C h i ne s e s tu dent s

woul d prefer t h e ide as from an aut h o r i t a t ive figu re such a s t e ac he r ,

parents , o r c o u n se l o r . Mo r e o v e r , t h i s f i nding c orre s po nds wel l with the

Chi ne se s tude nt ' s expect a t i o n for mo re directivene s s in counseling .

Reg ar ding p re f e r e n c e s for d irec t i v e v s . n ondir active c ou n s e l i ng

app roach a l o ng the s p e c i f ic probl em so lving dimension ( Tab l e 2 ) , t h e re

2 9

w a s a diffe rence on p re ferences wi t h i n t he group s . B o t h C h i n e se and

Ame rican c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s s e e me d t o p refer Roge� for f amily and e motional­

v o c a t i o n a l p roblem, while Ame rican college students indicated a s t r o ng e r

p refer ence for Ellis . At t he same time , C hinese stude nts have greate r

prefere nce s for Ellis f o r financial p robl em and t h e re w a s no differ-

ence o n prefere nces f o r either counse lor o n e du c at i o nal vocational

problem on the p art of Chinese students . I n ot he r words , the stude nt s

s e e me d to discriminate between d i f f e re nt p ro b l e m o r i e n t a t i o n s and dif­

fere nt therapeutic styl e s . T hu s , preferences for d irective v s . non­

direc tive c ounse l i ng approach might be r e l a te d to a " p r o b l e m " variable

r a t h e r than a "natio nali ty " variable .

The writte n resp onse s t o a que stion a b o u t whom t hey wil l seek hel p

from b e s i de s a counse l o r for their p ro b l e m ( Table 3 ) y ielded the f o l l o w­

ing p e r c e n t age s : 64% o f Chinese students indicate d their friend and

1 5% indicated their mother . As for Ame rican sub j ects , 67% indicated

their friend and 9% indic ated t h e i r mo t he r . This f i nd i ng was similar

to F ukuhara ( 1 972 ) w h o f o u n d t hat both Ame rican and Japanese college

stude nts c hoose a friend as counsultant second t o choosing a counselor .

The nonsignificant f inding re g ar ding t he sex differe nces on e x­

pectat ions and preferences o f directivene s s may b e due to the e rror o f

a small sampl i n g ; { for t he American sub j ects , the re were 2 0 femal e s ,

1 3 m a l e s and the re we re 1 5 females and 1 9 males f o r t h e C hinese sub­

jects . ) As has been found i n other studies ( Tinsley & Harris · 1 976 ;

Apfelbaum, 1 9 58 ) , the rel ationship between sex diffe rence s and e x p e c­

tations o f directiveness has b e e n uncl ear . A s Tinsl e y a n d Harris ( 1976 )

has pointe d out in t heir study , t h e differences are nume rical ly quite

small and the implications of these f inding for p ractioners a r e by no

means clear . Thus the effect of sex differences o n the expectat ions and

counseling would b e an area t hat needs to be furthe r researc h e d .

One l i mit a t i o n of this study might b e traced to the inability to

control for t he impact of t he personal att ributes of b o t h t he rap ists

i . e . appearance , tone o f voice , o n the subjects ' perception a n d prefe r­

ences o f c ounsel ing ap p ro a c h e s . A �ilm p resentation was chosen over an

audio tape because a f ilm format can hol d s u b j ects ' attention mo re

effectively than woul d audio tape s .

Another possible l imitation i s the semant ic differe nce i n answe r­

i n g the questionnaire for Chinese s tudent since t he questionnaire was not

written in Chine s e . Our addit ional l imitation may be attributed to

differences that may have existe d between the national ity samp l es d u e

t o difference s in University s ize a n d d i s c r e p a n c i e s in maj or f ie l ds .

30

31

T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a has a l arge r , m o r e u r b a n s e t t i ng t h a n E a s t e r n

I l l i no is Univ e r s i ty . B o t h s cho o l s , howe v e r , t e nd t o s e rv e m i dwe s t e rn

s t u d e n t s . A l t h o u g h c e rt a i n discre p ancies e x i s t between t h e d i s t r ib u­

t i o n of ma jor f i e l d s , m a t c h i ng , w h i l e d e s i ra b l e f o r t h i s s t u dy , was

l o g i s t i c a l l y imp o s s i b l e . As f a r the d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n ma j o r

f i e l d s b e t w e e n t w o g r o up s , i . e . w i t h more s c i e nce ma j o r s i n t h e C h i n e s e

s t u de nt nroup t h a n t h e A me r i c 9 n g roup , r e s e a r c h has f o u n d no r o l ationship

b e t we e n s c i e n c e a t t i t u d e a n d p r e f e r e n c e s f o r therapy . ( F ancher &

Gatki n , 1 97 1 ; H i l l ner , 1 975 ) .

