A Brief History of Wildlife and Fisheries A Brief History of Wildlife and Fisheries Management Management

•Early(< 1500’s)Early(< 1500’s)

•Pre-European Settlement of North Pre-European Settlement of North AmericaAmerica

•1700’s on…….1700’s on…….

(This lecture will have a decidedly North (This lecture will have a decidedly North American bias and emphasis)American bias and emphasis)

Early Laws and Regulations Concerning Early Laws and Regulations Concerning Wildlife and Fisheries Resources Wildlife and Fisheries Resources

Bible:Bible: ? ? Mention of wildlife management Mention of wildlife management /harvesting issues in Deuteronomy /harvesting issues in Deuteronomy

(14:4-20), Leviticus (11:4-6). (14:4-20), Leviticus (11:4-6). Decrees on Decrees on harvesting of wildlife harvesting of wildlife

EgyptEgypt ???? Hieroglyphics showing trapping of ratsHieroglyphics showing trapping of rats

SolonSolon 600 B.C. 600 B.C. Hunting Restrictions Hunting Restrictions

Kublai KhanKublai Khan 1260 A.D.1260 A.D. Specific Hunting RestrictionsSpecific Hunting Restrictions

Magna CartaMagna Carta 1215 A.D.1215 A.D. Ownership of game animals (and Ownership of game animals (and land) assigned to King and nobles. land) assigned to King and nobles.

Hunting Hunting is made and exclusive right of is made and exclusive right of the noble the noble class (note distinction with the class (note distinction with the modern modern North American system)North American system)

Wildlife and Fisheries Resource Use in Wildlife and Fisheries Resource Use in Presettlement North AmericaPresettlement North America

• ≈ ≈ 10,000 B.C.: Native Americans widespread 10,000 B.C.: Native Americans widespread in N. America. Early on, primarily a hunter-in N. America. Early on, primarily a hunter-gatherer society gatherer society

•≈ ≈ 3000-1500 B.C.: first cultivation, but 3000-1500 B.C.: first cultivation, but hunting and fishing persistedhunting and fishing persisted

•Landscape-scale management of habitat Landscape-scale management of habitat common ( e.g., use of fire to promote common ( e.g., use of fire to promote successional habitats).successional habitats).

Impact of Native Americans on WildlifeImpact of Native Americans on Wildlife

PossiblePossible overkill as important overkill as important contributor to mass extinctionscontributor to mass extinctions

Other possibilities include:Other possibilities include:

•Climate ChangeClimate Change

•Introduced Disease Introduced Disease

•Combination of two or more factors?Combination of two or more factors?

Development of North American wildlife Development of North American wildlife conservation during the post-(European) conservation during the post-(European)

settlement period settlement period

Can be divided into 5 periods:

•Era of Abundance

•Era of Overexploitation

•Era of Protection

•Era of Game Management

•Era of Environmental Management

Era of Abundance: 1600-1849Era of Abundance: 1600-1849

•Most fish and wildlife species found in Most fish and wildlife species found in high numbers, resource is viewed as high numbers, resource is viewed as limitlesslimitless•Wildlife and fisheries not viewed as Wildlife and fisheries not viewed as restricted “resources”, rather it is viewed restricted “resources”, rather it is viewed by immigrants as a “commons” by immigrants as a “commons”

•Some laws were passed; e.g., Some laws were passed; e.g., bounty on wolvesbounty on wolvesclosed season on deer (R.I., 1646)closed season on deer (R.I., 1646)Game bird seasons (N.Y., 1708)Game bird seasons (N.Y., 1708)

In England and Wales: a common (or common land) is a In England and Wales: a common (or common land) is a piece of land over which other people—often piece of land over which other people—often neighbouring landowners—could exercise one of a neighbouring landowners—could exercise one of a number of traditional rights, such as allowing their number of traditional rights, such as allowing their cattle to graze upon it. The older texts use the word cattle to graze upon it. The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the word "commons" for the land over which reserve the word "commons" for the land over which the rights are exercised. By extension, the term the rights are exercised. By extension, the term "commons""commons" has come to be applied to other resources has come to be applied to other resources to which a community has rights or access. to which a community has rights or access.

Basically, everyone was operating under Basically, everyone was operating under the “Myth of Superabundance” which the “Myth of Superabundance” which

resulted from rich natural resources and resulted from rich natural resources and relatively few consumers relatively few consumers

Era of Overexploitation (1850- 1899)Era of Overexploitation (1850- 1899)

Wildlife populations declined because:Wildlife populations declined because:

- habitats were continually modified- habitats were continually modified

- repeating firearms - repeating firearms

- efficient transportation- efficient transportation

- markets for wildlife - markets for wildlife

Hunted or trapped to the brink of extinction:Hunted or trapped to the brink of extinction:

beaver, bison (10 x 10beaver, bison (10 x 106 6 to nearly none….)to nearly none….)

