A COURSE PORTFOLIO OF TEACHING IN ...g131/BrassellCPCa.pdfA Course Portfolio for Introductory...

A Course Portfolio for Introductory Oceanography Simon Brassell

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A COURSE PORTFOLIO OF TEACHING IN INTRODUCTORY OCEANOGRAPHY

SIMON C. BRASSELLDepartment of Geological Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405-1403

Phone: (812) 855-3786; Fax: (812) 855-7961; Email: [email protected]

A. THE PURPOSE OF THE PORTFOLIO

1. Participation in the portfolio projectMy interest in this project arose from recognition that the

principal means for assessment of teaching was studentevaluations, which stand in stark contrast to the principles usedto appraise research through the well-established structure andprocess of peer review of manuscripts and grant proposals.Moreover, reviewers may offer suggestions for improvementsin papers and changes to proposals that enhance theireffectiveness or scope. No comparable structure exists for theevaluation of teaching. Hence, I hope that efforts to describeteaching practices, learning objectives and course outcomes canprovide a faculty voice in the evaluation process. Courseportfolios permit faculty reflection, investigation anddocumentation of teaching, and contribution to meaningfulstudent learning, in a manner amenable to critical review bypeers.

2. Goals of the portfolioThis course portfolio documents my teaching activities in the

introductory science class G131 “Oceans and our GlobalEnvironment” (http://www.indiana.edu/~g131/home.html*) overthe past eight years. Throughout this time I have continuallymodified instructional materials and assignments in my classeswith the tacit assumption that these developments providedenhanced learning experiences for my students simply becausethese changes improved the quality of the course materials andthe sophistication of class assignments. Any further justificationof the perceived benefits resides solely in anecdotal, rather thansubstantive, evidence of enhancements student learning. Thus,a major aim of this portfolio is to provide evidence of studentlearning that complement discussions of improvements inmaterials and assignments. Hence, the objectives of thisportfolio includes creation of:

a. A document that enables external, independentassessment of my teaching in oceanography via thepeer review process.

b. A comprehensive description and evaluation ofinnovative measures taken in this course.

c. A record of scholarly evidence for teaching excellenceand innovation and reflection on pedagogy andapproaches to teaching in this specific class.

All of these aspects are considered in the context ofevidence for class activities that enhance student success andlearning outcomes. Moreover, this portfolio encompassesseveral iterations of this course and therefore presentslongitudinal studies of the effectiveness of changes in teachingmethods and practices. A separate focused aim of the portfoliois therefore to document selected pedagogical changes in thecourse and examine evidence of their effect on student learning

or accomplishment. The questions addressed by this aspect ofthis portfolio include:

a. Are there specific measures of performance withinclass assessments that assess critical learningobjectives, such as students’ abilities to comprehendcomplex oceanographic concepts?

b. Is there any evidence of systematic differences instudent accomplishments that reflect the impact ofclass size on student learning?

c. What is the benefit, if any, of awarding partial creditfor partially correct answers in multiple-choicequestions and who are the beneficiaries?

d. Can the impact of class attendance on studentaccomplishment be assessed without explicitmonitoring?

B. CLASS SYNOPSIS:

1. Course DescriptionG131 is a three-credit-hour, introductory science course for

non-science majors focused on exploration of the marine realm,which incorporates aspects of geology, geography, physics,chemistry and biology in an interdisciplinary approach to thefundamentals of oceanography, emphasizing the climatic andenvironmental importance of the oceans. It is one of elevendifferent courses offered in geological sciences, among manyother classes campus-wide, which fulfills the ‘Natural andMathematical Sciences’ distribution requirement.

2. Class Demographics:Through the Fall semester of 2003, a total of 1309 students

have taken G131 in 18 separate class sections, with 982receiving passing letter grades. One benefit of this largestatistical sample is the possibility of assessing aspects of thecomparative performance of students of at different stages oftheir degree programs, within different fields of study and ofdifferent gender. A summary of student performance accordingto student status (Table 1) shows a balance of studentsaccording to class, and only minor systematic discrepancies instudent accomplishments among the statistically significantdata, which excludes continuing and masters students. Therange of average class grades is 2.39 to 3.01 (ave. 2.73).

3. Student attitudesOne of the major issues in any course that meets distribution

requirements is recognition of student attitudes toward theclass. I perceive that undergraduate science education is morelikely to be more effective when students are willing volunteersrather than grudging conscripts in the learning process.Unfortunately, the element of compulsion in requiring studentsto take prescribed options to meet distribution requirementsinevitably leads a few of them to perceive all aspects (lectures,discussion sessions and assignments) of such a course as anunwelcome burden, rather than an opportunity to learn.Moreover, it encourages some students to commit only theminimal effort necessary to obtain a passing grade. The

*References to other web pages on the www.indiana.edu website areabbreviated for simplicity following the principle whereby…/home.hml represents http//www.indiana.edu/~g131/home.html.

Simon Brassell A Course Portfolio for Introductory Oceanography

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undeniable, and perhaps sometimes unobtainable, challenge isto overcome these inherent prejudices that inhibit individuallearning because the value, importance or utility of the subjectis not recognized. The role of instructor therefore becomes thatof a salesperson to cajole and persuade students that theenterprise of learning the class material is worthwhile, and thatof a facilitator to accept, albeit reluctantly, a sometimes casualapproach toward class responsibilities if it accommodates ratherthan alienates students with negative attitudes toward the class.

C. COURSE DESIGN

1. ApproachI consider that the practice of teaching follows many of the

same principles that guide research activity. No scientist everchooses to pursue a line of inquiry that has been proven toproduce poor results or fail. Yet in teaching poor practices mayoften persist in the absence of a rationale or impetus for change.Thus, the demonstration through assessment of effectivelearning within a discipline plays a crucial role in encouragingchanges in practice.

