The Effect of Residential Properties on Breeding Bird Diversity in Urban Forest Patches
A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree...
Transcript of A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree...
![Page 1: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland
Aðalsteinn SigurgeirssonIcelandic Forest Research
Photo: 25-year old clonal trial with poplar in S-Iceland, Rúnar Gunnarsson
![Page 2: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
With regard to forests and forestry, Iceland is a developing country that has
lost almost all of its forests
• In developing countries, resources, infrastructure, political support and long term thinking is often in short supply.
• Afforesting Iceland is a long-term project.
• Long-term projects require long-term support and long-term commitment.
![Page 3: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
“All we are not stares back at what we are.” (W.H. Auden)
• Present potential woodland cover: 40% of land area (Christof Wöll, 2008)
• Actual woodland cover (green: native/seminatural; red: cultivated)
![Page 4: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Consequences of deforestation: soil erosion and gradual decline in productivity
![Page 5: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
„Iceland is a doomsday scenario
for the rest of the world“ (A. Arnalds, BBC,
2005)
Photo: Christof Wöll
Photo: Christof Wöll
![Page 6: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
The Icelandic woodland area is small, however it is growing
• In 2015, forests in Iceland cover 49.000 hectares– 11.000 ha of semi-natural birch forest – 38.000 ha of cultivated forest.
• 2010-15: area of forest has increased by 6.000 ha, mostly by afforestation. – “Other wooded land” (i.e. with woods that do not reach
5 m height at maturity), cover 146.000 ha, dominated by natural birch woodland
• Source: IFR-data in the Forest Resource Assessment of 2015 program and to State of European Forest 2015 program
![Page 7: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
![Page 8: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Mógilsá (Icel. For. Res.), north of Reykjavík
![Page 9: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Hamrahlíð, near Reykjavík
1958 2015
1915 2014
Buðlungavellir, near Hallormsstaður, E-Iceland
![Page 10: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Icelandic forestry has a long history of trial-and-error
In front: One of many failed Scots pine plantations from the 1950-60s.
![Page 11: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Despite many obstacles, forestry has become a viable investment opportunity – in Iceland!
![Page 12: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
How many tree species have been cultivated in Iceland?
Not known, but close to 2000Documented experience with 653 species of 106 genera of trees and shrubs10 of these are native, belonging to 6 genera
Source: Thorbergur Hjalti Jónsson
![Page 13: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
How well have they performed?
Þrifatala (1-10)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hlu
tfalls
legu
r fjö
ldi
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
EvrópaM. AsíaA. Asía N. Ameríka
Most of them, poorly!
93 with a „thriving score“
of 8-10
19 exotics with a score of over 9
![Page 14: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Source: Einar Gunnarsson, Skógræktarritið 2014
86% of trees planted annually belong to five species
On average, 73% of seedlingsplanted each yearare exotics (Siberianlarch, Sitka & Lutzspruce, lodgepole pine,black cottonwood)
![Page 15: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
What is the major problem, for most tree species?
Climate
Low summer temperatures, despite a relatively long growing season• LT average temp‘s in July: Reykjavík =
Kiruna, N-Sweden (10°C)
Temperature fluctuations • Frequent, aseasonally warm winters
• sudden cold spells, with occasional killing frosts in spring & late summer
• LT average temperature in January: Reykjavík = Copenhagen, DK (+1°C)
Coastal (light blue) and inland (dark blue)climate (Christof Wöll, 2008)
![Page 16: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Needless to say, there is such a thing as genetically determined, phenotypic variation
P = G + E (Phenotype = Genotype + Environment)
Adaptation to climate is one these factors, and climate can be quite variable on a 100,000 km2 Island.
tvístofnasveigur Plús-tré
Vargur
Figure: A.M.J.Robbins and B. Ditlevsen 1988.
