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Transcript of 965-II
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Development Support Communication (965)
AH-533791 Assad Mehmood Khan | M.Sc Mass Comm
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
(Unit 5 9)
QUESTION NO -1
Critically evaluate the use of different print and electronic media for
development support communications activities.
1. Introduction
Development Communication has been alternatively defined as a
type of marketing and public opinion research that is used specifically to
develop effective communication or as the use of communication to
promote social development. Defined as the former, it often includes
computerized linguistics analysis of verbatim responses to qualitative survey
interviews and may, at times also involved consumer psychological "right
brain"(emotional) research techniques.
Defined at the latter, it refers to the practice of systematically applying
the processes, strategies, and principles of communication to bring about
positive social change. As most providers of "communication development"
research use proprietary approaches that cannot be elaborated upon
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without revealing proprietary trade secrets, the remainder of this article
describes the latter definition. The practice of development communication
can be traced back to efforts undertaken in various parts of the world during
the 1940s, but the widespread application of the concept came about
because of the problems that arose in the aftermath of World War II . The rise
of the communication sciences in the 1950s saw a recognition of the field as
an academic discipline, with Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, and Everett
Rogers being the earliest influential advocates. The term "Development
Communication" was first coined in 1972 by Nora C. Quebral, who defines
the field as:
"theartand scienceofhumancommunicationlinkedtoasociety's plannedtransformationfromastateof
povertyto oneof dynamic socio-economic growththatmakes forgreaterequityandthelargerunfoldingof
individual potential."
The theory and practice of development communication continues to evolve
today, with different approaches and perspectives unique to the varied
development contexts the field has grown in.
Development communication is characterized by conceptual flexibility and
diversity of communication techniques used to address the problem. Some
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approaches in the tool kit of the field include: information dissemination and
education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media
advocacy, communication for social change, and participatory development
communication.
2. Example
One of the first examples of development communication was Farm
Radio Forums in Canada. From 1941 to 1965 farmers met in groups each week to
listen to special radio programs. There were also printed materials and prepared
questions to encourage group discussion. At first this was a response to the
Great Depression and the need for increased food production in World War II.
But the Forums also dealt with social and economic issues. This model of adult
education or distance education was later adopted in India and Ghana.
Instructional television was used in El Salvador during the 1970s to improve
primary education. One of the problems was a lack of trained teachers.
Teaching materials were also improved to make them more relevant. More
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children attended school and graduation rates increased. In this sense the
project was a success. However, there were few jobs available in El Salvador for
better-educated young people.
In the 1970s in Korea the Planned Parenthood Federation had succeed in
lowering birth rates and improving life in villages such as Oryu Li. It mainly used
interpersonal communication in women's clubs. The success in Oryu Li was not
found in all villages. It had the advantage of several factors including a
remarkable local woman leader and visits from the provincial governor.
In 1999 the U.S. Government and D.C. Comics planned to distribute 600,000
comic books to children affected by the Kosovo War. The comic books are in
Albanian and feature Superman and Wonder Woman. The aim is to teach
children what to do when they find an unexploded land mine left over from
Kosovo's civil war. The comic books instruct children not to touch the anti-
personnel mines and not to move, but instead to call an adult for help. In spite
of the 1997 Ottawa Treaty which attempts to ban land mines they continue to
kill or injure 20,000 civilians each year around the world.
Since 2002, Journalists for Human Rights, a Canadian based NGO, has operated
long term projects in Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the DR Congo. jhr works
directly with journalists, providing monthly workshops, student sessions, on the job
training, and additional programs on a country by country basis.
3. Print Media
a. Newspaper
y The terminology of word NEWS has
comprehensive meanings in the
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AH-533791 Assad Mehmood Khan | M.Sc Mass Comm
journalism. A lot of journalist, journalism giants has defined the
news with the different ways.
y Webster says that news is information which is important and
interesting for people.
y Welcome Stand says that everything is news which is unusual
and different, and a good news is that which is neutral and
true.
y British father of journalism, Lord North Caliph says that if dog
bites a man that is not news, but man bites dog that is news.
y American journalist Gerald W. Johnson says that news is the
explanation of events which a journalist writes and feels
confident and easy.
y Carl Warn defines that the news is a report which is not known
to people earlier and it based on the activities of human
being which is interesting, entertaining and informative for
people.
y Dr. M. A. Hijazi says that every event is news which is true and
interesting for people which they intend to know.
y Dr. Abdus Salam Khurshid defines that news pertains to those
events and investigaytions which are unusual.