Undoubtedly, individual disciplines differ in theirexpectations for student learning, especially their comparativeemphasis on memorizing facts, comprehending concepts andacquiring skills, which may determine the format and structureof classroom activities, the character of assignments, and theextent to which they are interactive. In geological sciences thefocus of teaching still tends to reside in course contents andcurricula rather than in student outcomes even in classes taughtfor non-science majors who may never take another class in thediscipline. Thus, a key challenge is to demonstrate that a shift infocus from content to learning objectives can enhance studentachievement.

2. Course objectives:Teaching Geological Sciences

Geological sciences is arguably the most interdisciplinary ofthe sciences. It encompasses all aspects of the physics,chemistry and biology of the Earth, augmented by theperspective of deep time. It can therefore be regarded as acornerstone of science education within liberal learning becauseit offers the basis for understanding the physical world aroundus. However, its breadth presents particular challenges inteaching and learning. Specifically, student’s experiences inhigh school tend to reinforce disciplinary divisions rather thanhelp to build integrative perspectives. Few students are wellprepared in all the different aspects of science involved ingeological sciences, which therefore poses significant

challenges in teaching such an inherently interdisciplinarysubject. Thus, one of the main objectives of this course is todevelop the fundamental skills in science needed to think acrossdisciplines.Explicit and covert objectives

In almost every class there are two separate levels ofobjectives; those that are explicitly documented as course aimsand those that constitute the unstated goals of the instructor,which may include broader skills relevant to a liberal education.The syllabus for G131 “Oceans and Our Global Environment”(…/synopsis.html), which has changed little over the years,presents the stated objectives for the class in terms of generalaims, course contents, its emphasis, and directives, as follows:

a. To provide an integrated introduction to oceanscience.

b. To explain the principles of chemical, physical andbiological oceanography.

c. To emphasize the role of oceans in regulation ofglobal climate.

d. To illustrate the environmental importance of theoceans.

e. To explore the observational basis of the science ofoceanography on the web.

f. To enhance awareness and understanding of oceanicphenomena.

g. To stimulate an interest in the scientific study of theoceans.

This list does not overtly state the series of course objectivesthat are related to the development or reinforcement offundamental skills in interpretation of scientific data. In anyintroductory class for non-science majors that earns studentsdistribution credits in ‘Natural and Mathematical Sciences,’which may represent the last formal coursework in science forsome students, it is imperative that teaching efforts focus on theacquisition of fundamental skills. These skills include theability to understand how data can be represented in the form ofgraphs, histograms, and maps, and the capacity to construct,describe, evaluate and interpret such information.Consequently, underlying the stated course objectives areseveral more covert objectives including:

a. An exposure to diagrams, especially practice inrecognition of key elements and assessment ofgraphical data that leads to familiarity with standardforms of data representation (tables, histograms,graphs, maps, cross sections). For example, the classmaterials for G131, my introductory class inoceanography, include instruction using various mapswhere colors are variously used to illustrate oceantemperatures or ocean salinity at the surface or atdefined depths, ocean bathymetry, ocean currents,ocean productivity, or tidal strength. One objective istherefore to teach students how to read and digest theinformation in such maps, and develop their abilities torecognize the keys that indicate what any individualcolor scheme represents. Ideally, the aim is to instructthe students in this interpretation process and then testtheir ability to perform similar assessmentsindependently.

b. Successful execution of tasks in data assessment thatbuild skills in recognition of data presented in variousformats and ideally mastery in comprehension of theinformation that they present.

Table 1. Student Profile

No. Students % Individual Grades % Other Ave.Status Total A-D A B C D F W I GPAFreshman 312 238 20.8 22.8 18.6 14.1 7.7 15.4 0.6 2.62

(completing* 24.8 27.1 22.1 16.8)Sophomore 342 260 16.4 28.1 21.6 9.9 8.2 15.2 0.6 2.65

(completing 19.4 33.3 25.7 11.8)Junior 290 224 23.8 24.8 21.7 6.9 5.9 14.8 2.1 2.80

(completing 28.6 29.9 26.1 8.3)Senior 340 241 21.5 21.2 20.6 7.6 8.2 17.4 2.4 2.74

(completing 27.1 26.8 26.0 9.7)Continuing 17 11 17.6 11.8 5.9 29.4 23.5 11.8 0 2.19Masters 8 8 50.0 37.5 12.5 0 0 0 0 3.30All 1309 982 20.6 24.1 20.4 9.9 7.7 15.6 1.4 2.70

(completing 24.9 29.2 24.7 11.9)* % of students completing the course (i.e. excluding W and I grades)


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c. An experience in science that affords practical skillsand ideally a thirst for further courses to build anddevelop them.

d. The acquisition of core knowledge and factualinformation about science and the oceans that could beregarded as relevant general knowledge for anyonewith a baccalaureate degree.

For students, success in attaining the skills associated withthis latter series of objectives will provide a more lasting andvaluable personal accomplishment than any level of learningrelated to the specified course objectives. I am eager to developstrategies for learning that both build and assess interpretiveskills in examination and evaluation of scientific data andendeavor to design assignments focused on these elements. Mycontention is that lessons structured around these goals canprovide useful templates for such activities in other fields ofscience.Student Engagement

Teaching introductory oceanography in the mid-continentpresents unique challenges. Many students have littlefamiliarity with the oceans and marine processes, which may becompounded by limited training in science. In many traditionalscience classes they are bombarded with knowledge,information and jargon without commensurate training in theskills of scientific inquiry. Too often the requirement to acquireor evaluate data is perceived by them as ‘busy work,’ andperhaps the greatest concern is that for some students theseintroductory classes for non-science majors represent their lastformal coursework in science. Moreover, the traditionalstructure of lectures and laboratory classes often fails toengender any interest in science, especially when testsconcentrate on memorization of facts rather thancomprehension of concepts. Thus, there is a critical need toprovide vehicles for learning that engage, entertain and educatethe class.