Summary

Summari ly , t h e r e s u l t o n t h i s s t u dy indicate that first t he re were

3ignificant differences (p . 0 1 ) b e tween g roup s o n t he e xp e c t at io n s of

directivene s s with C h in e s e s t u de n t s i n d i c ating a greater e xp e ctation

f o r direct i v e ne s s i n c o u n se l i n g . Secon d , there were no significant

differences betwee n group o n p r e f e rences as me asured by t h e variab l e

o f p e rc e i v e d h e l p f u l n e s s o f counse l o r ; p r e f e r e nc e s f o r direct ivene s s

o n the g e ne r a l p r o b l e m solving dime n s i o n and f o r t h e specific problem

s o l v i n g dime ns i o n . T h e r e were differences o n p r e f e re n c e s f o r d irect­

iven e s s al o ng the s p e c i f i c p ro b l e m s o l v i n g dime n s i o n w i t h i n e ac h g roup

which s u g g e s t e d t h a t p r e f e rence s for direct i v e ne s s i n c o u n s e l ing mig ht

be a function o f s pe c i f i c p r o b l e m o ri e n t a t i o n rat h e r t h a n as a function

o f national ity . Thir d , t h e p e r s o n whom t h e s t u d e nt s wou l d t e nd t o

s e e k he lp f ro m b e s i d e s a c o u ns e l o r were p rimari l y '' f r i e n ds " f o r b o t h

group . F o u rt h , t he re w e r e n o s i g nif icant d i f f e re nc e s o n expectations

an d p r e f e rence s o f dire c t iv e ne s s be twe e n sexe s . Howe v e r , t h i s wou l d

b e an a r e a i n which addi t i o na l rese arch i s nee d e d . A nd f i n al ly t h e

d i f f e r e nc e o n t h e p r e f e r e nce f o r a n 11 advisor-l i k e 11 counse l or between

32

t wo groups c orre sponds we l l w i t h e xp e ct at ion o f directiveness amon g t h o s e

t w o g roup s with C hi n e s e stude nts hav ing a greater exp e c t a t i o n o n direct­

ive ne s s and p r e f e re n c e s f o r a n 11adv i s o r-l ike " c o u n s e l or t h a n A me ri c a n

student s . Howe ve r , c a u t i o n s h ou l d b e t a k e n in i n t e rpre t i ng t h e data

s i nc e p r e ferenc e s a s me asur e d by v ie wi ng t h e f i l m did not nece s s arily

c o rrespond w i t h pre f e re nc e i n ac t u al t h e r a p y se t t i ng s .

The results o f t h i s study se e me d t o i np l y t h a t e v e n with a greater

e xp e ct at io n o f dire c t iv e ne s s i n c o u n s e l ing on t h e p art of C hinese s t u­

de nt s , they mio h t not ne c e s s a r i l y p r e f e r a mo re dire c t iv e cou n s e l i ng

approac h . I n ot her words , t he p ro b l e m orientation e . g . educatio nal­

vocat i o nal , e mo t i o n a l , woul d h av e a g r e at e r e f fe ct o n p re fe r e nc e s f o r

d irective v s . n o n d i re ct i v e a pp ro ac h and t h i s h a s b e e n shown t o b e t rue

f o r b o t h g r o u p s o f s t u de n t s .