In the Midwest: White tailed Deer, Wild Turkey, In the Midwest: White tailed Deer, Wild Turkey, Greater Prairie Chicken, WolfGreater Prairie Chicken, Wolf

Era of Overexploitation (1850- 1899)Era of Overexploitation (1850- 1899)

Some reactive responses:Some reactive responses:

First Game Wardens: Maine, 1852First Game Wardens: Maine, 1852

Hunting License: New York, 1864Hunting License: New York, 1864

First Bag Limit: Iowa, 25 Prairie First Bag Limit: Iowa, 25 Prairie Chickens Chickens

First National Park: Yellowstone, 1872First National Park: Yellowstone, 1872

Hunting of Passenger PigeonsHunting of Passenger Pigeons

Ectopistes migratorius

"The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully "The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is

here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them, or be missed from the destruction can lessen them, or be missed from the

myriads that are yearly produced“myriads that are yearly produced“

Ohio Senate report finding in response to bill to protect the Ohio Senate report finding in response to bill to protect the Passenger Pigeon , 1857Passenger Pigeon , 1857

Possibly the most common bird in the world at one timePossibly the most common bird in the world at one time

Many populations were at historical lows

BisonBison

ElkElk

Pronghorn Antelope Pronghorn Antelope

Passenger PigeonPassenger Pigeon**

Snowy EgretSnowy Egret

DeerDeer

Era of Protection (1900-1925)Era of Protection (1900-1925)

Era of Protection (1900-1925)Era of Protection (1900-1925)

Laws protecting wildlife were established: Laws protecting wildlife were established:

Lacey ActLacey Act: Passed in 1925, regulated : Passed in 1925, regulated market hunting, controlled importation of market hunting, controlled importation of exotics and interstate transport of illegal exotics and interstate transport of illegal

gamegame

Weeks-Mclean ActWeeks-Mclean Act: 1912, provided for : 1912, provided for protection of waterfowlprotection of waterfowl

Era of Protection (1900-1925)Era of Protection (1900-1925)

New laws, continued: New laws, continued:

Migratory Bird Treaty Act: 1917, Migratory Bird Treaty Act: 1917, protection of migratory birds either protection of migratory birds either complete or through regulation complete or through regulation

All this was driven by recognition All this was driven by recognition that overexploitation was the cause that overexploitation was the cause

of declines of declines

Era of Protection (1900-1925)Era of Protection (1900-1925)

•Most states established departments Most states established departments of fish and game of fish and game

•Revenue from fish and hunting Revenue from fish and hunting licenses generated and put into licenses generated and put into enforcement and some level of enforcement and some level of resource management resource management

Era of Protection (1900-1925)Era of Protection (1900-1925)

Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt: 1858-1858-19191919 Along with others , he conceived many Along with others , he conceived many of the key aspects and elements of of the key aspects and elements of modern conservation and the dangers of modern conservation and the dangers of overexploitation. A doctrine that overexploitation. A doctrine that included: included:

1)1)A recognition of conservation through wise use as a A recognition of conservation through wise use as a public responsibilitypublic responsibility

2)2)Recognition of resource ownership as a public trustRecognition of resource ownership as a public trust

3)3)Recognition of outdoor resources as integrated Recognition of outdoor resources as integrated systemssystems

4)4)Recognition of science as a means effective resource Recognition of science as a means effective resource management. management.

Theodore Theodore Roosevelt:Roosevelt:

•As President (As President (1901-1909)1901-1909), established several , established several natural resource agencies, and what became the natural resource agencies, and what became the National Wildlife Refuge systemNational Wildlife Refuge system

•Promoted the National Monuments and Antiquities Promoted the National Monuments and Antiquities Act and then established 23 National Monuments.Act and then established 23 National Monuments.

•Created 150 National Forests Created 150 National Forests

•Established Federal protection for over 230 x 10Established Federal protection for over 230 x 106 6

acres acres

Gifford Pinchot: 1865-1946Gifford Pinchot: 1865-1946

"The greatest good for the "The greatest good for the greatest number of people in greatest number of people in the long run."  the long run." 