3. Sequence of Themes & Topics:The broad themes of the course and the specific aspects of

oceanography considered within these topics (…/synopsis.html)are covered in the following sequence:

a. Geographical and Geological Framework of theOceans: Shape, size, history and exploration.

b. Constituents of the Oceans: Sea floor sediments,seawater and salts.

c. Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions: Atmospheric gases,winds, and controls on Earth's heat budget.

d. Climate and Weather Phenomena: Hurricanes, ElNiño events, and global warming.

e. Dynamic Processes in the Oceans: Ocean circulation,currents, waves, tsunami and tides.

f. Fringes of the Ocean: Coastal waters, estuaries,shorelines, beaches and erosion.

g. Biological Oceanography: Ocean productivity,habitats and lifestyle of marine biota, shallow anddeep-water ecosystems.

h. Oceans and Environmental Issues: Pollution, toxins,and marine resources.

This sequence of themes is covered within the lectures,generally following the order of their presentation within thecourse text, prefaced by an introduction to the class and to thehistory of oceanography. Some topics (e.g. hurricanes) areaddressed in greater detail within specific course assignments,

especially those that are the central focus of web-basedexercises.

4. Instructional Design:Several factors influenced many of the instructional decisions

during the initial design and subsequent, successivedevelopment of the course. Specifically, there are student-centered issues that need to be considered in addition toscheduling constraints, seating arrangements, and theavailability of instructional technology aids. These concernsinclude an awareness of the wide range of student backgroundsand abilities in science, the need for class activities andinteractions that engage students, the importance of assignmentsthat address key learning objectives, and the goal ofencouraging good study habits, notably recognition of thebenefits of class attendance.Targeting a range of student preparedness.

A critical objective in all classes is the creation of anenvironment for learning in which all students can be successfulsustained by activities linked to appropriate use of pedagogy.One perennial challenge is how to devise assignments that arewithin the compass of the entire class and yet extend the mostcapable students. This objective is part of the broader goal ofbuilding a classroom atmosphere that encourages achievementand caters to different student learning styles. It includesrecognition that there may be substantial differences betweenspecific aspects of a course that serve to interest and motivateindividual students and that different levels of scaffolding maybe required. Consequently, knowledge of the study habits andlearning attitudes of students is critical to optimizing thepossibilities for their success through efforts to make classmaterials and topics interesting and relevant. Persuasion is alsoimportant. There is the need to convince students of the benefitsof investing time and energy in their learning experience, achallenge facilitated by use of effective and varied pedagogywhile handicapped by the dominance of concerns over gradesfor many members of the class.Incorporating interaction in class.

Large introductory classes arguably present the greatestchallenges in College teaching, because simple managementissues can dominate any aspirations to accomplish pedagogicalgoals. Fortunately, a large class with only about 100 students,like G131 “Oceans and Our Global Environment,” still permitsdirect interactions with students and the opportunity torecognize and acknowledge many members of the class asindividuals. I have also found room design to be important,preferring a central aisle that provides the opportunity towander among the students when posing questions to the entireclass, or during intervals of student discussion with theirneighbors. Such interactions within lectures include opendiscussion of specific questions and answers in an effort toinvolve and engage students in the class and focus theirattention on critical issues and concepts that may be the subjectof written exam questions.Reinforcing key skills.

My most recent course changes promote efforts that endeavorto develop key skills through web-based exercises anddiscussion sessions, to hone and establish them through on-linequizzes, and then assess them in written examinations.Development of assignments that sequentially involvepreparative, exploratory, analytical, and interpretative elementsto reinforce targeted skills prior to assessment is intellectually


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demanding and time consuming, yet it best couples classactivities to critical course objectives. Undoubtedly help ordiscussion sessions that introduce, discuss, and review theseassignments provide valuable support for these endeavors.Rewarding Class Attendance.

It seems appropriate that course grades should focus onrewarding and encouraging participation rather than on directlypenalizing student absences. Moreover, the mere presence ofstudents in the classroom does not ensure that they are attentive,especially in science classes for non-majors at the 100-level.Undoubtedly the optimum incentive for class attendance isrecognition by the students themselves that active participationin the learning process will help them be successful. Inevitablyit requires that they perceive some tangible benefit from theclass, whether it is simply a higher grade, or a betterappreciation of the world around us. College students are adultsand should bear personal responsibility for their attitude towardacademic study. I am therefore fundamentally opposed to theprinciple of taking attendance and the use of attendancecounting toward class grades. The goal is to convince studentsthat attendance is beneficial to their learning because itencourages good study habits. It therefore behooves aninstructor to demonstrate tangible benefits from attentiveparticipation in class. My philosophy is that students should beencouraged and cajoled into active participation, not punished if

they are disengaged, because their disengagement is likely toreflect a failure of the classroom activities to engage thestudent. Routinely I report on the discrepancy between theexam grades of students whose attendance may be regarded ascasual rather than committed, which I can explicitlydemonstrate (Section D.3) although some students seemimmune to this logic.

5. Course ComponentsThe components of the class have evolved over time (Fig. 1).

Perhaps the major changes are in terms of the format, numberand contents of assignments, specifically exercises and problemsets, and the proportion of final grade assigned to these requiredcomponents. Adjustments in scheduling and class times (i.e.whether taught as three 50-minute lectures/week, or as two 80-minute lectures/week, or as a combination of lectures anddiscussion sessions) also influence the number of writtenexaminations, especially when the class is taught during an 8-week session rather than over the full semester. In recentsemesters the class has comprised four main components:

a. Lecture Presentations: A sequential discussion oftopics is presented as a series of powerpoint slides thatdocument major points using text summaries,supplemented and illustrated by numerous pictures,diagrams, graphs, maps, and video images. This seriesof slides was initially developed in 1996, and has been

Fig. 1: A summary of thesequence of progressivedevelopments in coursecomponents for G131Oceans and Our GlobalEnvironment.