I mpl ications

tonside ri ng t he re s u l t s , an e f f e c t ive manner o f c o u n s e l ing w i t h

C hi ne s e s t u de n t s might be t o s t a r t wit h a mor e d i re c t i v e �pproac h i n

e xp l a i ning t h e counse l i ng s i t u at io n , howev e r mai ntain ro l e f l e x i b i l i t y

depending o n t h e p re s e n t ing p robl e m . F o r i n s t ance , a no ndirective

app r o ac h wou l d be more app rop r i a t e i n wo rking wit h a c l i e nt wit h an

emotional problem whereas a directive ap p ro a c h woul d b e p re f e r re d in

wo rk i ng wit h a c l ie n t with a n e du c a t i on al-v o c a t i o nal p robl e m . Mo re-

ove r , s i n c e the C h i n e s e s t u d e n t s i n the U . S . might be a s e l e ctive group ,

f u r t h e r re s e arc h wou l d be n e e d e d i n me a s u r i ng exp e c t at i o n s a n d p r e f e r e nces

o f dire c t iv e n ess o f C hinese students in t h e i r home co u nt ry and t he n

compa r ing A me r i can , C h ine se s t u d e n t s i n t he u . s . , and C h i n e s e students

in Ho ng Kong and/o r Taiwan .

3 3

34

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35

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36

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Sue , s . & Sue , o . w . NM P I c o mpari s o n s b e t we e n A s i a n- A me r i c a n a n d n o n-A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s u t i l i z i ng a s t u d e n t p s y c h i a t r i c c l i n i c . J o u r na l o f Counse l i ng Psvchology , 1 974 , l1,, 4 23-42 7 .

Sue , o . w . & Kirk , a . A s i a n- A me r i c a n u s e o f c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h i a t r ic s e r v i c e s o n a col l e g e c a mp u s . Journal o f C o u n s e l i n g P sy c h o l ogy , 1 9 7 5 , g, 84-86 .

Tan , H . In tercultural s t u d y o f c o u n s e l i ng e xpe c t ancies. J o u r n a l o f : C o u n s e l i ng Psy c hol ogy , 1 9 6 7 , 11, 1 2 2-1 29 .

Tins l e y , H . E . & H a r r i s , D . J . Clie nt e x p e c t a t i o n � f o r c o u n s e l i n g . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i ng P s y c h o l o o v , 1 9 76 , ll• . 1 7 3-1 7 7 .

37

Traux , C . B . R e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d n o n r e i n f o r c e me n t i n Ro geria n Psy c h o t he r ap y . Jour n a l of A b n o r m a l Psychology , 1 9 66 , 11, 7�9 .

Traux , c . s . & C a r k h u f f , R . R . Toward e f f e c t iv e c o u ns e l i ng a n d £S y c ho t he r apy . C h i c ag o : A l d i n e , 1 967 .

3 8

V o l s ky , T . , Mag oon , T . M . , Norm an , M . T . , & Hoy t , D . P . T h e o u t c o m e of c ouns e l ing and p s y c h o t h e r an y . Minne a p o l i s , Un ivers i ty o f Minnesota Pre s s , 1 9 65 .

West e r , D . & F r e t z , B . A s i a n Ame r i c an , Black and White coll e g e s tude n t s pre fe renc e f o r he l p-g i v i n g s o u r c e s . Jou rna l o f Cou n s e l ing P s yc h o l ogy , 1 9 7 8 , 1§., 1 24-1 30 .

Williams , R . L . & K i r k l an d , J . T h e white cou n s elor and b l ac k client . C o u n s e l ing P s y c h o l o a i s t , 1 9 7 1 , !±_, 1 1 4-1 1 7 .

Wonde rling , L . The c ro ss-cultural u s e of Rat ional Emot i v e The r a py . D i s s e rt at i o n A b s t r acts Inte r n a tiona l . 1 9 7 3 , 34 ( 3 ) , 1 2 8 8-1 2 8 9 .

Z i eme l i s , A . E f f ect s of c l i ent p r efe r e nc e and exp e c t ancy u p o n t h e ini ti a l i n t e rv iew . Jou r n a l o f �011nssling Ps y c ho l ogy , 1 9 7 4 , l'.!..t 23-3 0 .

AppendiX A

Age s

Year in schools Fresh.Jlla.n/ sophomore/ Junior/ Senior/ Grad

Ma jor s

Sex s Male/ Female

Nationa.litys American/ Chinese/ American born Chinese/ !migrants

For Chinese/ !migrants students , the length of time you have spent

in hhe u . s . is ;yrs . mos .

Have you had any counseling experience before ?

!£ yes , please briefly describe your experience .