![Page 17: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Sitka spruce provenance trial in a frost hollow in Mosfell, S-Iceland
pl. 1996 (photo, Sept. 2012)
Northern P. xlutziiSouthernP. sitchensis
![Page 18: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
• By 2020, warming rates should eclipse historical bounds of the past 1,000 years — and likely at least 2,000 years —and keep rising.
• If greenhouse gas emissions continue on their current trend, the rate of warming will reach 0.2°C per decade and stay that high until at least 2100.
![Page 19: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Climate models predict lesser warming around Iceland than many other northern areas.But considerable warming nevertheless.
![Page 20: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Birch limit: 7,6°C
Potential woodland area: 89.000 km2
Source: Þorbergur Hjalti Jónsson & Björn Traustason (2011)
Potential range distribution of Betula pubescens by 2095, if warming from 2008 by 1,5°C (Scenario A1B: 2,8°C warming gobally, 2°C warming in Iceland)
![Page 21: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Forest tree improvement
• Tree improvement is a long-term investment to increase the productivity of forest plantations by providing a source of improved planting stock that will result in increased growth, better form and wood quality, and improved insect and disease resistance.– Includes:
• Choice of species– Choice of provenance(s)
» Selection of and crosses between genotypes, via testing» Production of genetically improved seed or cuttings
» Deployment of improved material in practice
![Page 22: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Long-term experiments with genetic resources of forests in Iceland
• Applied research on growth and adaptation of tree species and their provenance has been a central activity at Icelandic Forest Research, Mógilsá since its establishment in 1967.
• Long-term provenance trials have been established for most of those species that are considered of potential importance in Icelandic forestry.
– But also for several marginal – or „emerging“ species.
Photo: Sveinn Þorgrímsson
![Page 23: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Long-term experiments with genetic resources in Iceland
Main goal in past has been „to find the proper provenance“ for the major regions in Iceland.
For the more important species the „search for the proper provenance“ is no longer of relevance – what is needed in Icelandic forestry is a breeding strategy for these species, based selection within material already imported.– To improve adaptation, production, quality and resistance.
![Page 24: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Northern European Database of Long-Term Forest Experiments
http://noltfox.metla.fi• Initiated by Nordic Forest Research (SNS) in 1999.
• Database; currently 16.000+ long-term field experiments in the Nordic & Baltic countries + UK & Ireland.
![Page 25: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
NOLTFOX-database on “Genetic diversity and breeding”
• Exotic tree species, provenance trials, genetic variation among and within stands, progeny testing, clonal tests, seed orchards and clonal archives.
![Page 26: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Location of long-term trials (Gen. div. & breeding) registered in NOLTFOX
• Finland: 2757 sites• Svíþjóð: 1687 sites• Lithauania: 243• UK: 237• Norway: 225• Denmark: 192• Iceland: 104• Latvia: 103• Estonia: 52• Ireland: 4 (?!)
![Page 27: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Long-term field trials with genetic div. & breeding in Iceland (included in NOLTFOX)
• Alnus (A. viridis subsp.crispa, A. viridis subsp.sinuata, A. incana subsp.tenuifolia)
• Betula (B. pubescens, B. pendula, B. ermanni, B. platyphylla)
• Populus (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa)
• Salix– Fast growing exotics (Salix
alaxensis, S. hookeriana, (S. caprea))
– Slow growing natives for „ecol. Restoration“ (S. phylicifolia, S. lanata)
• Abies (A. lasiocarpa)• Larix (L. sibirica, L.
sukaczewii, L. decidua, and more)
• Pseudotsuga menziesii• Picea (P. abies, P. glauca, P.
sitchensis, P. xlutzii, o.fl.)• Pinus (P. contorta, P. sylvestris)
![Page 28: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Now for something completely different; from Sweden, a country where government decisions are based on scientific evidence
• Genetically improved material from seed orchards will increase production by 10%.
