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Vehicle Detection Using Normalized Color and
Edge Map
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92522084
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Abstract
In this thesis, a novel approach for detecting vehicles using color and edge
information from static images is presented. Different from traditional methods
which use motion features to detect vehicles, the proposed method introduces a new
color transform model to find important vehicle color for the quick finding of
possible vehicle candidates. Since vehicles have various colors under different
weather and lighting conditions, seldom works were proposed for the detection of
vehicles using colors. The proposed new color transform model has extremely
excellent capabilities in identifying vehicle pixels from background ones even
though the pixels are under varying illuminations.
After finding possible vehicle candidates, three important features including
corners, edge maps, and coefficients of wavelet transform are used for constructing a
cascade and multi-channel classifier. According to this classifier, an effective
scanning is performed to verify all possible candidates. The scanning can be
quickly achieved because most background pixels are eliminated by the color feature.
Experimental results show that the integration of global color feature and local edge
feature is powerful in the detection of vehicles. The average accuracy rate of
vehicle detection is 94.5%.
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(Moti o n
features)
corners(edge maps)
(multi-channel)
94.5
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CONTENT
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION................................................... ..................................................... 1
1.1MOTIVATION.....................................................................................................................1 1.2REVIEW OF RELATED WORKS .........................................................................................2
1.3OVERVIEW OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM ..........................................................................5
CHAPTER 2 CONVENTIONAL METHODS FOR DATA ANALYSIS ........................................ 7
2.1KARHUNEN-LOE`VE TRANSFORM ...................................................................................8
2.2BAYESIAN CLASSIFIER....................................................................................................10
2.3NEAREST NEIGHBOR CLUSTERINGALGORITHM .......................................................11
CHAPTER 3 VEHICLE COLOR DETECTOR ....................................................... .....................13
3.1COLOR FEATURES FOR DIMENSIONALITYREDUCTION................................................15
3.2PIXELS CLASSIFICATION USING BAYESIAN CLASSIFIER...............................................19
3.3PIXELS CLASSIFICATION USING NEURAL NETWORK....................................................20
3.4COLOR CLASSIFICATION RESULT..................................................................................25
CHAPTER 4 VEHICLE VERIFICATION..................... ................................................................ 27
4.1VEHICLE HYPOTHESIS ...................................................................................................27
4.2VEHICLE FEATURES .......................................................................................................28
4.2.1 Contour feature....................................................................................................28
4.2.2 Wavelet Coefficients .............................................................................................33
4.2.3 Corner Features ...................................................................................................36
4.3INTEGRATION AND SIMILARITY MEASUREMENT ..........................................................37
4.4VERIFICATION PROCEDURE...........................................................................................39
CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS................................................................ ...................42
5.1DATA SET ........................................................................................................................42
5.2PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PIXELS CLASSIFICATION ...............................................42 5.3DETECTION RESULT IN VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTS .......................................................44
CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS .............................................................. ........47
6.1DISCUSSIONS ..................................................................................................................47
6.2CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................47
REFERENCES................................................................ ............................................................ .........49
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List of Figures
Fig. 1 Details of the proposed vehicle detector...........................................................5
Fig. 2 Two-dimension data representation of ten-dimension data set.........................8
Fig. 3 Bayes classifier (adapted from Tou and Gonzlaez[1974]) .............................10
Fig. 4 Effect of the threshold and starting points in a simple cluster seeking scheme.