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b. Characteristics
y Accuracy: The facts given in the news story should be
acceptable to the readers without any question. The
accuracy means that all the statements, names, ages, dates,
quotations etc. must be accurate. The use of proper words
and sentences and expressions at proper situations is also
accuracy. The problem of accuracy arises where the proper
words, sentences are not used at the proper situation. I.e. the
words clash, smash and crash are used in the situation of
damage. Every word in the news story has own diction and
imply as a consequence that need to be considered. Space
and time is another requirement of accuracy achievement.
y Balance: The balance in a news story is that this conveys
the message of an event in meaningful and interesting way
and it gives the factual impression of the report. These facts
relate to one another like a chain.
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y Objectivity: News is the factual report of an event. What the
reporter sees is supposed to report. Objectivity is to report the
facts exactly as they occurred. If the reporter have or intend
to add something else from his own imagination that is
against the objectivity. The suggestions, comments and
proposals are not the tasks of a news reporter. There are to
be given in the column, editorial etc. Therefore the
objectivity is just a report which is actually occurred.
y Concise and Clear: Brevity and complicity are the soul of
journalism is the famous sentence about writing a news story.
Journalistic language is the special language of journalism
which is quite different then all other languages and
particularly from the literature.
y Timeless/Freshness. Time factor plays an important role in
the effectiveness of a news story. Nobody likes to read an
outdated news, even it may be very important. News is just
like a perishable commodity having a very short life. The past
time story can be accommodated in literature, drama,
feature etc. But is does not work in new. The famous slogan
of journalism is that TODAY NEWS IS TODAY.
y Proximity of Nearness. The importance of news greatly
depends on the place of its origin. Proximity in journalism
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does not only work refer to geographical nearness but
interest of nearness as well. For example; Imran Khans
marriage took place in U.K but the story is more interesting for
the people of this part of the world. An earthquake in China
killing 200 persons will be less important in our newspaper than
a story of earthquake killing 30 persons in Pakistan.
y Prominence: Readers have interest in the names of the
persons with whom they are familiar. The bigger personality
has the greater value in the news. The stories of film stars,
players, politicians, poets, philosophers etc. have greater
news values.
y Magnitude: The event relating to greater loss of life
damage or natural disaster creates the interest for the
readers. For example; A story of fire resulting in the death of
one person will has less impact than a story of fire resulting in
the death of 100 people.
y Conflict: Every body takes interest in confrontation among
people, nations and groups. The highest form of conflict is
war and not story fails to create interest for the readers.
y Oddity/Unusualness: A dog bites a common man is not a
news but if a man bites a dog it is a great news because it is
unusual. The more the event is unusual the greater its value.
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AH-533791 Assad Mehmood Khan | M.Sc Mass Comm
y Consequences: The news story that effect some change in
the life of people will have great value. For example; news
about budget, rise in petrol, price, electricity rates, increase in
salary etc. are read with great interest by people.
y Human Interest: Human interest stories deal with usual
events but usually these stories involve fellow feeling, emotion
of brotherhood and humanness. When a person reads about
joy or sorrow of others he mentally associated himself with
them. For example; A story of a child rescued by a fireman as
a seven story building caught fire has greater value than a
story of the complete loss of the building.
c. Wall News Papers
A wall newspaper or wall-newspaper is a printed
newspaper designed to be displayed and read in public
places, such as walls. The practice dates back to at the
least the Roman Empire. They are often produced by
governmental entities in locations where production
costs or distribution problems might otherwise make
regular newspaper distribution difficult. It is standard
practice for one individual to take the responsibility for
posting the wall newspaper. This individual may also
read the posted newspaper aloud to others who cannot
read it themselves.
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wall newspaper, newspaper produced for display on walls or in
other prominent places in cities, towns, and villages, usually in developing
countries. The practice is not new; in ancient Rome the Acta newspapers
were regularly posted. Wall newspapers may serve a single population
centre or several; they have been published by governmental agencies
where newspapers are too costly to produce and distribute or where
people are too poor to buy them.
d. Newsletter
A newsletter is a regularly distributed
publication generally about one main
topic that is of interest to its subscribers.
