Journal of Nursing Scholarship Third Quarter 2001 279

Profession and Society

A Conceptual Framework of Nursingin Native American CultureJohn Lowe, Roxanne Struthers

Purpose: To depict the phenomenon of nursing in the Native American culture.Design: At the 1997 annual Native American Nursing Summit held on the Flathead Reservation

in Montana, 203 Native American nurses, nursing students, and others who provide healthcare to Native American people attended and participated in focus groups that providedthe data for this qualitative study. The participants represented many tribes from across theUnited States. Follow-up in 1998 included a similar group of 192 participants.

Methods: Native American nurses facilitated focus groups. The facilitators provided directionfor the focus groups and supervised the data collection. Native American nurses withadvanced degrees in nursing performed the data analysis utilizing theme, taxonomic, andcomponential analysis methods.

Findings: Seven dimensions were identified in the data: (a) caring, (b) traditions, (c) respect,(d) connection, (e) holism, (f) trust, and (g) spirituality. Each dimension is essential to thepractice of nursing in Native American culture. Together they provide the basis for asystematic approach to Native American nursing practice, education, research, andadministration.

Conclusions: The conceptual framework of nursing in the Native American culture, with itsseven dimensions, shares dimensions with mainstream nursing, yet it differs in manyimportant ways. This model can be used by Native American nurses to provide a structurefor engaging in the profession of nursing. Further, it can be used by nurses of other culturesto understand nursing in the Native American culture and to provide health care to NativeAmerican people.

JOURNAL OF NURSING SCHOLARSHIP, 2001; 33:3, 279-283. ©2001 SIGMA THETA TAU INTERNATIONAL.

[Key words: Native American, caring, traditions, holism, spirituality]

* * *

John Lowe, RN, PhD, Mu Iota, Assistant Professor, Florida InternationalUniversity, School of Nursing, North Miami, FL. Roxanne Struthers, RN, PhD,CTN, Eta Upsilon & Zeta, Assistant Professor, University of Minnesota School ofNursing, Minneapolis, MN. Many people assisted in making this model possible:1997 and 1998 summit participants and facilitators for providing the data; NationalAlaska Native American Indian Nurses Association members Bette Keltner, RN,PhD, FAAN, (Cherokee), Roxanne Struthers, RN, PhD, (Ojibwa), and SandraLittlejohn, RN, BSN, (Dakota) for conducting the initial data analysis; John LoweRN, PhD, (Cherokee) for data analysis; Marie-Luise Friedemann, Professor, FloridaState University for contributing conceptual model consultation; artist PaulaTsosie, (Santa Clara Pueblo/Navajo) Albuquerque, NM, for crafting the conceptualmodel; and cultural consultants Gloria Davis, RN, BSN, (Ojibwa) and elder VelmaOrvis (Ojibwa/Cree) for expertise related to the medicine wheel. Thank you, Meegwetch (Ojibwa), Wa-do (Cherokee). Correspondence to Dr. Lowe, FloridaInternational University, School of Nursing, North Miami Campus, AC II 230,3000 NE 151st Street, North Miami, FL 33181. E-mail: lowej@fiu.edu

Accepted for publication January 18, 2001.

Native American, American Indian, and Alaska Native are terms used to identify the indigenous peoples of the United States. The 2000 U.S. census

indicates an estimated 2,448,000 Native American people,who comprise 0.99% of the U.S. population (U.S. Bureauof the Census, 2000). Native American people arewidely dispersed geographically. In recent times, the NativeAmerican population has increasingly relocated to urbanareas. Yet many still reside on rural reservations (Young,1994). The Native American population consists of over 500federally recognized tribes, each having its own culture,life way, traditions, and beliefs, with widely varyingdegrees of acculturation. Each tribe is distinct. Manysimilarities exist too; and a cultural bond exists among thesedifferent groups.

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Within every society and culture, a health culture exists andis used to define the phenomena associated with health,wellness, illness, and death. Members of different cultures drawupon their own particular health world view in situations ofhealth and illness (Reynolds Turton, 1997). Native Americannurses, too, perceive life through a distinct lens and they usetheir health world view to help them make sense of healthmatters. They thus encounter, experience, and perform the artand science of the nursing profession differently from nursesof other cultures (Struthers & Littlejohn, 1999).

This study was done to depict the nature of nursing inNative American culture. “What is the essence of NativeAmerican nursing?” was the research question. A conceptualframework of nursing in Native American culture wasdeveloped from the findings of this study, resulting indiagrammatic model of the conceptual framework for thephenomenon of nursing in Native American culture.

Methods

Data for this qualitative study were collected during the1997 and 1998 annual national Native American nursingsummits hosted by Salish-Kootenai Tribal College on theFlathead Reservation in Montana. The summit is a gatheringof Alaska Native and Native American nurses, nursingstudents, and other nurses who provide health care to NativeAmerican people. Participants represented 39 tribes fromacross the continental United States and Alaska.