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subsequently updated, amended, augmented andenhanced for every successive iteration of the course.All of the individual slides are accessible to studentsfrom the class web pages (…/resources.html).

b. In-Class Discussion Questions: To facilitate activestudent participation in class sessions, selected issuesare formulated as questions (…/resources.html) onslides presented as the basis for open class discussion.The aim, often developed by follow-up comments toresponses, is to prompt recognition of underpinningconcepts and those factors that represent criticalelements of each topic when coupled with the keyanswers provided. These same points are regularlyused as a source for exam questions, and they alsoprovide a helpful guide in assessing the familiarity ofthe class with specific topics. Typically, only about30% of students in the class actually volunteer toanswer questions, or otherwise actively contributethrough the semester. Thus, the discussions are not aswidely effective in engendering participation as Iwould wish, although this proportion of the class mayperhaps be the maximum attainable without mandatingor explicating rewarding contributions.

c. Web-based Exercises: In the mid 1990’s theoceanographic community began its broad adoption ofthe internet as a means for dissemination ofinformation about the oceans, in part because of thevisual nature of most oceanographic data. At this timeI recognized the potential of employing the burgeoningaccessibility of oceanographic data sets and resourcesfound on the internet in the development of interactiveexercises within an introductory undergraduate class inoceanography. This approach arose from my wish toaddress the dynamics of ocean processes in a mannerthat is wholly impossible using laboratory workbooks.When I first inherited G131 from a colleague Icontinued his practice of using selected exercises froma workbook (Pipkin et al., “Laboratory Exercises inOceanography”) as the basis for laboratory activities inthe class. My initial development and use of internetresources was facilitated by an active learning grantfrom Indiana University, recognizing the prospect thatuse of the internet could provide higher learningexperiences for students. Specifically, they couldthemselves retrieve data sets, and be guided towardtheir examination and evaluation to discover conceptsembedded in these materials. The exercises themselvesinvolve visiting these external websites that provideoceanographic data and assessing aspects of theinformation to address specific questions related toclass themes. The selection of topics has included:i. Geological Themes: Earthquakes and plate

tectonics, Spreading rates and plate motion,Volcanoes, and volcanic activity, Californianearthquakes, Sea floor topography.

ii. Ocean and Atmospheric Characteristics: Oceantemperatures, Ocean salinities, Ocean watermasses, Atmospheric carbon dioxide, TheAntarctic ozone hole,

iii. Ocean and Atmospheric Dynamics: Hurricanesin the Atlantic and east Pacific, Ocean currents,

Rings in the Gulf Stream, Ocean waves and theirheights, Ocean tides.

iv. Integrated Topics: El Niño events, Primaryproductivity in the oceans.

The specific range of topics used for exercises tendedto vary among semesters primarily because aspects ofthe target information and data was updated andrenewed. However, the choice in any particularsemester was determined by several factors including:i. Availability of Suitable Websites: Changes have

frequently been necessitated by thedisappearance of specific sites, sometimesimmediately prior to the launching of theexercise that used them. Similarly, newexercises have been created to take advantage ofthe discovery of further opportunities – typicallynew data sets or resources – to extend the rangeof activities with additional topics. Thus, alimited number of the exercise topics, ratherthan the entire range, has been employed in anyindividual semester. However, the stability ofthe sites has improved over time; this reliabilityhas helped to smooth the process of selectingexercise topics and data sources in recentsemesters.

ii. Other Course Revisions: The exercises areintended to mesh with topics covered within thelectures. The timing and sequence of exerciseshas therefore changed to keep pace with thecoverage of topics within the lectures.

iii. Time Management: The full range of optionsintended for the course exercises has often notbeen attainable because of time constraints. Inpractice the development or revision ofindividual exercises, especially wholesalemodifications to their overall format, isphenomenally t ime-consuming. Thus,introduction of new assignments, additionaloptions in exercise choices, or changes in thestructure of the websites have not always beenaccomplished as planned.

These changes in the exercises meant that studentswould typically explore and interpret sets of datadifferent from those examined in the previoussemester. Indeed, the continued developments,revisions and expansions of the web-based exercisesusing an increasingly diverse range of web-based datameant that no two successive semesters were identical(compare versions from Spring 1999, Spring 2000, andFall 2002 accessible at …/~simon/G131exercises.html,http://php.indiana.edu/~simon/G131exercisesS2000.htmland …/exercises2002.html, respectively*). In severalsemesters they were arranged in sets containingexercises that were obligatory combined with thechoice of additional selections from a range of othertopics. Each individual exercise typically comprised aseries of pages explaining:

*References to web pages on the http://php.indiana.edu/~simon/website are abbreviated so that …/~simon/G131home.hmlrepresents http//php.indiana.edu/~simon/G131/home.html.


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i. Background: Offered information on the specifictopic in the form of a statement of the exercisegoals, and a brief explanatory description of thetarget data sources, coupled with links toexternal references that explained features of thedata, or their collection and use.

ii. Links: Provided links to the websites containingthe data sets, or maps to complete the questions,or links to programs and other to select togenerate the required data.

iii. Questions: Documented the series of questionsfor the exercise, and the web-based resourcesoften with pop-up hints.

iv. Oncourse Submission: Included links toOncourse for on-line submission of answers,although students were recommended to keep aseparate back-up record of their answers in theevent that their submission to Oncourse failed insome way.