Newspapers and leaflets are types of
newsletters.[1] Additionally, newsletters
delivered electronically via email (e-
Newsletters) have gained rapid
acceptance for the same reasons email in
general has gained popularity over printed
correspondence. News letters are given
out at schools, to inform parents about
things that happen in that school.
Many newsletters are published by
clubs, churches, societies, associations,
and businesses, especially companies, to
provide information of interest to their
members, customers or employees. Some
newsletters are created as money-making
ventures and sold directly to subscribers.
Sending newsletters to customers and prospects is a common marketing
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strategy, which can have benefits and drawbacks. General attributes of
newsletters include news and upcoming events of the related
organization, as well as contact information for general inquiries.
e. Folders, Leaflets and Pamphlets
A printed and usually folded sheet of paper for distribution, usually
free and containing advertising material or information about a political
party, charity, etc. The leaflet is the main promotional tool used by
organizations and projects, whether their purpose is to make the
organization known or to publicize an action or event. Among the options
for presentation tools, the leaflet is the simplest and most accessible.
1. Advantages of the Leaflet
y Regardless of the situation, the leaflet allows you to
deliver information in a brief, concise, and organized
manner.
y It provides any interested individual or group with the
basic facts about your group or project, including
information on how to contact you.
y A leaflet is useful for raising awareness about your
organization or project among different audiences. It is
a flexible tool that is extremely visual, simple, and inex-
pensive to produce. Indeed, every project should
make the effort to produce a leaflet to promote its
work.
y
The useful life of a leaflet depends on its content: aslong as the information it contains is still valid, the leaflet
will remain relevant.
y In participatory development communication, the
useful life of a leaflet is theoretically unlimited, as it
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conveys information in a logical order and in relation to
the participatory commitment made by the community
to the development process.
2. Production Process
y Design This step is described above. You may have
outside collaborators (a writer or graphic designer) who
regularly lend their support to your communication
initiatives. It is a good idea to invite these people to
attend design meetings. Their expert advice can help
you produce better information tools. During the design
meeting, a person should be designated to coordinatethe production of the leaflet.
y Documentation Before doing anything else, make
sure you have all the documentation necessary to
produce the leaflet, including written texts, illustrations,
and photographs. If you have all these things, youre
set to go. If not, then youll need to do some writing,
take some photos, etc.y Collaborators Are you producing the leaflet internally
or externally? To produce a leaflet, you need a writer
and a graphic designer (people with training in
journalism sometimes have both these skills) as well as a
photographer or an illustrator or both. If no one on your
team is capable of performing these tasks, you will
have to enlist the services of external collaborators.
y The coordinator meets with the writer, hands over the
file, and fixes the deadlines. Once the first draft of the
text has been completed, make sure it corresponds to
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what you asked for, check its length, approve
modifications, etc.
y If the graphic designer is not the person who wrote the
text as is most often the case the coordinator next
hands over all the material (text, photos, illustrations,
logo) to him or her. The graphic designer finalizes the
tool, taking into account the coordinators comments.
y Where possible, conduct pre-tests with a sample of the
target audience at this stage of the production
process. (See Sheet 2 on The Production Process.) The
idea is to validate both the message and the tool usedto convey that message. This is all the more important if
your project is using a participatory development
communication approach. Based on the pretest results,
make necessary adjustments.
y Normally, the graphic designer is the one who deals
with the printer for questions related to printing costs,
lead time, and delivery dates. Why does this job fall tothe graphic designer? Simply because he or she is the
person who is most familiar with the practices of the
printing trade. If the printing agency will also be
providing graphic design services for the leaflet, then it
is up to the production coordinator or the writer (who-
ever knows most about printing) to choose the printer.
y Generally, you should allow a few weeks for the printer
to get the job done. A lead time of 2 weeks is
reasonable.
y As with any information tool, the process of producing
a leaflet is sufficiently long to warrant drawing up a
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schedule. The best approach is to start at the end and
count backward from the delivery date.
A pamphlet is an unbound booklet (that is, without a hard cover or
binding). It may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both
sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths (called a leaflet), or it may
consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle stapled at the
crease to make a simple book. In order to count as a pamphlet, UNESCO
requires a publication (other than a periodical) to have "at least 5 but not
more than 48 pages exclusive of the cover pages";[1] a longer item is a
book.
f. Fact Sheets
A fact sheet, factsheet or (in some industries) one-sheet is a
presentation of data in a format which emphasizes key points concisely.