The idea of exploring the nature and essence of NativeAmerican nursing arose among Native American nursesduring the 1997 summit planning sessions. The NationalAlaska Native American Indian Nurses Association(NANAINA), an organization that supports professionalneeds of Alaska Native and American Indian nurses andworks to maintain and improve health care to Alaska Nativeand American Indian communities, provided guidance andwas closely involved in the summit.

The process of collecting the 1997 and 1998 summit data wasthe same in both years. In each year, participants were: (a) assignedto focus groups, (b) informed of the focus group task, and (c) advisedthat the data would be used for research and disseminationpurposes. Each focus group was facilitated by a Native Americannurse who was provided with specific instructions related to thefocus-group purpose, instructed on how to collect the data, andadvised to record the data on flipcharts.

At the 1997 summit, 203 participants formed 11 focusgroups, and data were gathered to define the nature of NativeAmerican nursing. Theme analysis (Spradley, 1980) was usedto identify themes from the data by National Alaska NativeAmerican Indian Nurses Association (NANAINA) members.Focus-group participants then provided validation of thesethemes during a plenary forum.

In 1998, 192 participants formed seven focus groups toexplore deeper meanings and further delineate the themes ofNative American nursing. Theme, taxonomic, andcomponential analysis (Spradley, 1980) resulted in aconceptual framework that is comprised of dimensions,characteristics, and components that depict the nature andspirit of nursing in the Native American culture.

Findings

Seven themes were identified in the 1997 data that describethe core principles of Native American nursing (Struthers &Littlejohn 1999). The 1998 data further delineated thesethemes and resulted in the development of a conceptualframework comprised of the following dimensions: (a) caring,(b) traditions, (c) respect, (d) connection, (e) holism, (f) trust,and (g) spirituality.

Native Americans have a holistic world view that they liveand experience in a circular manner (Struthers, 1999). Nursesin the Native American culture also show these traits with theirintertwined, related, and overlapping components. Thedimensions and their characteristics are categorized and

Figure 1. Dimensions of nursing in Native American culture.

CARING

Knowledge

HolismRelationship

Health

TRADITIONS

Relationship

Respect Wisdom

Values

RESPECT

Relationship

Honor Identity

Strength

CONNECTION

Relationship Foundation

HOLISM

Balance

Culture

Relationship Relationship

Presence

Respect

TRUST

SPIRITUALITY

Healing

Unity Balance

Honor

Relationship

NURSINGIN NATIVEAMERICANCULTURE

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illustrated in Figure 1. The central symbal in Figure 1 portraysa sunrise which illustrates a new beginning in NativeAmerican culture.

CaringThe dimension of caring embodies characteristics of health,

relationships, holism, and knowledge. The components ofthe characteristic of health include humor, formingpartnerships, fearlessness, dignity, passion, and sensitivity.A participant described health in this way: “Caring meanspartnership in healing.” Summit participants describedcomponents of the characteristic of relationship as beingnonjudgmental, using presence, exchange, unconditionality,trust, partnership, nurturing, connecting, and love. “Nursingand caring is a calling.” Holism, another characteristic ofthe dimension of caring, contains the components of healingthe body, mind, and spirit. Expressions for this componentinclude, “You heal parts of self with healing of others;” “Useevery opportunity to heal self;” and “Caring goes beyondthe physical into the spirit world.” The characteristic ofknowledge includes the components of listening, validatingself and others, instinctiveness, and reflecting. “Knowingwhere you, and they (clients), are coming from,” was amongparticipant responses illuminating the characteristic ofknowledge.

TraditionsThe dimension of traditions contains four characteristics:

relationship, respect, wisdom, and values. Components ofthe characteristic relationship consist of acknowledgingfamily, community, and tribe, and communing. “Connectionof heritage helps in the nursing process.”

The characteristic of respect includes the components ofelders, acceptance, privacy, and sensitivity. “Caring for ourelders is in our tradition.” Wisdom encompasses strength,knowledge, learning and discovery, and exploring. “Beingculturally competent is important and one never stopslearning,” and “Knowing the past, to call upon that wisdomand strength” were participants’ declarations describingwisdom. The characteristic of values includes the componentsof Indian medicine, old ways, ceremonies, and rituals. Oneparticipant referred to values in Native American nursing inthis way: “The cultural, traditional approach is the art ofnursing, not the science of nursing.” Another affirmed thatvalues include the “Use of ceremonies, sweats to cleanse thebody, and sage, sweet grass, roots, bark, and teas are used asIndian medicine along with conventional medicine.”