• Even with a 10% return required, it is quite profitable to increase further investment in tree breeding in Sweden. – Review of the Swedish tree
breeding programme (Jan. 2011)
![Page 29: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Tree improvement in Iceland (– beyond the provenance selection stage)
• Several small-scale projects are up and running on birch, larch, black cottonwood and Sitka spruce. – Birch: objective is to improve form and rate of growth (Embla), as
well as for non-forestry objectives (white bark, red-leaves, etc.)– Larch: objective is to improve adaptability, hardiness and form.
For that purpose, interspefic hybrids (L. sibirica x decidua) that express hybrid vigor are being produced for wider adapability to Icelandic conditions.
– Black cottonwood: The breeding objective is to improve rust resistance (Melampsora laricii-populina), as well as to improve adaptation, vigor and form.
– Sitka spruce: The breeding objective is to increase resistance to green spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum) attacks, as well as to improve growth vigor and form..
![Page 30: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Siberian sources of Siberian larch suffering from larch canker, SW-
Iceland
Photo: Þorsteinn Tómasson
![Page 31: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
European and siberian larch in S-Iceland
![Page 32: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
![Page 33: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Individual variation in resistance to Elatobium abietinum
![Page 34: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Sitka spruce provenance & progeny trial, S-Iceland
![Page 35: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
A recent Sitka spruce seed orchard at
Tumastaðir, S-Iceland(2012)
Photos: Halldór Sverrisson
![Page 36: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Height differences among 10 OP families of Lutz spruce in S-Iceland at age 9
Meðalhæð 10 fjölskyldna af sitkabastarði (kvæmi: Ninilchik)í Þrándaholti, Gnúpverjahreppi við 9 ára aldur
fjölskyldafj. 3 fj. 6 fj. 4 fj. 8 fj. 1 fj. 5 fj. 7 fj. 9 fj. 2 fj. 10
með
alhæ
ð (c
m)
0
50
100
150
200
250
aab
abc abcabc
abcd
abcd
bcdcd
d
n=7
n=6
n=6
n=4
n=7
n=4
n=6
n=6
n=2
n=4
![Page 37: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa)
![Page 38: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Black cottonwood on a glacial outwash plain
Photo: Halldór Sverrisson
![Page 39: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Common denominator: To improve and ensure adaptation to present and future climate in Iceland
• Regardless of the forestry aim (timber, amenity, shelter, soil protection, land rehabilition)– Low mortality– Vigour (e.g., high growth rates)– Resistance (against pests, diseases, inclement
weather)• ... during the whole rotation.
• „Adaptation of populations, first and foremost, appears as a balance between selection for growth potential in mild climates and selection for cold tolerance in severe. “ (Rehfeldt et al. 2002 - Intraspecific responses to climate in Pinussylvestris)
![Page 40: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
If Icelanders intend to maximise return on investment from long-term investments in forestry, they must:
• not only apply the suitable silvicultural methods
• not only choose the „proper species“ or „best provenance“ from abroad
• They must invest in forest tree improvement
• and secure supply of „the best“ genetically improved seed.
![Page 41: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Assigning priorities in forest tree breeding work
• In business accounting measures, long term can be a period of time that exceeds 12 months.
• There is, and always will be, a lack of resources for long-term projects, especially for those that take many years or decades to yield a return on investment (e.g. Tree improvement programs)– Því verður að gæta þess að sníða sér stakk eftir vexti
• Prioritise according to:– Importance of the species for production forestry– What characters should should be improved– How much resources and long-term commitments are realistic
for the organisation of the tree improvement program?
![Page 42: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
The swan song of afforestation in Iceland?
![Page 43: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Naturally regenerated birch and lodgepole pine
S-Iceland
![Page 44: A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland · A brief overview of forest tree breeding activities in Iceland Aðalsteinn Sigurgeirsson Icelandic Forest Research](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022060210/5f0495757e708231d40eb12d/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Good breeding is the result of good sense, some good nature, and a little self-denial for the sake of others.
- Lord Chesterfield
• (“Breeding” hefur margræða merkingu á ensku; getur t.d. þýtt: siðfágun, eldi eða kynbætur)