Most of the pages for the final iteration of the web-based exercises in this format, namely those from Fall2002, remain accessible (…/exercises2002.html).However, these have become redundant in the wake ofrevisions made in Fall semester 2003. The exercisepages and links (…/exercises.html) now simply providesummaries of the objectives of the individual exercises,access to background information, and guides and hintsto individual questions. The questions themselves, andthe links to the websites that provide the data andinformation to complete the exercise are now fullyadministered within the Indiana University Oncourseenvironment.The data sets that are the focus of the exercises arevariously presented as tables, maps, graphs or othersimages. Some involve the selection of options from amenu, or the entry of numbers (e.g. values for latitudeand longitude) into programs that generate specific datasets for evaluation. The questions involve:

i. Description of the features or characteristics ofthe data, such as an explanation of what a graphor map represents.

ii. Retrieval of information for a particular region,time or presented in a particular format (e.g. across-sectional view) that is generated by use ofa web-based program through specifying co-ordinates or other modifiers.

iii. Assessment of temporal changes (daily, weekly,seasonal, annual) in oceanographic data (e.g.ozone, productivity, tides) usually bycomparison of separate data sets.

iv. Evaluation of spatial variability in the data,typically by examination of different maps, ordistinct regions of a global map, and appraisal ofthe differences.

v. Comparison of data sets from different sourcesgenerally derived from different approaches tothe measurement of a specific characteristic (e.g.plate motions from GPS data or the NUVEL-1calculator).

vi. Determination of correspondences between datasets or of their rank order based on anestablished criterion.

vii. Interpretation of tabulated, visual, or graphicaldata in the context of oceanographic conceptsand principles.

viii. Numerical problems using data to calculateparameters of specific phenomena. For example,use of spreading rates to determine the timing ofopening of the Atlantic Ocean.

d. Help Sessions: Optional help sessions were offereduntil recently to provide advice on the web-basedexercises. These meetings, scheduled in the earlyevening, provided a description and explanation of thequestions for individual exercises and afforded theopportunity for students to have any questionsanswered. Initially, two sessions per exercise wereoffered and their timing was based on studentpreferences in an effort to optimize attendance andthereby maximize their availability and benefit to theclass. Ultimately, these sessions were reduced to oneper week at an established time. Attendance at theseclass meetings varied greatly - undoubtedly otherclasses or commitments precluded some students’participation - but it never exceeded 30% of enrolledstudents. Strongly positive comments on evaluationforms about the help sessions imply that the studentswho attended indeed found them useful. Also,circumstantial evidence indicates that their scores forthe exercises benefited from their participation.However, no attendance records were ever taken andthis unsubstantiated assertion cannot be verified. Asimilar beneficial effect can be inferred for thosestudents who attended formal office hours (Instructoror Associate Instructor), or were actively engaged atsome time in communication about learning materials.In Fall semester 2003 the help sessions were replacedby introduction of formal discussion sessionsinvolving group interactions in an attempt to providethe benefit of collective examination of the exercisequestions for all students (Section E.2.a).

e. Additional Web Resources: The precise hierarchicalarrangement of the webpages has changed as thevarious elements of the course have evolved, but thegeneral structure and layout of the pages has remainedconsistent (compare home pages and links for Spring1999, Spring 2000 and Fall 2003 semesters at…/~simon/home.html, …/~simon/G131_home.html and…/home.html, respectively). In most cases the olderpages are no longer accessible and I have long ago lostcount of the total number of original pages, revisedpages, and associated images that have been created orimported, but they number in the thousands. Thecurrent home page provides links to the four majorelements of the course webpages that, in turn, providelinks that enable access to the full range of webresources for the class. The four principal links are:i. Information: A series of interlinked pages that

describe the syllabus, course objectives, gradingpolicies, format of assignments andexaminations, and provide contact details.

ii. Schedule: The planned sequence for coverage oflecture topics, the due dates of all classassignments, and the time set for allexaminations and review sessions.


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iii. Resources: Access to a listing of class materials,with links to web pages that display in-classquestions (e.g. water and ocean structure,…/waterq.html),, notes on lecture topics (e.g.ocean and atmosphere, …/atmosN.html), andPowerpoint slides for every lecture topic andreview session (e.g. continental margins andocean basins, …/margins.html). For Fall 2003links to learning prompts for each topic wereadded. In addition, the visuals accessible fromthe resources web page are also available as pdffiles from a folder within the ‘in touch’ area ofthe Oncourse class pages (e.g. the mid-termreview; …/MTReview.pdf) The materialsavailable from the resources links have theadvantage of enabling students who miss class toreview these materials. In addition, they alloweasy and accurate review of these materials at alater time, and provide for uniformity in thematerials available for study. On the negativeside, ready access to these materials probablyreduces the quality of note taking by students,which may also engender class inactivity. Theymay reduce the perceived need for attendance byless active students. Moreover they requiresignificant resources in terms of server spaceand instructor time to implement. Despite theseconcerns I think that the benefits outweigh thedisadvantages.

iv. Exerc i ses : Until Fall semester 2003 the‘Exercises’ link provided access to all of thepages that served to co-ordinate the web-basedexercises. It now primarily serves as a source oflinks to background information on the exercisetopics and provides details of the differentrequirements of each group (A, B, C and D inFall semester 2003).

6. Course AssessmentsWritten Examinations:

Central to my teaching philosophy is the principle thatlearning within a course should be assessed in terms of thestudent’s abilities to demonstrate the use of acquired knowledgeor understanding of critical concepts. Thus, I have resisted theconvenience of resorting entirely to laborsaving, multiple-choice questions that may simply test powers of recall ormemorization of facts. For oceanography, I regard the ability toidentify locations where specific features (e.g. tectonic plateboundaries) or phenomena (e.g. upwelling) occur on a worldmap, or the capability to describe and interpret a graph (e.g. oftemporal changes in atmospheric CO2 levels) as fundamentalskills. I am therefore committed to the use of short-answerquestions focused on assessing student learning in these criticalareas. Thus, the format of written examinations within G131has remained consistent - a combination of multiple choice andshort answer questions - although the number and timing of the

exams has varied over the years.a. Multiple Choice Questions: Answers (selected from

five options) require knowledge of topics that may bereinforced by in-class discussion or web-basedexercises. 3 points are awarded for correct answers and1 point for partially correct answers. Examples ofmultiple-choice questions are accessible among theclass web pages (…/spring2002/exams3.html) and arepresented here as examples of questions and answers(Fig. 2).

b. Short-Answer Questions: Answers require descriptionor explanation of specific oceanographic phenomena,often by annotation of maps or diagrams. Questionstypically have multiple parts and several choices areoffered. Examples of short-answer questions areaccessible among the class web pages(…/spring2002/exams4.html) and are presented here asquestions and commentary on possible answers (Fig.3).