RespectThe dimension of respect includes characteristics of

relationship, honor, identity, and strength. The characteristicof relationship refers to components of presence andcompassion. “Nursing is compassion and respect” is anaccount by a participant that reflects relationship. Honorentails elders and stories and is exemplified in participantstatements that “respect is never talking down,” and “Respecttheir stories.” Identity is a characteristic that is linked to the

components of awareness, acknowledgment, and defining.“Awareness of what or who Native Americans are” is aparticipant’s referral to identity. The characteristic of strengthincludes the components of learning, listening, trusting, andunderstanding. Examples of participant descriptions ofstrength included “acknowledging wisdom,” “seeking tounderstand,” “willingness to learn,” “willing to listen,” and“willingness to trust.”

ConnectionThe dimension of connection contains the characteristics

of relationships and foundation. The characteristic ofrelationship consists of the components of honoring allpeople, the past, the present, the future, harmony with nature,honoring the nursing profession, sharing and anticipating,and exploring similarities and differences. Participantsdescribed the characteristic of relationship as “Weacknowledge and connect with each other.” The characteristicof foundation comprises action components such as building,healing, taking risks, creating togetherness, cohesiveness,unfolding, interrelating with all, weaving, and transforming.“As Native American nurses, we need to know where clientscome from, where clients are at, and where clients are going.”Other participants described foundation as “being a bridge,”“putting puzzles back together,” and “putting the pieces ofthe quilt together.”

HolismThe dimension of holism includes the components of

balance, culture, and relationship. Silence, male, female,noncompartmentalization, flowing with harmony, andpursuing peace are components of the characteristic ofbalance. Statements by participants such as “We see thewhole, and clients can pick up on this;” “Synergy helps withthe holistic approach;” and “Native American nurses are notalways engaged in activity as silence is a treatment;” illustratethe components of the characteristic of balance.

Spirituality, beliefs, and healing are components of thecharacteristic of culture. One participant said, “NativeAmerican nursing is more holistic. It is spiritual, emotional,and physical.” Components of the characteristic ofrelationship are interacting nonverbally, honor, being non-judgmental, a common language, trust, and family andcommunity. Statements by participants describing the holisticrelationship included “seeing the whole,” and “You must bewhole within yourself to pass this on to the patients.” Further,“Native American nurses speak the same language, eitherNative language or language of like-type experiences. Thislanguage connectedness yields holistic care.”

TrustRelationship, presence, and respect are characteristics of

trust. Relationship pertains to responsibility to self and others.Native American nursing has a “responsibility to build arelationship with the patient.” Participants described thecharacteristic of presence as sharing and breaking barriers.“Clients,” a participant said, “open up to me as a nurse and

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trust me with themselves.” The characteristic of respect wasdescribed as confidentiality and integrity. A participantdescribed integrity as “knowing the difference between doingthings right and doing the right thing.”

SpiritualityThe dimension of spirituality includes the five

characteristics of relationship, unity, honor, balance, andhealing. “Indians emphasize spirituality in their nursingpractice,” a participant said. Components of the characteristicof relationship include touching, learning, and utilizingtraditions. “The art of touching someone has spiritualpower.” Transcending boundaries and pursuing oneness arecomponents of the characteristic of unity. Participantsdescribed these components as: “There are no boundaries,”and “A transcending recognition of unity and oneness exists.”The characteristic of honor includes the components ofappreciation and respect: “It is an honor to be present atbirth and at death.” Components of the characteristic ofbalance involve destiny and “centering yourself with MotherEarth and care for self.” The characteristics of healing includegifting, praying, and resonating with the “Great Mystery.”Participants noted that Native American nurses arecomfortable “with paradox and the role of destiny in theirlives,” and their “relationship with the Great Mystery.”

The model of the conceptual frameworkThe model of the conceptual framework (Figure 2) is

formed in a circle, indicating the circular holistic world viewof Native American culture. This roundness depicts theinterrelatedness, intertwining, and interlacing of all sevendimensions of the phenomenon of nursing in the NativeAmerican culture. The model is intertribal and exemplifiesindigenous oneness; it includes beliefs, values, and customsof many U.S. tribes.

According to one Native American nurse, the medicinewheel signifies the circle of life, the inner spirit (personalcommunication, Gloria Davis, June 21, 2000). The medicinewheel, a magic circle that encompasses the Native world (SunBear & Wabun, 1992) and reveals the “Way of Life” ofindigenous people (Cianci & Nadon, 1986), lies at the centerof the model. The four directions, East, South, West andNorth, are meaningful in describing the medicine wheel. Eachdirection represents one of the four elements of fire, water,air, and Mother Earth (personal communication, VelmaOrvis, April 1, 2000). The seven dimensions of thephenomenon of nursing in Native American culture arewritten in the feathers of the great thunderbird that wraparound the circle of the medicine wheel. Thus, thethunderbird, a sacred bird in Native American culture, is theframe for the circle.