(Adapted from [23]).........................................................................................12
Fig. 5 Vehicle detection procedure. (a) Vehicle hypotheses generation. (b) Vehicle
verification. ....................................................................................................14
Fig. 6 Road color distribution and (u, v) feature plane. ............................................15
Fig. 7 Parts of vehicle training samples. (a) Vehicle training images. (b) Non-vehicle
training images...............................................................................................17
Fig. 8 Results of color transformations of background pixels. (a) Result of color
transformation using the (u, v) domain. (b) Result of color transformation
using the (s, t) domain.(c) Vehicle pixels plotting : result of color
transformation in the (u, v) domain................................................................18
Fig. 9 The basic perceptron model............................................................................21
Fig. 10 Vehicle color detection result. (a)~(b) Original images.(c)~(d) Color
classification result using Bayesian classifier. (e)~(f) Color classification
result using perceptron.................................................................................24Fig. 11 Another vehicle color classification results. Compared with another
images, (b) is duskier but can still perform well. (a)~(b) Original
images.(c)~(d) Color classification result using Bayesian classifier. (e)~(f)
Color classification result using perceptron ................................................26
Fig. 12 A 3x3 averaging mask often used for smoothing .........................................29
Fig. 13 2-D Gaussian distribution with mean (0,0) and =1 ....................................29
Fig. 14 Discrete approximation to Gaussian function with=1.4.............................30
Fig. 15 The Sobel mask in x-direction and y-direction. ...........................................31
Fig. 16 Edge detection by Canny operator................................................................31
Fig. 17 The value ofy is nonlinearly increased whenx increases. ...........................32
Fig. 18 Result of distance transform. (a) Original Image. (b) Distance....................33
Fig. 19 Block diagram of discrete wavelet transform...............................................34
Fig. 20 Wavelet decomposition of three scales.........................................................35
Fig. 21. Corner detection of vehicles (a)Vehicle contains many corners
(b)Comparison with background, vehicle contains more corners than
background thus corners features can be adapted as features......................37
Fig. 22. The cascade classifier used for vehicle detection........................................38
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Fig. 23. Image pyramid structure. Assume the original image size is 320*240,
processing the image at each resolution rescaling the original size with 0.8
ratios until pre-defined resolution is achieved.............................................39
Fig. 24 Red points represent the possible vehicle candidates with stronger responses.
These points should be clustered by nearest-neighbor algorithm. (a)
Original image (b) The white area denotes the region of possible vehicle
pixels............................................................................................................41
Fig. 25. Result of vehicle color detection. (a) Original image. (b) Detection
result of vehicle color...................................................................................44
Fig. 26. Result of vehicle color detection. (a) Original image. (b) Detection result
of vehicle color.............................................................................................44
Fig. 27. Result of vehicle detection in a parking lot .................................................45
Fig. 28. Result of vehicle detection in a parking lot with different orientation. .......45
Fig. 29. Result of vehicle detection on road. ............................................................46
Fig. 30. Result of detecting vehicles from highway. Although these vehicles were
with different colors, all of them were correctly detected. ..........................46
Fig. 31. Result of vehicle detection in road with occlusion......................................46
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CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
1.1 Motivation
Due to the development of the scientific and technological civilization, automobiles
have already become an indispensable tool in replacing walking in the modernized
society. The problem resulting from city civilization is the lacking of parking lot, i.e.,
fewer and fewer parking spaces are available especially in the city. It is difficult to
find vacant parking spaces within a short period, which results in the wasting of
precious resources and the problem of environmental pollution.
To fully utilize the precious space, it is a trend to construct the parking lot of every
building upwardly or down into underground in many floors. However, the supply
of the needing parking space still can not meet the urgent requirement comparing with
the speed of the fast growth of vehicles. If we can save the time in finding parking
space, the problems of fuel wasting, traffic violation, labor resource pending, and the
pollution of surrounding air can all be resolved even can improve the mobility of
transportation and the productivity economics. On the other hand, the problem of
traffic jam in city roads usually occurs in rush hour or vacation. Part of the reason is
due to the unawaring of road information, such as the information of nearby available
parking space. The detection of vehicles in parking lot can accurately provide the
information of available parking spaces. Hence, the providing of useful road
information to vehicle drivers may somewhat alleviate the traffic jam problem.
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Moreover, the accurate detection of vehicles is also indispensable to the
measurement of various traffic parameters, such as vehicle count, speed, flow, and
concentration.
Once a vehicle can be accurately tracked through a road network,
more complex traffic parameters, such as linked-travel-time, can be computed.
Therefore, vehicle detection is critical to traffic management systems and intelligence
transport systems for collision avoidance or traffic flow control.