Generally credited with coining the term Generally credited with coining the term “conservation”“conservation”

A forester who started the first forestry school (Yale, A forester who started the first forestry school (Yale, 1899) and lead what became the U.S. Forest Service1899) and lead what became the U.S. Forest Service

Recognized that resources must be managed Recognized that resources must be managed

John Muir: 1838-John Muir: 1838-19141914

•Proponent of the preservationist movement Proponent of the preservationist movement

•Established the Sierra Club in 1892Established the Sierra Club in 1892

•Advocate of wilderness and aesthetic values of Advocate of wilderness and aesthetic values of the landthe land

Era of Game Management (1930-1965)Era of Game Management (1930-1965)

•First research and management First research and management programs developed in North America programs developed in North America

•Publication of the book “Game Publication of the book “Game Management” in 1933 by Aldo Leopold Management” in 1933 by Aldo Leopold

•The Wildlife Cooperative Research The Wildlife Cooperative Research Program was established in 1932 at Program was established in 1932 at universities and graduate education universities and graduate education centers centers

•The Wildlife Society was established in The Wildlife Society was established in 19371937

Era of Game Management (1930-1965)Era of Game Management (1930-1965)

Significant Legislation: Significant Legislation:

Duck Stamp Act (1934)Duck Stamp Act (1934)

Pittman-Robertson Act (1937)Pittman-Robertson Act (1937)

Aldo Leopold: 1886-1948Aldo Leopold: 1886-1948

•““Father” of wildlife management; the book Father” of wildlife management; the book Game Game ManagementManagement was the first formal integration of ecological was the first formal integration of ecological principles with management goals. principles with management goals.

•Co-founder of the Wildlife Society; first professor of Co-founder of the Wildlife Society; first professor of wildlife/game management wildlife/game management

Aldo Leopold; continuedAldo Leopold; continued

Established “American Game Policy” with Established “American Game Policy” with basic principles on the requirements of basic principles on the requirements of wildlife as a sustained resource:wildlife as a sustained resource:

1)1)Food and coverFood and cover

2)2)Inducements for landownersInducements for landowners

3)3)Classification of game by habitat (farm, Classification of game by habitat (farm, forest, …wilderness).forest, …wilderness).

4)4)The need for facts, funding, and public-The need for facts, funding, and public-sportsman cooperation sportsman cooperation

""We abuse the land because we see it as a We abuse the land because we see it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and we may begin to use it with love and respect."respect."

The Land Ethic The Land Ethic

"The land ethic simply enlarges the "The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land collectively: the land

Era of Environmental Management Era of Environmental Management (1965 to (1965 to present)present)

Significant growth in environmental regulation:Significant growth in environmental regulation:

First Endangered Species Act : 1966First Endangered Species Act : 1966

National Environmental Policy Act: 1966National Environmental Policy Act: 1966

EPA established in 1970EPA established in 1970

First “Earth Day” and Clean Air Act; 1970 First “Earth Day” and Clean Air Act; 1970

Significant rise in environmental concerns for Significant rise in environmental concerns for biodiversity-related issuesbiodiversity-related issues

Concern over global change has generated Concern over global change has generated increased increased recognition of environmental issues recognition of environmental issues

Fisheries:Fisheries:

Like wildlife, fisheries resources were viewed Like wildlife, fisheries resources were viewed as a “commons.”as a “commons.”

Again, a commons is a resource owned by Again, a commons is a resource owned by the populace without restriction on who uses the populace without restriction on who uses it and how much…it and how much…

Generally, things developed as they did with Generally, things developed as they did with wildlife resources wildlife resources

First restriction on fish catches was First restriction on fish catches was enacted in 1652 in Mass. enacted in 1652 in Mass.

• Millions of sockeye salmon expected to swim up British Columbia’s Fraser River this summer have gone missing.

Recent NewsRecent News

Transportation has an important influence on resource; canals Transportation has an important influence on resource; canals were built, channels were “improved”were built, channels were “improved”

Through the 19Through the 19thth century, fisheries were commercial century, fisheries were commercial (especially in the Great Lakes) and subsistence. Technological (especially in the Great Lakes) and subsistence. Technological advances improved catches to the point where advances improved catches to the point where overexploitation became an issue (mid to late 1800’s), overexploitation became an issue (mid to late 1800’s),

1870, the American Fish Culturists’ Association was formed 1870, the American Fish Culturists’ Association was formed (later became the American Fisheries Society (later became the American Fisheries Society

Erie Canal Erie Canal

Early 1900’s, concept of population biology and Early 1900’s, concept of population biology and “maximum sustained yield” (MSY) developed.“maximum sustained yield” (MSY) developed.

““System” view of aquatic ecosystems developed. System” view of aquatic ecosystems developed. Example: Stephen Forbes, Illinois Natural History Example: Stephen Forbes, Illinois Natural History SurveySurvey

1938; publication of 1938; publication of Improvement of Lakes for Improvement of Lakes for FishingFishing. C. Hubbs and R. Eschmeyer. C. Hubbs and R. Eschmeyer