Discussion

Conceptual frameworks are used to provide a structure tothink about an abstract idea and to frame thought. Accordingto Fawcett (1995), a conceptual framework or model ofnursing is the “formal presentation of some nurses’ privateimages of nursing, and the use of a conceptual modelfacilitates communication among nurses and provides asystematic approach to nursing research, education,administration, and practice” (p.5). The conceptualframework of nursing in the Native American culture depictsdimensions, characteristics, and components that relate theessence of Native American nursing practice. This framework,developed from qualitative data, portrays the realities thatlie at the heart of Native American nursing practice and guidethe manner in which Native American nurses perform anddeliver nursing care. Within the milieu of diversity, limitedmodels and theories exist that are applicable to cross-culturalsituations such as nursing in the Native American culture.This framework is meaningful to the profession of nursingbecause cultural competency and proficiency are necessaryin a world of multiple world views (Leininger, 1995).

The dimensions, characteristics, and components of thephenomenon of nursing in Native American culture providea culturally appropriate conceptual model. Many of the samedimensions exist in Native American nursing and inmainstream nursing. Nevertheless, Native American nursesoften define their nursing practice differently from othernurses because they perceive life through a world view thatis different and that guides them in making their own senseof the world and health matters.

The data analysis revealed caring as one of the sevendimensions. According to mainstream nursing, caring isdefined by multiple attributes. Denman (1995) said caringoccurs in that special moment between nurse and patient.However, the dimension of caring is further defined by NativeAmerican nurses as having the characteristics of health,relationships, holism, and knowledge.

The dimension of traditions is unique to Native Americannursing. Worldwide, indigenous cultures are intertwinedFigure 2. Conceptual model of nursing in Native American culture.

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Native American Framework

through native traditional practices such as rituals,ceremonies, and heritage. These traditions are vital to thecontinuation of a given native culture (Plumbo, 1995). Thecharacteristics of the dimension of traditions in the conceptualframework of nursing in the Native American culture includerelationship, respect, wisdom, and values.

Respect has been identified as pivotal in Native Americanlife (Plumbo, 1995). The dimension of respect was also clearlydefined as important and essential to Native Americannursing and it includes the characteristics of relationship,honor, identity, and strength.

Nurses value connectedness, tying together relationship andresponsibility (Geary & Hawkins, 1991). According toSchubert and Lionberger (1995), mutual connectedness isthe joining of a nurse and client in a relationship committedto the health and healing of the client. Connection is a uniquedimension in the conceptual framework of Native Americannursing because it contains the characteristics of relationshipand foundation. Components of the characteristic ofrelationships include honoring all people, honoring thenursing profession, experiencing the past, encountering thepresent, and anticipating the future. Harmonizing withnature, sharing and anticipating, and exploring similaritiesand differences were also identified as components ofrelationships.

Mainstream nurses have conceptualized holism as body,mind, and spirit viewed as a whole, with all components beinginterdependent (Larisey, 1990). The dimension of holism isentwined within Native American nurses’ world view and isdistinct from mainstream nurses’ concept of holism in that italso contains the characteristics of balance, culture, andrelationship. The components of the characteristic of balance,for example, are described as using silence, acknowledging themale and female, non-compartmentalizing, flowing withharmony, and pursuing peace.

The conceptual framework of nursing in the NativeAmerican culture also contains the dimension of spirituality.Spirituality is the most basic, yet least understood aspect ofholistic nursing, and it is central to human existence. It hasbeen defined as “the essence of our being, which permeatesour living and infuses our ongoing awareness of who andwhat we are, our purpose in being, and our inner resources;and shapes our life journey” (Burkhardt & Nagai Jacobson,2000, p. 91). Native American nurses view spirituality as animportant dimension of nursing, including relationship, unity,honor, balance, and healing.

The conceptual framework of nursing in Native Americanculture was presented at the 10th annual American IndianEducation Conference in March 2000, to clarify and furtherdefine this phenomenon. The audience consisted of 130 nursesand student nurses who provide nursing and health care tothe Native American population. They took an interest inthis project and made suggestions for future possibilities withthe conceptual framework. They suggested a research studyto determine if the dimensions, characteristics, andcomponents are, in fact, what Native American nurses and

their clients experience as part of the phenomenon of nursingin this selected culture.

Conclusions

This conceptual framework, based on the sacred medicinewheel, represents the “indigenous oneness” Native Americannurses experience as they practice the phenomenon of nursingin their culture. Native American nurses of various tribesreside in different locations and provide nursing care indiverse geographic locations and settings, but the phenomenadescribed in this study pertain across tribes and locations.

This framework can be utilized by Native American andAlaska Native nurses to provide a structure for engaging innursing practice, education, research, and administration.Other health care providers as well can understand thecultural construct of nursing in Native American culture andutilize this model to provide health care to Native Americanclients, families, and communities. Nurses in other culturescan use this framework to help explore and define the natureof their own nursing practice.

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