A Comparative Study of Dokra Metal Craft Technology and Harappan Metal Craft Technology

Diya Mukherjee1 1. Deccan College Post Graduate Research Institute, Pune- 411006, Maharashtra, India

(Email: dia.arch89@gmail.com)

Received: 21 August 2016; Accepted: 01 October 2016; Revised: 28 October 2016 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4 (2016): 757-768

Abstract: This paper unfurls the similarity between two technologies in different time and space. Dokra represents a group of metal articles produced by ‘Cire-Perdue’ or Lost-Wax technique. The technique of metal casting has managed to survive many centuries and change of dynasties owing to its modesty of application in everyday lives of ordinary people. Today, with the modernization setting in and the lifestyle of the tribal’s changing with time, the Dokra metal craft is slowly fading away. The technology of the Dokra craft is compared with the technology of the Harappan to understand the similarity and dissimilarity in their technology. Manufacturing process and their challenges have been investigated through ethno-archaeological survey to understand the similarity between the two technologies and to trace the change in the craft owing to time.

Keywords: Cire-Perdue, Dokra, Ethno-archaeology, Metal Casting, Craftsmen, Harappan, Technology

Introduction The term ‘Dokra’ represents a group of metal articles ---- beautifully shaped and decorated brass ware products created by the process of ‘Lost-Wax technique’ or ‘Cire-Perdue’ process. But initially the term dokra was applied to a group of nomadic craftsmen scattered over West Bengal, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 1). The technique of metal casting has managed to survive many centuries and change of dynasties owing to its modesty of application in everyday lives of ordinary people. Today, with the modernization setting in and the lifestyle of the tribal’s changing with time, the Dokra metal craft is slowly fading away. Made by tribal’s, dokra is notable for its strength and shapeliness of design. Its motifs are mostly drawn from folk culture. While among the animals, the elephant is most popular, other motifs include human heads, kings, manas or miniature replica of measures, containers with lids, with or without locking devices, images of deities like Ganesh and Durga, lamps and lamp stands. The last was made in several intricate designs in shape of trees and branches with as many as hundred lamps in one stand. Of late some utilitarian articles like

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candle stands, ash trays and pen stands are also being made keeping the essential folk design intact.

Figure 1: Map showing Dokra Metal Craft practicing places in Indian Sub

The other Kangsaris and metal workers from different caste guilds who have specialized in mould or die casting also sometimes use the hammering process but the semi-tribal dokras never use any process other than metal ware is produced by casting, forging or shaping (Sen 1994).

In ancient India, the artist was also the craftsman and the craftsman was also the artist --- design and fabrication were not separate. The artist or craftsmen worked together in trade guilds under the guidance of masters and there was no conscious effort at producing anything individualized. Varied styles, modes of expression and quality of craftsmanship evolved slowly in different areas reflecting changing needs and traditions (Sen 1994).

Metal working is deeply infused with religion. In fact, before an artisan even begins a project he prays for guidance to Tvastram, the son of Visvakarma, who worked with copper, brass, and other metal alloys. Even in the household, metals have religious significance, from icons in the family temples to cooking utensils. Hindu religion forbids the use of copper for cooking; thus in a Hindu kitchen we could find primarily brass tools, whereas a Muslim kitchen would boast mainly tinned copper.

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016

s and pen stands are also being made keeping the essential folk

Figure 1: Map showing Dokra Metal Craft practicing places in Indian Sub

The other Kangsaris and metal workers from different caste guilds who have specialized in mould or die casting also sometimes use the hammering process but the

tribal dokras never use any process other than Lost-Wax casting. Traditional produced by casting, forging or shaping (Sen 1994).