Problem Sets:Separate web-based problems were introduced in Spring

semester 1999 (see …/~simon/G131problems.html), which weresubsequently incorporated into the web-based exercises. Thegoal was to provide students with the experience of derivingnew insights from considering simple quantitative aspects of thedata. Several problems used the same web sites and data sets asthose of the web-based exercises, which made it bothappropriate and practical to integrate the problems within theexercises.Essays:

In three semesters (Fall 1997, Spring and Fall 1998) studentswere required to write a short (1000 words) essay and/or alonger mini-project (3000 words) on an instructor-approvedtopic of their choice. The aim was to enable students to exploreaspects of the oceans that were of interest to them,compensating for the fact that many oceanographic topics

Fig. 2: Representative examples of multiple choice questionsand answers for written exams in G131.


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received sparse attention during formal class sessions. Thiscomponent in assessment of student learning was latereliminated for several reasons:

a. Topic Selection: A significant proportion of thestudents struggled to choose a topic for their essaysand projects, which led to a surfeit of meetings withstudents to explain and discuss possibilities, and adeluge of requests for extra time to complete theassignment.

b. Resources: Undoubtedly, most students derived theirinformation solely from the text, or from limitedsearches for other sources, which at times led to somerather superficial essay contents. Overall, there was aneed for students to have some familiarity withrelevant oceanographic data and reference materials,and an ability to use search engines (library andinternet) to achieve an effective outcome. The absenceof these vital skills among a significant proportion ofthe class meant that training in them was needed tomake such assignments effective vehicles for studentlearning. Without appropriate preparation the projectswere of limited value to the students, and were mostunlikely to attain their goal of introducing the class toresearch–based questions and problems. The decisionnot to restructure this component of the course toprovide the necessary skills was rooted in the intentionto focus class assignments around the web-basedexercises.

c. Challenges in Grading: Students expected significantfeedback on their essays, especially a detailedjustification of the grade awarded. Yet the value of theessays is significantly limited if students are simplygiven a grade; it is more important to give studentsfeedback on their work and the opportunity to learnfrom that experience. In addition, the feedback on anindividual essay has little benefit or purpose if norevisions or resubmission are required. Moreover,

some students expressed or demonstrated somereluctance to invest significant time for essays orprojects that represented only a minor component (5-15%) of their total grade. Thoughtful and thoroughreading and critiquing of 60 to 80 2-page essaysranging across the entire field of oceanographyconstituted 15-30 hours of grading per assignment.The benefit to student learning versus the timeinvestment for these essays and projects was deemedsignificantly less than that for the web-based exercises,which again made this course component dispensable.

d. Scientific Interpretations and Writing Skills: Many ofthe students’ essays demonstrated a lack of cogentarguments and assessment of scientific information.Students’ abilities to write objectively with clarityvaried greatly. It was apparent that real benefit tostudent learning would only emerge from developmentof the essays as part of an iterative process. However,concerns related to the interpretive aspects of the essaysuggested that additional experience in examiningoceanographic data sets might be more useful learningexercise.

e. Student Responses: Student comments indicated thatmany considered that the grading of the essays was themost arbitrary of the course components. Moreover,the diversity of topics made the development ofrubrics effectively impossible.

My conclusion was that the use of essays in a 100-level classfor non-science majors is impractical without providingappropriate scaffolding to enhance their writing throughworkshops or detailed feedback. It would be more appropriatein writing-intensive courses where students have theopportunity to improve their writing skills in an iterativemanner coupled to development of knowledge andunderstanding of their chosen topic. However, G131 wouldrequire complete restructuring to accomplish this goal and thevalue of the web-based exercises in achieving key learningobjectives seemed much greater, in part because of thescaffolding provided to enhance their effectiveness.Quizzes:

Short (5 question, 10 minute) tests introduced within class inSpring semester 1996 comprised of a combination of multiple-choice and short-answer questions, mirroring the format of thewritten examinations. They were discontinued because theircomparability to other examinations meant that they played nodistinct role in the assessment of student learning. A differentstyle of on-line quiz was introduced in Fall semester 2003 thatwas designed to assess student’s comprehension of conceptsdeveloped in the web-based exercises. Many of theseassessments required interpretation of data sets comparable tothose evaluated in the individual exercises, thereby building onprior course components.Web-Based Exercises:

Section C.5.c above presents details of the web-basedexercises and their evolution over time. The fundamental aim ofthe exercises is to train students to evaluate visual data sets and

Fig. 3: An example of a short answer question with guides toanswers typical of those used in written exams for G131.


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assess their ability to relate observational data to oceanographicphenomena. Individual questions within the exercises havedefined point scores, which vary dependent on the complexityof the response required. The simplest questions requireinformation presented in the images to be reported withoutcomment or interpretation. The most challenging questions arelabeled as bonus questions, enabling students to receive scoresgreater than 100%.

D. EVIDENCE OF STUDENT LEARNING:

1. Student Accomplishments Related to Explicit CourseGoals

The various assignments and examinations within G131relate directly to the stated course objectives (Section C.2). Forexample, short-answer questions in the written examinationsrequire students to explain aspects of oceanography linked to itsphysics, chemistry and biology, and role in global climate.Similarly, the web-based exercises directly involve description,explanation and interpretation based on observational data.Consequently, competence in these areas of learning,commensurate with expectations of general knowledge for abaccalaureate degree, is clearly demonstrated by students whoearned a grade of B or higher (about 54% of the students whocompleted the course; Table 1).