The layout is simple and often standardized, e.g. using a table, bullet
points and/or headings, and is usually on a single printed page. Fact
sheets often contain product information, technical data, lists, statistics,answers to common questions (e.g. FAQs), educational material, or how-
to, "do-it-yourself" advice. They are sometimes a summary of a longer
document.
g. Preparing the Material
4. Electronic Media
Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical
energy for the end-user (audience) to access the content. This is in contrast to
static media (mainly print media), which today are most often created
electronically, but don't require electronics to be accessed by the end-user in
the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general
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public are better known as video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia
presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and online content. Most new
media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in
either analog or digital format. Although the term is usually associated with
content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live
broadcasting and online networking. Any equipment used in the electronic
communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, desktop computer,
game console, handheld device) may also be considered electronic media.
a. Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of
electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light.[1]
Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic
fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Information is
carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the
radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.
When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields
induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and
transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.
Radio systems used for communications will have the following
elements. With more than 100 years of development, each process is
implemented by a wide range of methods, specialized for different
communications purposes.
Each system contains a transmitter. This consists of a source ofelectrical energy, producing alternating current of a desired frequency of
oscillation. The transmitter contains a system to modulate (change) some
property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation
might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more
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subtle properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of
these properties. The transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to
a tuned resonant antenna; this structure converts the rapidly changing
alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move through
free space (sometimes with a particular polarization).
Electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have
their path altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of
the waves diminishes due to geometric dispersion (the inverse-square
law); some energy may also be absorbed by the intervening medium in
some cases. Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this
electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from
artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise
is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the
devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired
signal will no longer be discernible; this is the fundamental limit to the
range of radio communications.
The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving
antenna; this structure captures some of the energy of the wave and
returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At the receiver, these
currents are demodulated, which is conversion to a usable signal form by
a detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to
the desired signals, and reject undesired signals.
Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by anantenna to produce signals for the operator. Radio became more useful
after the invention of electronic devices such as the vacuum tube and
later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals. Today
radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to
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the control of space vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other
applications.
b. TV
Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and
receiving moving images that can be monochromatic (shades of grey) or
multicolored. Images are usually accompanied by sound. "Television" may
also refer specifically to a television set, television programming, and
television transmission.
The etymology of the word is derived from mixed Latin and Greekorigin, meaning "far sight": Greek tele, far, and Latin visio, sight (from
video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person.
Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has
become commonplace in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly
as a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s the availability of
video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in
the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as
broadcast material. In recent years Internet television has seen the rise of
television available via the Internet, e.g. iPlayer and Hulu.
Although other forms such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) are in
use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television,
which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems
developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency
transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers.
Broadcast TV is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on
designated channels in the 54890 MHz frequency band.[1] Signals are
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now often transmitted with stereo and/or surround sound in many
countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs were generally
transmitted as an analogue television signal, but in recent years public
and commercial broadcasters have been progressively introducing digital
television broadcasting technology.
A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic
circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A
visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a monitor,
rather than a television. A television system may use different technical
standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television
(HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process
control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is
difficult or dangerous.
Amateur television (ham TVorATV) is also used for experimentation,
pleasure and public service events by amateur radio operators. Ham TV
stations were on the air in many cities before commercial TV stations came
on the air.
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QUESTION NO -2
What is the effectiveness of audio-visual media in DSC with special
reference to Pakistani setting
2.3 AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA
Communication methods that rely on the audio or visual dense, either alone or in
combination, help overcome the barrier of illiteracy or offer special advantage. They
also have disadvantage, which will be discussed latter.
2.3.1 Radio:
Radio can be one of the most useful mass communication tools for
support communications, for several reasons. It offers immediacy, as radio
programming can be changed quickly to meet new conditions. It reaches
large numbers of people, especially as transistor radio are being used
more widely. They permit listeners to lake their radio wherever they go,
even where electrical power is not available. Radio provides the warmth of
the human voice. It can tie into the strong oral traditions of communities
and overcome the literacy barriers that face print media.