In ancient India, the artist was also the craftsman and the craftsman was also the artist design and fabrication were not separate. The artist or craftsmen worked together in

guidance of masters and there was no conscious effort at producing anything individualized. Varied styles, modes of expression and quality of craftsmanship evolved slowly in different areas reflecting changing needs and

working is deeply infused with religion. In fact, before an artisan even begins a project he prays for guidance to Tvastram, the son of Visvakarma, who worked with copper, brass, and other metal alloys. Even in the household, metals have religious

ance, from icons in the family temples to cooking utensils. Hindu religion forbids the use of copper for cooking; thus in a Hindu kitchen we could find primarily brass tools, whereas a Muslim kitchen would boast mainly tinned copper.

s and pen stands are also being made keeping the essential folk

Figure 1: Map showing Dokra Metal Craft practicing places in Indian Sub-continent

The other Kangsaris and metal workers from different caste guilds who have specialized in mould or die casting also sometimes use the hammering process but the

casting. Traditional

In ancient India, the artist was also the craftsman and the craftsman was also the artist -design and fabrication were not separate. The artist or craftsmen worked together in

guidance of masters and there was no conscious effort at producing anything individualized. Varied styles, modes of expression and quality of craftsmanship evolved slowly in different areas reflecting changing needs and

working is deeply infused with religion. In fact, before an artisan even begins a project he prays for guidance to Tvastram, the son of Visvakarma, who worked with copper, brass, and other metal alloys. Even in the household, metals have religious

ance, from icons in the family temples to cooking utensils. Hindu religion forbids the use of copper for cooking; thus in a Hindu kitchen we could find primarily

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Aims and Objectives The aims and objectives of the study:

1. To study an ancient art which give a glimpse of our society’s ancient metallurgy 2. To understand the process of manufacturing of dokra craft 3. To understand any in manufacturing process of dokra craft owing to time 4. To understand the technology of Harappan copper metallurgy as evidenced from

archaeological excavations

Methodology The methodologies which will be undertaken are summed up as the following:-

1. To review literature for understanding dokra craft 2. To investigate archaeological sources for understanding the technology of

Harappan copper 3. To undertake ethno archaeological survey of the dokra craftsmen 4. An ethno-archaeological study of non-tribal dokra craftsmen

Sources Ancient Indian texts and oral history provides ample of evidences for studying the dokra art and artisans. These sources can be enumerated below:

Archaeological Evidence: The famous dancing girl of Mohenjo-Daro, toy carts, bull and handful of other objects found from the excavations of different Harappan sites in India provides evidence that the Harappans knew the technology of Lost-Wax technique or Cire- Perdue Casting (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Dancing Girl, Indus Civilization

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The technical aspects of the Lost-Wax technique have been discussed at length in three old Sanskrit texts, in the context of solid or hollow casting of idols.

Mānasollāsa: A 12thcentury text attributed to King Bhulokamalla Somesvara of the western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani(Krishnan 1976).

Śilparatna: A 16th century work by Srikumara who wrote it at the instance of King Devanarayana, ruler of Ambalappuzha (central Kerala). The Uttarbhaga of Śilparatna (chapter I and II) belonging to the Gupta period also contains valuable information about image making by both solid and hollow casting techniques (Krishnan 1976).

Mānasollāsa and Mānasāra do not mention anything about the tools used for modeling. But Śilparatna mentions the use of tamarind wood and bamboo for preparing tools.

In modern day, the craftsmen use tamarind wood, ebony wood, sandal wood, bamboo, ivory, metals such as copper, brass and steel for preparing their tools (Krishnan 1976).

Mānasāra: A few selected verses in this text deal with the Lost-Wax process, termed Madhuchchhist Bidhānam. This text still serves as a practical guide for Sthapatis of Swamimalai in South India (kochhar 2011). The text advices that wax models should be made in yellowish colour that being the nearest colour of metals generally used for statuary except silver. It would thus ensure right modeling and the display of light and shadow to the final cast. The process of metal casting in the manner described in this text is still carried out in Nepal and in some parts of South India (kar1952).