2. Student Accomplishments Related to Covert CourseGoals

The web-based exercises exposed students to numerousdiagrams and maps, and required them to read and digestinformation contained in these pictures. Students who weresuccessful in these endeavors undoubtedly demonstrated skillsin interpretation of information presented in this visual format.Comparison of responses to individual parts of questions in thefinal written examinations also showed an improvement instudents’ ability to successfully answer specific questionsrequiring explanation of spatial data, vectors and cartographicinformation. The average scores for answers to commonquestions addressing these elements of student learning

improved from Fall 1998 to Spring 2002 (74 % to 86%, 75% to88%, and 64% to 72%, respectively; Fig. 4), whereas there waslittle change (73% to 76%) in answers to simple explanatoryquestions in the same examinations.

3. Inquiries Related to Student LearningWithin the context of this portfolio I have examined several

aspects of. Four of these are considered here as briefevaluations of the effects of course assessments, innovations,class attendance and size on student performance.Question Format in Written Examinations

Written examinations in G131 comprise both short-answerand multiple-choice questions (Sections C.6.a and C.6.b)prompting evaluation of evidence for systematic differences instudent performance in their answers to these different types ofquestion. Student performance in short-answer and multiple-choice questions can be directly compared by consideration ofthe difference in their scores for the two types of question. Inaddition, the performance of students can be evaluated in termsof their earned letter grades (A through F) for the course. Thiscomparison can be presented as a plot of the difference instudent scores for short-answer and multiple-choice questionsversus their letter grades, using data for individual semestersand as a cumulative average (Fig. 5). The resulting graphs showthat high-achieving students demonstrate better understandingof the complex concepts assessed by short-answer questions,and suggests that these questions offer better differentiationbetween student abilities than multiple-choice questions.

Fig. 5: Comparison of differences in student scores for short-answer and multiple-choice questions in written examsaccording to their final grade in G131.

Fig. 4: Changes in student scores for specific questions relatedto visual concepts in written exams for G131.


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Partial Credit for Multiple-Choice QuestionsIn the written examinations some partially or broadly correct

answers to multiple-choice questions can earn students partialcredit for their answer (one point versus three points for correctanswers; Section C.6.b). The use of this approach in scoringmultiple-choice questions warrants assessment to examine theeffect of this practice. It can be expected that higher achievingstudents are likely to achieve a higher success rate in receivingpartial credit. However, the opportunities for them to earn thiscredit will be fewer because they are most likely to select thecorrect answer (Fig. 6).

There are two predominant outcomes from this practice,namely the impact on student grades and the effect on studentperceptions of the course. The first aspect was examined bycalculation of partial credit points earned versus those possible,and relative to random selection for all sections of the classfrom 1995 through 2002. The contribution of the points forpartial credit relative to exam scores was also determined.These data were also divided according to student final grades.The results show that awarding partial credit for multiple-choice questions generally increases exam scores and providesmarginally greater benefit to students receiving lower grades(Fig. 6). However, the discrepancy between these students’responses and random selection appears to increase with grade.The effect of awarding partial credit is wholly anecdotal. Nostudent has ever made a negative comment on the practice ofoffering partial credit, whereas many have made positivecomments.Class Attendance and Exam Performance

One approach to assess the effectiveness of student learningin lectures is to evaluate evidence for any correspondencebetween exam scores and student attendance. For a class inwhich attendance is never taken these data need to be obtainedby other methods. It is my practice to return exam scripts tostudents when grading is complete but without announcingwhen such distribution will specifically occur. Consequently,

the scores for students who are in class to collect their examscripts can be compared with those of students who are notpresent. The results averaged over multiple semesters with 866students show significant differences (Fig. 7). The averagescore of students who are present in class to collect their scripts(‘regular attendees’) is 13% higher than those who are absent(‘casual attendees’). It is impossible to determine whether theregular attendees are benefiting from the lectures, or whetherthe data simply reflect students with better study habits, but thedata document the different.Exam Performance and Class Size

The size of the class for G131 has varied significantly overthe semesters creating different environments for studentlearning that prompting consideration of the effectiveness ofchosen pedagogy. A key question is whether the size of a classpotentially affects the opportunity for the students to learneffectively. This issue can be addressed by comparison of theaverage scores on written exams for different semesters. Theresults show a steadfast decrease in scores with increasing classsize (Fig. 8). Many factors may contribute to this trend,especially differences in student demographics, such as theproportion of students simply seeking distribution credit. Itillustrates a need to identify any systematic factors in thestudent population that affect learning in larger classes.

E. REFLECTIONS:

1. General ConclusionsThere is no substitute for experience in teaching.

Consequently, teaching oceanography for eight years hasimproved my understanding of class dynamics and studentexpectations, progressively developing my ability to meet thecollective and individual expectations of the students andthereby enhancing the learning process. However, tangibleevidence to demonstrate this perception requires analysis ofstudent achievements in assignments and assessment oflearning outcomes, which also serves to identify targets for

Fig. 7: Evidence from collection of written exam scripts of theeffect of class attendance on student performance and finalgrades for G131.

Fig. 6: Comparison of benefits to students according to theirfinal grades of offering partial credit for multiple-choicequestions in written exams for G131.


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class development and possibilities for further innovativechanges in pedagogy. Any evaluation, self-assessment, orreflection therefore represents a reference point along thecontinuum of teaching experience.