In this thesis, we plan to develop an intelligent vehicle detection system based on
the techniques of computer vision with an eye to effectively managing the parking
spaces in the indoor/outdoor parking lots or along the roads.
1.2 Review of Related Works
Vehicle detection [1]-[2] is an important problem to be resolved in many related
applications, such as self-guided vehicles, driver assistance system, intelligent parking
system, and measurement of traffic parameters like vehicle count, speed, and flow.
One of the common approaches to vehicle detection is the using of vision-based
techniques to analyze vehicles from images or video sequences. However, due to the
variations of vehicle colors, sizes, orientations, shapes, and poses, the developing of a
robust and effective vision-based vehicle detection system is challenging. To
alleviate the above problems, different approaches using different features and
learning algorithms for locating vehicles have been investigated. For example, many
researchers [2]-[5] used background subtraction to extract motion features for
detecting moving vehicles from video sequences. However, this kind of motion
features is no longer usable in static images. To deal with static images, Wu et al. [6]
used wavelet transform to extract texture features for locating possible vehicle
candidates from roads. Then, each vehicle candidate is verified by using a PCA
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colors, sizes, and shapes changing, due to different viewing angles and lighting
conditions. All the variations will increase the difficulties and challenges in
selecting a general feature for describing vehicles. In this thesis, a novel vehicle
detection method using colors from still images is proposed. Once a general color
transform can be found to accurately capture the visual characteristics of vehicles
(even under different lighting conditions), color feature will become a very useful and
powerful cue to narrow down the search areas of possible vehicles. The main
contribution of this thesis is the presentation of a statistic linear color model that
makes vehicle colors be more compact in the specific feature space such that vehicles
pixels will be distributed sufficiently concentrating on a smaller area. The model is
leaned by observing how the vehicle colors change in static images under different
lighting conditions and cluttered backgrounds. The model is global and does not
need to be re-estimated for any new vehicle or new image. Without prior knowledge
of surface reflectance, weather condition, and view geometry in the training phase, the
model can still perform very well in separating vehicle pixels from background ones.
After that, three features including edge maps, corners, and wavelet coefficients are
devised to form a multi-channel classifier. The classifier is modeled using a Gaussian
model and can be automatically learned from a set of training examples. Since the
classifier records many vehicle appearance changes, it possesses good discriminative
properties in verifying the correctness of each vehicle candidate. Due to the usage of
color feature that can filter out most of background pixels in advance, only very few
candidates are still needed to be checked and thus the verification process can be
accomplished efficiently. Moreover, vehicle still can be detected successfully even
with occlusions because of the filtering effect and discriminative capabilities of the
proposed method. Experiments were conducted in various real cases and the
experimental results verify the superiority of the proposed method in detecting
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vehicles.
Fig. 1 Details of the proposed vehicle detector.
1.3 Overview of the Proposed System
A novel system using edges and colors from static images to detect vehicles is
presented in this thesis. The flowchart of the proposed system is shown in Fig. 1.
At the beginning, a specific color transformation is proposed to project all the colors
of input pixels on a new feature space such that vehicle pixels can be easily
distinguished from non-vehicle ones. Here, a Bayesian network is adopted for
identification.
Since vehicles have different sizes and orientations, different vehicle hypothesis are
generated from each detected vehicle. Three kinds of vehicle features including
edges, coefficients of wavelet transform, and corners are employed to eliminate
non-vehicle candidates. Using the proper weights obtained from training samples,
these features can be combined together to form an optimal vehicle classifier. Then,
vehicles candidates can be verified robustly and accurately from static images.
The rest of the thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 2 introduces three
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conventional methods for data analysis. The details of our proposed novel color
transform in finding vehicle colors are described in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses
the details of feature extraction and the proposed multi-channel classifier.
Experimental results are demonstrated in Chapter 5 to verify the validity of the
proposed method. Finally, conclusions are given in Chapter 6.