As the folklores goes, about three thousand years ago the king of Bastar had assigned a dokra art necklace for his beloved wife. He was charmed on seeing the necklace. Witnessing the beauty of the necklace he honored the craftsmen with the title “Ghadwa’ (Thakore 2010).

The name ‘Ghadwa’ has been derived from the word ‘Ghalna’ meaning melting and working with the wax. It is also derived from the word ‘Ghadna’ meaning the act of shaping and creating. They are also known as Vishwakarmars, Ghasias, Mangan and Kansara in some parts of India (Thakore 2010).

The manufacturing castes has always been regarded as Sudras in the traditional fourfold social division arising out of the adoption of different occupations by different sections of the community (Pal 1978). During the Rig Vedic period, the Vaisya class may have taken to various arts, crafts and industries but from Later Vedic period society onwards due to rigidity the industrial arts and crafts were practiced by the artisan class who were looked down as Sudra class. The study of social position of the craftsmen reveals the fact that the professions of the artisans may be considered as an honoured one in different ages but their social status has almost remained unchanged in the traditional caste hierarchy of the Hindu society (Pal 1979).

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History of the Origin of Dokra Art Dokra craft --- an ancestral craft practiced by the Chitraghasi and Ghasi tribes (Horne 1987). The Dokra Damar tribes are the traditional metal smiths of West Bengal and their technique of Lost-Wax casting is named after their tribes and hence the name dokra metal casting. Dokra artisans are considered to be groups of wanderers who are still practicing the art of metal craft through their age old process. These semi-nomadic people settled in different tribal zones of India like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and parts of Andhra Pradesh. In West Bengal the dokra artisans are found in the tribal zones of Bankura and Burdwan. Prior to 1940s most of these people settled in small group outside the agricultural villages and often remain highly mobile to move from one place to another according to the market demand. They call themselves of the variants of the same name like Mal, Malar, Maral, Malhor or Mahuli; all of whom share a common area of origin in the tribal area of Chota Nagpur plateau (Horne 1987).

An attempt to understand the relationship and history of the dokra makers of west Bengal suffers from the incomplete and fragmentary nature of the records. No records f this artisan industry survive from pre-colonial days and the standard documentary resources such as Risley’s monumental ‘Tribes and Castes of Bengal’ (1891) must be seen as reflecting both the anthropological fashions of the era and perhaps more significantly, the “divide et empera” priorities of colonial administration. The colonial fascination with caste and social taxonomies of the contemporary Indian society was implemented for the tribals as well (Kochhar, 2011).

Technology Metal production processes can be divided into following stages (Fig. 3).

Figure 3: Stages of Metal Processing

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The Dokras use lost-wax casting process to cast hollow brass objects and images. Lost wax is a technique of producing an item in metal by first producing a wax model of the item and subsequently melting out of the wax to create a mould cavity which is filled with molten metal.

Though the earliest lost wax castings were produced more than 5000years back in India, the process was reinvented in 1940’s in the west and renamed as investment casting (Kissi 2011).

The essence of the process is to model the object in wax, each one individually and in every detail around a hardened clay core which has approximately the shape of the object to be cast. Layers of soft, refractory material are laid over the wax model and hardened into a mould. The wax between the core and the mould is ‘’lost’’ or burnt out as the mould is heated and then molten metal takes its place and hardens between the core and the inner surface of the mould which holds a negative impression of the wax model in all its detail. The outer surface of the hardened metal, therefore, reproduces the shape and details of the wax model with the core producing the hollow interior. The hard core and the mould become spongy and soft on firing and are easily removed.

The technique of casting by Cire-perdue process can be divided into four principal stages. They are as follows:-

1. Core Making: A clay core is made according to the size of the artefact which is hardened by sun drying (Fig. 4) a wax model (Fig. 5).