Support communicators find that radio works most successfully at the
local level, to communicate local problems, solutions and activities. Theyuse local names, voices and activities in programming. Farmer success
stories and other kinds of neighbour-teach-neighbour approaches have
been found to work well. Radio is most effective at the awareness and
interest stages of the adoption process.
2.3.2 Types of Use for Broadcast Radio:
Two types of broadcast radio are commonly used for extension
programming.
1. Open Broadcast : The support communicator provides
programming for the stations broadcast, such as spot announcements to
be taped and repeated at intervals during the ay, or longer programmes,
presented in person or taped for use on schedules programmes. Stations
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also invite printed news releases that can be read in newscasts and other
programmes.
2. Group Listening to open broadcasts. Extension services in many
countries use approaches commonly called listening clubs., radio schools
or farm forums. Local participants gather at a certain time, listen to a
programme broadcast by a certain station, then discuss the programme in
terms of their own situations.
3. Audio Cassettes: Low-cost, battery-powered cassette recorders are
permitting extensions workers to use recorders in some effective new
ways.
i. A radio listening group can record its reactions, conclusions,
questions and suggestions about a given progremme or topic, then
sent the cassette to the station or sponsoring organization for
information and follw up.
ii. A regional or central extension office can produce and record
instructional programming on audio cassettes for use at local
levels.
iii. A local extension Worker can makes field recording for use in group
meetings. The recorded material can add interest to meeting vet is
simple and cheap to produce.
iv. Cassettes can permit multiple use of information aired on open
broadcasts, by simple recording the progrmme as it is aired.
4. Producing and Presenting Radio Broadcasts: Here are some tips for
preparing and presenting radio programmes for broadcast.
i. Try to localize the content and match it to the interests of listeners.
Emphasize local matters and involve local people.
ii. Take advantage of the timelines of radio by emphasizing current activities,
trends, issues, developments and so on.
iii. Use sounds in creative ways. The voice is one kind of sound, but you can
use many other kinds effectively.
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iv. Attract the listeners attention quickly, through a compelling remark, catchy
introductory sound, or other techniques. The first 10 seconds of a
programme are especially important.
v. Give information a flowing quality that makes it personal and easy to
follow. Good radio copy is written for the ear and uses simple,
understandable words. Test your radio copy by reading it aloud and
revising it until it reads easily and flows smoothly.
vi. Speak in a normal conversational voice, at a natural speed. Speak as if
you were conversing with one person.
vii. Use changes of pace in your presentation, to hold interest. You can do so
by varying your reading speed, for example, or varying the kinds and
volumes of sound.
viii. Repeat important facts, such as dates times and places of meetings.
Listeners cannot refer back, as they can with printed material, so they
must rely on you to repeat important information.
ix. Invite listeners to take part. You can involve them mentally by asking
questions, posing problems, and otherwise encouraging interaction as if
you were in conversation. You can even involve them physically,
sometimes, by inviting them to carry out certain actions as you speak.
2.3.3. Television
Two types of television media are available for teaching purposes. The first and
most familiar is broadcast television, in which programmes are aired over a large
geographical area. The second type is sometimes referred to as closed-circuit
television. This usage to one or more monitors. The monitors may be in several
locations or next to the video player.
Broadcast television offers exciting possibilities for extension workers. The
agricultural officer can demonstrate as well as talk. The home economist can
demonstrate how to make a dress. The agricultural extension worker can present
useful method demonstrations as well as show a whole series of result demonstrations
thorugh pictures which show change over time. All types of visual aids such as charts,
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graphs, live objects and blackboards can be used to increase teaching effectiveness on
television.
2.3.4. Instructional Television
Instructional television can be an excellent tool for extension workers.
Instructional television is distinguished from broadcast television in that materials are
not designed for distribution by the mass approach of broadcasting. Productions need
not be lied to the specific time constraints of broadcast requirements and can b e as
specific in length as needed. The medium of instructional television has its beginning in
cable television, with programming distributed from a central source to outlets in various
centres, such as classrooms or conference rooms.
2.3.5 Projected Visuals
Motion pictures, slides, filmstrips and overhead transparencies have much
appeal and are among the most effective of the visual teaching aids. It is as well to
remember that they have important limitations as well as advantages.
2.3.6 Pictures
Motion pictures are really not motion pictures at all They are a series of still
pictures on a long strip of film. Each picture is flashed momentarily on the screen and
rapid succession of still pictures each showing the subject in a slightly different position,
gives an illusion of movement.