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CHAPTER 2
CONVENTIONAL MEHTODS FOR
DATA ANALYSIS
In this chapter, three conventional methods used for constructing the vehicle color
detector are firstly described including their basic theories, mathematical models, etc.
As we know, feature extraction, classification and clustering are significant issues that
were intensively discussed in pattern recognition. Feature extraction concentrates on
the looking of a subset that contains the critical information but can not destroy the
nature from the original vast data set. This subset can be utilized to replace the
original data set to avoid noise jamming. Dimensionality reduction is often
performed for feature extraction in reducing computational load. In addition, fewer
and critical features are remained in designing the classifier that decreases the
confused judgment. With the prior knowledge of the data distribution, Bayesian
classifier is adopted to separate the desired features from unconcerned ones and
clustering technique is employed to aggregate the critical features for recognition.
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Fig. 2 Two-dimension data representation of ten-dimension data set
2.1 Karhunen-Loe`ve Transform
Dimensionality reduction is a useful skill in pattern recognition. Too many features
lead to more computation load and create confusion such as to decreasing the
classifier performance. The main idea of Dimensionality reduction is selecting a
subset of feature from original data and generating the lower dimension data still
preserving distinguishing characteristics. That is to reduce the dimensionality of a
high dimensional data without significant loss in accuracy. In practice,
high-dimensional data are often loose without tight clusters. By projecting data onto
an appropriate lower-dimensional space (feature space), data clusters would have a
local structure that makes the close neighborhood meaningful.
Human beings can not realize the shape, density of the data in high dimension.
Projecting data into lower-dimension space makes data clusters easy to observe by
human eyes. Fig. 2 shows a 10D data set projecting into 2D space. Obviously, this
data set contains four clusters in high-dimensional space through projecting into 2D
plane.
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Karhunen-Loe`ve transform (K-L transform) is a well-know and widely used
technique for statistical analysis. It has various names, such as Principal component
analysis and Hotelling transform. This method usually was adopted in feature
extraction, data compression, image processingetc. K-L transform is a linear
projection from m-dimension space to n-dimension space (n m). It has to
compute a transformation matrix H which is constructed by the eigenvector of the
covariance matrix R. Suppose we have an input data set X = { nxxx ,...2,1 }, the
computation of the transformation matrix is as the following algorithm:
Step 1 : Let m denote the mean and C denote the covariance matrix
Step 2 : Compute the eigenvalues nddd ,...,, 21 and construct the associate
eigenvector ofC . Sort them as
Step 3 : form the matrix H = Tn ]...[ 2,1
After transformation, the covariance matrix of the feature becomes a diagonal
matrix. This matrix projects the input data into a subspace whose axes are in the
direction of the largest variation as follow:
Step 4 : NiforHxy ii ,...1==
=
=
=
=
n
i
T
ii
n
k
k
mxmxn
C
xn
m
1
1
))((1
1
n ...21
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Fig. 3 Bayes classifier (adapted from Tou and Gonzlaez[1974])
2.2 Bayesian classifier.
In statistical pattern recognition, we focus on how to developing decision or
classification strategies which form classifiers. The design of classifier attempts to
integrate all available information such as measurement of a priori probabilities of
data. Then, the classifier minimizes the total expected loss and using Bayes formula
as the optimum measure of performance. The class-conditional density function of
probability of a patternx, whenxbelongs to class iw , can be given as follow:
Kiwxp i ,...,2,1),/( =
All the class-conditional densities are completely know a prior, the decision
boundary between pattern classes can be established using the optimal Bayes decision
rules (as shown in Fig. 3)[24].
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By way of introduction, consider a vector x with Gaussian distribution, the
probability density function ofx is:
m and are mean and variance respectively. We can get the decision boundary
function is:
C is covariance matrices. The Bayes classifier assigns a patternx to class iw if
The detail derivate procedure can be found in [23].
2.3 Nearest Neighbor Clustering Algorithm
Clustering is a data analysis method for discovering patterns and underlying cluster
structures. Its also the formal study of algorithm and methods for grouping data.