2. Designing: It is an important part 3. Modelling: concerned with the preparation of of Dokra craft. Desired design is

given to the object (Fig.6). 4. Moulding: concerned with the preparation of a clay negative (mould) of the wax

model for casting (Fig.7). 5. Casting: this can be subdivided into a number of process such as i) ascertaining the

ratio of different metals in proportion to the weight of the wax model; ii) draining out the wax from inside the mould (dewaxing); iii) temperature required for melting of different metals; iv) casting process; v) releasing the cast from the mould (devesting) (Fig. 8).

6. Polishing and finishing: concerned with the perfecting of a metal cast (Fig. 9).

Tools and Equipments for Making Dokra Artefacts The karmokars design simple tools to facilitate their work. They use spatula and knife for clay modeling, blade for wax modeling, a flat sheet of wood to facilitate in preparation of thin strands of wax. Hammer to break the mould after firing and a file to do manual polishing of the artifact. In modern days to save time they use electrical motors to grind and polish the products.

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Figure 4: Core making Figure 5: Modelling

Figure 6: Designs in Wax Model Figure 7: Moulding in Dokra Metal Craft

Figure 8: Casting in Dokra Metal Craft

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Figure 9: Tools and Equipments in Dokra metal craft

Harappan Technology Man learnt technology when he discovered fire. He became the master of technology when he learnt to control fire; but the real breakthrough was with the advent of metal technology which was complex and more durable. The earliest civilization practicing metal technology in the Indian subcontinent was the Harappan. The technique of alloying was known to them along with the use of native copper.

There is a long journey from native copper to the development of copper-arsenic alloys. There are advantages over pure copper in terms of castings where the arsenic acts as a de-oxidant and up to 7 % arsenic material can be work-hardened very substantially by cold hammering without cracking to strengths equivalent to tin-bronze. Harappans use both the technique of forging and casting including Cire-perdueor Lost-Wax method process. Copper metallurgy of the Harappans can be considered as indigenous growth. But it is enigmatic to note that we cannot trace the developmental stages of copper metallurgy as it can be traced for the other civilizations.

o Use of native copper o Annealing of native copper o Melting of native copper o Smelting of oxidized copper ores o Smelting of sulphide copper ores o Casting of copper o Alloying of copper, e.g. bronze, arsenic copper, etc.

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Harappan Furnace The furnaces employed for smelting of copper ores were simply concave depressions in the ground.There is evidence that charcoal was used as a fuel. The pits were lined with clay. A layer of charcoal was probably first placed on the floor of the pits and ignited. Over this the ore and charcoal in alternate layers might have been arranged and firing was maintained by means of a forced blast. A temperature around 1000-1200°C was maintained. At Harappa three types of furnaces have been found: a) round, b) cylindrical pits dug out into the ground with or without brick lining the brick lined c) pear shaped pits with or without brick lining. The brick lined ones were plastered with mud mixed with sand. There is evidence of repeated mud-sand plastering suggesting their repeated use (Bharadwaj 2000).

It seems that the Harappans used both the primitive bowl furnaces and more evolved shaft furnaces. The diameter and depth of the Harappan furnaces vary from 3-4 to 8-6 and 1’-10” to 3’-8” respectively. The mud walls of these run down in pencil formation. These had vaulted roofs and there looks to be a provision for forcing draught of air through bellows and these could easily achieve a temperature of 1200°-1300°C, sufficient to smelt and melt copper (Bharadwaj 2000).

A circular furnace of mud bricks had been found in Lothal which is identified as copper smith’s workshop area. Vats reported sixteen furnaces which have been classified in to three categories: (a) pot furnace, (b) cylindrical pit dug in the ground with or without brick lining, (c) pear-shaped pit dug in the ground with or without brick lining. According to the excavator (Rao 1979) the third furnace was designed for the casting of the metal objects (Fig. 10).