Films have the potential to create powerful emotions and urges, and thus can be
a tremendously effective tool in teaching. This means audience in the subject. Films are
also excellent for showing the steps necessary in doing a task or for showing a
continuous action.
They can reproduce events long since past. They can record a demonstration
that can be shown over and over again to many different people in many different
places. They can magnify on a screen action that normally would be too small to be
seen easily or clearly by an individual or group. They can condense or stretch time.
Many other strong points for using motion pictures could be mentioned, but the
reasons already given are among the most important and help explain why films are a
potent teaching tool. For motivating an audience for appealing to the emotions, for a
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clear concise portrayal of action, few media approach the motion picture. It portrays
reality.
The size of film most commonly used for educational motion pictures is 16 mm.
All 16 mm. films are not alike however. Those made for viewing silently or with comment
by a leader are made with sprocket holes on both sides of the film.
Films made by professional laboratories to which sound is added have sprocket
holes on only one side of the film. You should not attempt to project sound film on a
silent projector because the teeth of the drive mechanism will punch holes in the sound
track. Another difference is that silent films are made to operate at 16 frames per
second or somewhat slower than sound film, that runs at 24 frames pers second. If a
silent film is run at the speed for sound, an increase in the speed of action will take
place.
In selecting a film to use in a given teaching situation, the same judgment must
be exercised as in selecting other teaching aids and materials. In addition to the
objective, any previous experience of the audience must be considered, with such
factors as age, education interests and customs.
2.3.7 Slide and Filmstrips:
The slide is one of the most popular and versatile visuals that can be used in exten-
education. There are two types of slides. The first is referred to as a lantern slide.
These were used in very early days and are almost never used today. The lantern slide
measured 3 x 4&1/2 and is mounted in glass. The second, almost universal slide is the
35 mm or 2 (50 mmx 50 mm) alide. When 35 mm colour film is used, a sirect colour
positive transparency is the result. Some types of this film can be home-processes,
others require commercial processing. When processed, the film is can into individual
pictures and mi=ounted in cardboard or glass ready for projecting.
Film strips are visuals that have been photographed on a continuous length or strip of
film and are projected in a special projector, one image at a time. Filmstrips require
specialized production techniques which usually offset the production economies for
use by extension group when small numbers of the material are needed. Filmstrips
have the same advantages and disadvantages as slides with the exception that image
sequences cannot be changed.
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Slides and filmstrips have the following advantages:
1. they can be made by the individual worker at low cost:
2. they can be made either in natural colour or in black and whit:
3. both the slides and the projections equipment are relatively light and can
be easily transported:
4. slides sequences can be readily changed to keep them and localized ; and
5. slides sequences can be changed in length to fit local needs.
Slides and filmstrips have these limitations:
1. They do not show action:
2. They normally rewire live narration, unless synchronized with a tape
recorder:
3. They require close co-operation with a projectionist throughout the
presentation if the speaker desires to be in front of an audience, unless
remote control equipment is available:
4. Most important, they require a dependable source of power or generation
equipment, and maintenance. A supply of spare projection lamps is a
must for the effective utilization of protected visuals.
2.3.8 Overhead Transparencies;
The overhead projcteor is the most recent development in projected visual
techniques. It derives its name from the technique, whereby pictures or
illustrations are projected over the head of the presenter. This medium
also has advantage and disadvantages. The most important advantage is
that the projector may be used in normal day light conditions and
presentation rooms do not require darkening. A second factor is that
presentation transparencies are easy to prepare.
The presenter or an artist/illustrator can draw or write directly on clear or
coloured acetate sheets using a variety of writing implements.
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QUESTION NO -3
Explain the concept of campaign and describe in detail three stages
of formulating a campaign.
2.1 WHAT IS A CAMPAIGN:
Campaign involves coordinated use of different methods of communication and
education, aimed at focusing attention on a particular problem and its solution over a
period of time. There are different kinds of campaign such as charity campaign, sale
campaign, political campaign. The kind of campaign used in DSC is the self help
campaign. It is intended to provide information and education which people can use to
improve their lives.
2.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE CAMPAIGN APPROACH
Several features make the campaign approach valuable in DSC. Some of
them are given as under:
1. A campaign approach is the only way to handle large and complex
programmes of public information and education. Haphazard
communications cannot be effective when working with large and diverse
audience, through variety of messages, and by using various
communication methods.