It is incumbent on an instructor to employ establishedpractices proven to succeed, but also to explore newapproaches, and to test the value of such enhancements throughexperimentation in the classroom. Thus, there is a constant needto reflect on experiences that help establish an understanding ofteaching effectiveness. An integral part of this process isassessment of the value of particular class components,especially assignments, to major course goals and the extent towhich stated learning goals are being met by the approachesand methodologies that are chosen. My activities in teachingG131 have followed these principles. The class componentshave been regularly changed (Fig. 1) to explore new, andhopefully more effective, approaches to student learning,

2. Changes for Fall 2003

For the Fall semester of 2003, as in 2001, G131 was taught asa second eight-week class. Substantial changes were made in

the web-based exercises to accommodate this schedule and indirect response to the introduction of formal discussionsessions.

a. Web-based exercises: The exercises were reconfigured

Fig. 8: Correlation between student scores in written exams andclass size for G131.

Fig. 9: Example of the preliminary questions for the earthquakes and plate tectonics exercise in Fall 2003 ( …/CPPrelimEx.pdf).


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to provide a more structured approach to the questions,building incrementally on the data sets, and operatingentirely within the Oncourse environment. The newformat consisted of a series of four sets of preliminaryquestions (e.g. …/CPPrelimEx.pdf; Fig. 9) that weretaken by different assigned groups of students (A, B, Cand D), and followed by a single set of final questions(e.g. …/CPFinalEx.pdf; Fig. 10) to be answered byeveryone after the discussion sessions. All studentswere required to complete the preliminary questions asa preparation for the discussion session.

b. Discussion Sessions: these gatherings, scheduled in theearly evening (5:45 – 6:35 p.m.) on Tuesday andWednesday, were introduced as an integral componentof the class replacing the optional help sessions.Attendance at these sessions was varied, maximizingat perhaps 80%, but sometimes perhaps as low as 35%.Unfortunately, students who enrolled in the class afterthe drop/add for the semester were not required to

register for the discussion sessions - indeed they couldnot. Consequently, in the first class meeting there wasan immediate need to co-ordinate placements in thediscussion sessions that evening and the followingevening, since both were to be held before the secondclass meeting. The original goal of the discussionsessions was to enable students to discuss their resultswith partners, in small groups and in large groups,sequentially. However:i. The arrangement of seating in the lecture room

was not conducive to group work, consequentlydiscussion tended to be in pairs.

ii. At times a significant portion of the class hadnot completed the preliminary questions asrequired. Initially few students brought copies oftheir answers for the preliminary questions.Consequently, they were ill prepared to answerquestions or participate in the discussion.However, this situation improved as the

Fig. 10: Final questions for the exercise on earthquakes and plate tectonics used for G131 in Fall 2003 ( …/CPFinalEx.pdf).


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semester progressed, although very few studentsbrought laptops to give them direct access to thedata considered in the questions, or anopportunity to practice use immediateapproaches to answering them.

iii. Time spent answering explicit questions on partsof the exercise during the discussion sessionsdetracted significantly from the time availablefor group activities focused on the exercise.Thus the original plan for three separatesequences of discussion: in pairs, in groups offour, and in complete groups of eight, was foundnot to be feasible.

Elements of the discussion appeared successful,following the pattern of the help sessions, but the factthat there were only six sessions within the 8-weekclass meant that the class only became familiar withthe format toward the end of the semester.

c. Exercises within Oncourse: The web-based exercisesare fully integrated into the Oncourse environment Inaddition the in-touch facility within Oncourse wasused to host a folder entitled lecture materials thatprovided access to pdf files of all of the powerpoint

lectures as handouts (2/page). I anticipate that thisoption will completely replace the visuals pages on theclass web site as it is lower maintenance, and providesdirect access to the materials for entire lecture topics.

d. Preliminary Concepts: This initial exercise hadpreviously focus on the interpretation of graphs andmaps. For Fall 2003 it was rewritten to provide a betterintroduction to the types of questions encountered inboth the exercises and the on-line quizzes, focusing onaccessing web sites relevant to course topics and goals(…/CPPreCon.pdf; Fig. 11).

e. On-line Quizzes: These quizzes involved multiple-choice and short-answer questions (e.g.…/CPOLQ.pdf; Fig. 12). They focused on conceptsand interpretations developed in the web-basedexercises, often requiring students to tackle short-answer questions covering a different time period orarea of the ocean from those addressed in theexercises. Thus the class material within the exercisesis introduced in the preliminary questions, developedin the final questions and then examined in the on-linequizzes.

Fig. 11: Questions for the preliminary concepts exercise used for G131 in Fall 2003 (…/CPPreCon.pdf).


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f. In-class Learning Prompts: A series of additional in-class discussions was prepared and used to promptdiscussions with neighbors in the class at the end ofspecific topics (e.g. …/worldp.html). The goal was tobetter identify the critical aspects of individual topicsthat were central to the themes of the class, andprovide students with the opportunity to discuss thesepoints. The hope is that this process reinforces studentknowledge and better prepares them for examquestions on such topics.

3. Closing RemarksThe advent of technology has opened new opportunities to

embrace interactive learning about the oceans in the mid-continent. This course portfolio combined with the various websites it identifies is intended to demonstrate the practicality ofusing web-based materials in an oceanography class, and someof the educational benefits that emerge from this innovation.The effectiveness of this approach is only partly addressed here,but the wealth of longitudinal data on student performancecollected during the development and evolution of this classprovides an opportunity to examine many questions about thedepth and breadth of student learning in this course.

Some challenges that will be faced in future iterations ofthis course will parallel issues already experienced, such as theproliferation of possibilities for web-based materials.Ultimately, the function of the instructor in interactive learningusing external resources must change, and I perceive my roleevolving to act foremost as a guide and counselor in theexploration and evaluation of information about the oceans,helping students to develop pertinent skills in the process oflearning.

Fig. 12: The first on-line quiz used for G131 in Fall 2003consisting of multiple-choice questions and short-answerquestions based on interpretation of data and images fromwebpages (…/CPOLQ.pdf).

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