Figure 10: Ancient furnace (after Hegde and Ericson 1985)

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Casting Method Used in Harappan Civilization Casting refers to the manipulation of molten metal. Casting of copper objects of the Harappans includesopen face and bivalve casting as well as lost wax technique (Hoffman and Miller 2009). Crucibles used for melting metal were of terracotta. At Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro stone moulds used for casting chisels have been found. Lothal has also yielded a mould in which copper needles and awls could be cast (Rao 1973).The crucible were made of straw-tempered clay, with a sandy clay coating or light dusting of quartz sand on the inside surface of at least some of the crucible. Some of the crucible eventually melted during use. It is not yet clear if any of the crucibles had side-spouts or spouts of any kind. However, these crucible must have been poured out by tipping not lifting them, as clay fabric would have been too week to support the weight of the molten metal (Miller 2001).

Similarity in Harappan Technology and Dokra Technology The comparative analyses include understanding the similarities and dissimilarities between both the technologies. The similarities (Table 1) comprises of Lost Wax technique or Cire-Perdue Casting, hollow casting and small size images were made for both the craft.

Table 1: Similarity in Harappan Technology and Dokra Technology Sl. No. Dokra Technology Harappan Technology 01 Lost-Wax Technique or Cire-Perdue

Casting Open-face, Bivalve and Lost Wax Technique or Cire-Perdue Casting

02 Hollow Casting Hollow Casting 03 Small Size Images Small Size Images 04 The style of dokra is in wire style,

the artisan make the wax in wire like thin wax then he apply on the clay mould

The style of dokra is in wire style, the artisan make the wax in wire like thin wax then he apply on the clay mould

Dissimilarity in Harappan Technology and Dokra Technology Dissimilarities (Table 2) include the material (Dokra craftsmen used brass while the Harappans used pure copper or bronze though brass is rarely found). The two technologies come from different timeframe though they use similar method of manufacturing. Furnace, crucibles and temperatures are also different thereby giving uniqueness to the crafts despite some similarity.

Observation Dokra craftsmen though cultivate a valuable treasure of art they are least recognized as honorable craftsmen in all other craft communities. Although there is a small but increasing demand for dokra work from Indian families as well as in the tourist trade, the craft is threatened with extinction. Therefore, from the above discussion this is clear that there are striking similarities between the two craft though they are found in

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Table 2: Dissimilarity in Harappan Technology and Dokra Technology Sl. No.

Dokra Technology Harappan Technology

01 Brass Pure Copper / Bronze (rarely brass)

02 4000 years 3000 -1900 B.C 03 Made of bricks Round, Cylindrical pits and Pear

shaped pits

04 Modern Crucible / Channeled Crucible Made of Straw Tempered Clay 05 Spatula and knife for clay modeling,

blade for wax modeling, a flat sheet of wood to facilitate in preparation of thin strands of wax. Hammer to break the mould after firing and a file to do manual polishing of the artefact

Knives, chisel, axe, adze, etc.

06 900ºC - 940ºC 850ºC - 1050ºC

different time and period. At the same time both the crafts mark their uniqueness and that is reflected from their dissimilarities. Henceforth, one may derive the impression that similar phenomena may exist in different points of time and space, without having any genetic connection in between them. Thus, it is high time that we recognize the need of the hour and help the craft and the craftsmen from dying.

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Museum: British Museum Publication Ltd. Horne, Lee. 1987. The Brasscasters of Dariapur, West Bengal Artisans In A Changing

World ExpeditionVol 29 No. 3.pp- 39-46 Kar, Chintamani. 1952. Indian Metal Sculptures. London: Alec Tiranti Ltd. Krishna, M.V. 1976. Cire Perdue Casting in India. New Delhi: Jayant Baxi for kanak. Kissi, Samuel Baah. 2011. Evaluation ofBees Wax And Core Materials For Traditional Lost

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Kochhar, Rajesh. 2011. Dokra: The Traditional art of Metal Casting. Chitrolekha International Magazine on Art And Design. Vol.1:2.3-9.

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