2. The campaign approach permits the use of resources (time, founds,
personnel)
More effectively and help you to coordinate them.
3. The campaign approach is unique in the way it permits the use of
combinations of methods, directed to wards the same programme
objectives.
4. This approach produces planned schedule of coordinated activities, so it
helps to adjust the efforts of personnel over a period of time.
5. It can help to reach more members of the intended audience, by using a
combination of communication methods.
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6. It can provide a wider change of understanding as it helps to reach
audience members through multiple channels and in a repetitive pattern
which enlarge the scope of learning.
2.3 WHEN TO USE A CAMPAIGN
The campaign approach is most useful when the topic under consideration
is important to the audience and the organization; when a variety of
communication methods will be needed and when the education effort is
complete and perhaps large scale.
2.4 CREATING THE PLAN:
The planning process for an educational campaign might be approached in
three stage: identification of objectives, analysis and formulation of the plan.
2.5 Stage 1: Identification of objective:
A useful atatment of objectives must so three things:
1. Special the kind of change desired or introduce the new idea;
2. Pin point the intended audience and
3. State the period of time involved
DSC campaign may aim at new pattern of action or increased
levels of knowledge. But even a campaign that reaffirms ones
current beliefs seeks change, in the sense of increasing the
strength with which the person hold them
2.6 Stage 2: Analysis:
Careful analysis of topic, situation, intended audience and the local
organization that intends DSC, can help keep a campaign simple
and on target. The following are some questions that might be asked
about each of the four areas for analysis.
1. How familiar is the topic to the intended audience?
2. How easy is it to see and describe?
3. How readily can it be demonstrated?
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4. How strong or weak is the scientific base for it?
5. To what extent does it agree or conflict with the current values
and experiences of the audience?
2.7 STAGE -3 FORMULATION OF THE PLANThis stage has several dimensions:-2.7.1 Methods to Use:
At this point the planner chooses from available communication channels,identifies messages to be communicated decides on the amount andformat of material to be used, selects a schedule and chooses ways toarrange feedback from audience members during the campaign.
2.7.2 Timing the Campaign:In deciding when to begin and a campaign be guided of the patterns inwhich your audience members make decisions and carry out actionsconcerning the topic. For instance, a campaign that involves how muchfertilizer to apply for rice production might logically be timed to match theperiods when growers make their fertilizing decisions and order fertilizers.
2.7.3 Using Slogans and Symbols:In development support communication slogans and symbols are usedand they usually add to the impact of a DSC campaign. Effective sloganshelp attract attention to the topic and message, help audiences learn andremember information more easily, add unity and sustain interest in thecampaign among audience members and within the sponsoringorganization. Slogans should emphasis a single idea tied to the campaignobjective. They should be memorable, easy to understand, versatile andgeared to the interests and needed of the intended audience.
2.7.4 Pre-testing Messages:
Before using slogans and symbols and other campaign material the sameshould be used among audience members to evaluate its effectiveness.
2.7.5 Selecting Media and Methods:More than one communication channel should be used in a DSCcampaign. Combination of media offers several advantages. They helpovercome the tendency of people to use certain information channels thanothers. Messages may have more impact when they come from a varietyof media. A multiple media campaign may also be preferred whendifferent messages are be delivered to different sub-groups in your
audiences. Multi-media campaign also have greater chances of access toa majority of the audience members.
2.7.6 Providing Channels forInformation-Seeking:Planners should also think methods by which interested audiencemembers can seek information. For example radio listening groups ortelevision viewing groups might be provided with recording equipment and
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audio cassettes, which they can use to record their questions, concernsand ideas for return to the radio station or sponsoring organization. Printand broadcast message can give detailed instructions about how readersListeners and viewers can get further information.
2.7.7 Involving People:
In planning, list all of the different people and organization that should beinformed and involved in the campaign, including community leaderspublic officials and media representatives. People concerned with thecampaign must be involved at all stages, in the planning, in the activitiesof the campaign, in evaluating results and in publishing the results.
QUESTION NO -4
What is evaluation? Explain the need of evaluation in DSC. Also
describe various steps involved in evaluating DSC Programmes.