Yes/ No

Now we would like you to pretend that you are a student

about to see a counse lor for your first interview. We would like

to know just what you thiflk counse ling would be like . On the following

iages are statements about counseling. In each instances you are to

indicate what you expe ct counseling to be like . The rating sea.le we

would like you to use is printed at the top of each page • Your

ratings of the statements are to be recorded on the answer sheet

provided . For each sta.teme nt ,darken the space corresponding to the

number which most accurate ly reflects your expectation.

Please answer each questions as quickly and accurate ly as

possible . Finish each :page before going to the next . When you

have finished, please return ilhe questiona.ire and answer sheets to

the person in charge .

TWnk you.

l , )

Not True

I BXPEC T r.ro

( ;:2..) SlLghty

Tru.e

o c> ~ n

(3)

Appendix A (continued)

(If)

Hostly True

1 o See an ~xpe:cir.::nc ed conn:Jr:.: lcr,.

( s-) Definitely

~:rnf;

2o ~xpreHs openly any disagreccant I haYe with t~e couTisel oro

6o Initiate diGcussion of ~y c onc e~nsn

I EXPECT TEE COUNSELOR TO o c. o a

13o Be a si~cere p~rsona

14o Under;s tand e:-r.act1y hC\•I "I feel "

16o Help me know ~yself be~~er by pointing tc f02lings within 2 0

of whi. ch I hn.d been u.:o.<'.\;' r-:.X" (~"

1? c 3e honest with ~eo 18,., Ul?.d.erf1·taJ1{1 me so c ·::.~rap] .. e·~~·! J.:T ·t11 ~:1. ·t }).e ::~:~. ·n·?.: f:" t- /} i.a.-~~ :L c.n.;. :CE;el:i.. rJ. .: ·:

~•r0.n vjr~en I am 11~Ld.i~{!f; ·m:~r i' <\:E":l .ii:~ t.; t3 t'l

19" Tell rn~ \'-/h.a:t he 5~s J.:. or,.(~Gt1y t}:in:.;~J.ng "

20 " Know how I fael~ at timeD e vii tho u·;~ !.il,}f h~-'l·:.':.ng to .s~;e;.:tk o

24o Lead ~e into talking about som~ of DY d eepest feeli ngs"

25G T~ll m~ what to do" 26 o Help r:;B to k;.1ow ho.,., I 2.m feeJ.in,g by ::?•}.:c·:~iD.g my fsGJ.:L~Ifr:S .:.i.nt_.

wordE .ror m.e "

27 o Dsclc\•:: what ue _ tc,1k about"

29~ Frequ~~tly offer me 2dvica n

300 Help me solvR my probl~mo

Take the ini tiati ~re ·t~j bringing

: ) "

~·:·c ~j

Tr· 1.~t:

~ .~.1 ... ~ .:. ~c.:. ~·-

('; , '!.....- "':".\r ..... .r-.r- _, ... ~ ' .......

<.: r ..

•. ~ .. • .... ,="',

,. '

,,

Appendix A (Continued)

-~ .. .. . "1,

...... . ~~ .. ;.. ... -,: .. ~ - :. ;.

-~ •.: .

·,. ~:; ·~- .L: ilt-; ·~ ... ~

,. ).

o' o\ ...

- ·"" ·- .

\ . /1.

.·· ,.. . \ · ... =~ ,1

~ l o Wh:i..ch

as your counse~or ~

l~ot ~ i~ a.l l 'i '

Hot at a11

'T r:.o .... J.

.. I

you b.ad

discus s it with ?

others"

Appendix B

2 ,)

you .

.... , 1 -i s· 1 R ~ ,. .. .., ..... -··

.~: .. 1 • ..1. ... .. ~ 1 .. -. ..t :=.\_ ... t . ;:>

~/(: ~:~:y- f1. U.C }}. r· ., _,

Appendix C

Instructions

This research is be ing done to determine your vi4w of certain

counse ling situations . Two films of counse ling situations will be

presented to you and is is necessary that you complete two questiana.ire .

You will be asked to complete one prior to the fill\ and the isecond

questioMire is to be completed after both films have been showa.

Between films there will be a. five minutes break and you a.re requested

not to discuss the films or your reactions with each other until the

entire procedure is completed. When the data. has been collected and

analyzed the result will be available to you . Are there any questions ?

Your cooperation is greatly appreciated.

Appendix D