It helps to exploring structure of the data and has many applications in engineering
and science. Unfortunately, theres no predominant method that is the best for
different data sets. Various kinds of methods such as Hierarchical clustering,
partitioning based k-means and Self Organizing map (SOM) are wildly used. The
K-means algorithm needs choosing the value k, the number of clusters, at initial step.
Then it divided the input data set into kdistinct cluster by minimizing the sum of the
distances between the input pattern and the each cluster center.
( ) ( )
[ ]MimxCmxCwpxd
ii
T
iiii
,...,2,1,2
1ln
2
1)(ln)( 1 ==
ijMjwpwxpwpwxp jjii => ,,....2,1),()/()()/(
=
2
2
1exp
*2
1)(
mxxP
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Fig. 4 Effect of the threshold and starting points in a simple cluster seeking scheme.(Adapted from [23])
Here, a simple Nearest Neighbor Clustering algorithm similar K-means without
initial value kis described below:
Step 1: set i = 1 and k = 1, assign pattern iX to cluster )1( =kCk
Step 2:i = i + 1. Find the nearest neighbor of iX and assign these patterns
to clusters. Let d denote the distance from iX to its nearest
neighbor.
Step 3: if d t (a pre-defined threshold), then assign iX to kC .
Otherwise, set k= k +1, and assign iX to a new cluster kC
Step4: if every pattern has been assigned to a cluster, stop. Else, go to
step2.
As shown in Fig. 4, the number of clusters kdepends on the parametert. As the
value of t increases, the fewer clusters are generated. The distance d is usually
measured as Euclidean distances.
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CHAPTER 3
VEHICLE COLOR DETECTOR
Like the skin color used for face representation, a new color transform is introduced
in this chapter for projecting all pixels with (R, G, B) colors to a new domain. Then,
a specific vehicle color can be found and defined for effective vehicle detection.
The notion or vehicle color will be briefly introduced in the forthcoming contexts.
Section 3.1 describes the derived procedure of the transformation formula and Section
3.2 presents the classification of vehicle color pixels using Bayesian classifier.
Section 3.3 presents the neural network technique used for classification. Finally,
section 3.4 shows the results of color classification.
As a gray car goes into the general gray road surface, human vision will perceive
that the colors of the two are very similar. That is the feature of color alone is not
enough in distinguishing the two in human eyes. However, the color of an object
can be represented in several different color spaces, such as RGB, HSV, etc., and the
observation of an objects color in images depends on incident light, reflectance of the
object, and viewing angle. In these feature spaces, vehicle color owns the different
and special characteristic to separate from the background even vehicles with various
colors. Thus, the distributions of road and vehicles color can belearned from
training samples. Once the distribution of vehicles color is evaluated precisely, the
difference between vehicles and background color pixels can be easily discriminated.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Vehicle detection procedure. (a) Vehicle hypotheses generation. (b) Vehicleverification.
In general, vehicle detection contains two major steps: vehicle hypothesis and
vehicle verification. In the first step, the location of a vehicle or more vehicles in an
image is generating as shown in Fig. 5(a). Without extra information about vehicle
positions, a time-consuming scanning is performed from left to right, up to down in
the input image. Exhaustive search is the simplest method to verify by testing all
pixels in images and check all of them whether vehicles exist or not. Too many
vehicle hypotheses make the following verification step needing enormous
computation times. In the past, most papers focus on improving the performance of
verification steps but selecting an exhaustive search. Therefore, this paper provides
an efficient method which can quickly find possible vehicle positions reducing the
numbers of vehicle hypothesizes and decreasing the computation time without a full
search.
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Fig. 6 Road color distribution and (u, v) feature plane.
3.1 Color Features for Dimensionality Reduction
In this section, a detail description about what we called vehicle color is given.
Assume that there are N images collected from roads, highways and parking places.