2.1 WHAT IS EVALUATION?
Evaluation is the process directed to formulate judgment about the overall
operation of a project. Evaluation process involves gathering of data on whether
the components of a system are functioning according to the desires goals.
Evaluation some times refers to Quality control mechanism to ensure the
standards of quality in relation to intended goals, the scope, structure of the plan
and results of the operation are achieved on the right directions.
2.2 EVALUATION IN DSCEvaluation in Development Support Communication is a continuous and
systematic process of assessing the value or potentials of the developmental project.The process of evaluation in DSC includes developing criteria (to judge value of theprogramme from audience point of vie), collection of data relating to the criteria and theprovision of information given to the concerned publics.2.3 ELEMENTS OF EVALUATION:1. Evaluation is usually prompted by the need to make a decision about thedirection of activity.2. Evaluation is always based on certain criteria: For example, what is the criterion
that constitutes an entertaining radio programme for us.
3. Evaluation is made on observation or collection of evidence relating to thecriteria.
4. Evaluation involves judgement relating to the value or potential of value of theactivity.
2.4 REASONS FOR EVALUATION:
Evaluation can serve important public relations functions. The informationobtained from evaluation can be presented to other DSC practitioners and organizations
who are concerned about the effectiveness of the programme Evaluation
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provides feedback information to the people involved in the programme. Usuallygood feedback boosts up the morale of the staff.
2.5 TYPES OF EVALUATION:There are basically two types of evaluations. These are discussed below:
2.5.1 Informal Evaluation:
It is the one we always make without involving the rules of evaluation.It is unsystematic and evidences used in making judgements are implicit.Usually this type of evaluation is considered biased and misleading.
2.5.2 Formal Evaluation:Formal evaluation is made strictly on the set rules and regulations.Since it is more systematic, it could serve better in making usefuldecisions about the programme. Evaluation in DSC should always beformal. Formal evaluation has further two kinds, (A) formative and (B),summative evaluation. Taylor (1976, p. 355) provided the followingdefinitions of these two kinds of evaluations.
2.7 STEPS IN EVALUATION:
The following steps are usually involved in evaluation process.2.7.1 Evaluation Plan:
A detailed plan of activities to be undertaken in the process of evaluationis prepared before embarking on the journey. The plan identifies what,
why things have and how to be done. This will make things clear that : how toconduct the evaluation within the stipulated budget the plan will help getting inputof every one in the evaluation team and the existence of plan will also help tofocus the evaluation on questions of the target audiences.
2.7.2 Reasons For Evaluation:These reasons have already been mentioned in the forgoing pages. However,the evaluator should determine his priorities which reasons are most importantand focus the evaluation accordingly.
2.7.3 Audiences of Evaluation:The audiences for evaluation, may be the change agents, advisory councils,programme sponsors programme participants and the general public. Thesegroups of audiences are so varied because different audiences have differentconcerns about the programme.
2.7.4 The Criteria For Evaluation The Programme:Criteria are the yardsticks used to measure the merit or worth of a programme.For example, a ariterion for an extension programme may be the number ofwomen farmers who asopt a particular practice. If an evaluation indicated that thespecified number did, and adopt the practice, the programme can be considereda success as far as this criterion is concerned. For ex. Where programmeemphasis is on increasing the output of cash crops, an unintended outcomemaybe that land formerly used to grow food corps change to cash cropping land.
2.7.5 The Evaluation that will be available for Evaluation:Evidence consists of information related to a particular criterion.
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While deciding as to the type of evidence to be used, adjustment s will almostalways have to be
made between what is the best or ideal type and what it is possible to obtain.2.7.6 designs for Evaluation studies:
A variety of designs can be used in collecting evidence for evaluation studies.
Bennett (1977)provides a list of these in order of their potential ability to provide strong Scientificevidence of the degree to which observed change is produced through extensionprogrammes.A modified list of these designs is as follows:1. The Filed Experiment2. Matched Set Design3. Before-After Study4. The Survey5. The Case Study
The field experiment provides the strongest scientific evidence and the casestudy the weakest, for the purposes of evaluation. Some evaluation studies mayincorporate elements of several of the designs listed above. Generally, the firsttwo designs are hardly used in the regular conduct of evaluations, because theyare expensive and difficult to handle. The last three designs listed above will bedescribed briefly below:
QUESTION NO -5
Describe in detail the various problems being faced by Development
Support Communication in Pakistan.