Through a statistic analysis, we can get the covariance matrix of the color
distributions ofR, G, andB fromNimages. Using the Karhunen-Loe`ve transform,
the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of can be further obtained and represented as ie
and i , respectively, for i = 1, 2, and 3. Then, three new color features iC can be
formed and defined, respectively,
for =1, 2, and 3,= + +r g b
i i i iC e R e G e B i (1)
where ( , , )= r g bi i i ie e e e . The analysis of Ohta et al[1] indicated the color feature 1C
with the largest eigenvalue is the one used for color-to-gray transform, i.e.,
1
1 1 1
3 3 3= + +C R G B . (2)
Other two color features 2C and 3C are orthogonal to 1C and can be obtained,
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respectively, as follows:
2
R -
2=
BC and
3
2 - -
4=
G R BC . (3)
All the color features can be obtained by projected a pixel color (R, G,B) with the
vectors (1/3, 1/3, 1/3), (1/2, 0, -1/2), and (-1/4, 1/2, -1/4) respectively. In [17],
Healey pointed out that the colors of homogeneous dielectric surfaces (like roads or
clouds) moved along the axis directed by Eq.(2), i.e., (1/3, 1/3, 1/3). That means the
colors of homogeneous dielectric surfaces have no changes as time passes except
intensity strength. Compared with other metal surfaces, road surface are more easily
modeled. Fig. 6 indicates a RGB color space and the color of road surface
distribution are represented as red points. In [14], Rojas et al. also found that the
colors of roads concentrated around a small cylinder along the axis directed by Eq. (2).
Therefore, projecting all the road colors to a plane which is perpendicular to the axis
pointed by 1C , all the road colors concentrate around a small circle [14]. Once
feature vectors of color distribution of the object are founded, the object color
distribution would form a specific cluster in the feature space by feature projection.
Based on this observation, this paper proposed a new color model to transform all
color pixels on a 2D feature space. On this feature space, all vehicle color pixels
concentrated on a smaller area. By modeling the characteristics of this area, a
Bayesian classifier is developed to accurately identify vehicle pixels from background
ones.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Parts of vehicle training samples. (a) Vehicle training images. (b) Non-vehicletraining images.
At the beginning, thousands of training images are collected from different scenes
including roads, parking lots, building, and natural scenes. Fig. 7 shows some parts
of out training samples. Based on the training samples, using theKL transform, we
found that the eigenvector with the largest eigenvalue of this data set is (1/3, 1/3, 1/3)
(the same as in Eq. (2)). In addition, the color plane ( , )u v perpendicular to the axis
(1/3, 1/3, 1/3) expanded by other two eigenvectors is:
2 p p pp
p
Z G Bu
Z
= and { , }p p p pp
p p
Z G Z Bv Max
Z Z
= , (4)
where ( pR , pG , Bp ) is the color of a pixel p and ( )/3p p p pZ R G B= + + used for
normalization. The color transformation described in Eq.(4) concentrates all vehicle
pixels on a smaller area. There are also other color planes perpendicular to the axis
(1/3, 1/3, 1/3). For example, another color plane (s, t) perpendicular to the axis (1/3,
1/3, 1/3) can be found, i.e.,
-
p p
p
p
R Bs
Z
= and- +2 -p p p
p
p
R G Bt
Z
= . (5)
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 8 Results of color transformations of background pixels. (a) Result of colortransformation using the (u, v) domain. (b) Result of color transformation using the (s,t) domain.(c) Vehicle pixels plotting : result of color transformation in the (u, v)domain
Plotting all background pixels of training images on the (u, v) and (s, t) planes
using Eq.(4) and Eq.(5), respectively, are 8.85384 and 40.1879, respectively. Fig. 8
shows the result of color transform. Clearly, the transformation described in Eq.(4)
makes background pixels more compact than the one in Eq.(5).
The feature space ( , )u v has better discrimination abilities to concentrate the
vehicle pixels forming a compact cluster with variance 13.2794. It makes us easy to
separate vehicle pixels from background ones. Using this color transformation, the
critical issue becomes a 2-class separating problem in the (u, v) feature space. With
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an input image, the color transformation is performed to project all pixels of input
image into a 2D space. Then, How to find a decision boundary to distinguish these
pixels into two different classes (i.e., vehicles vs. non-vehicles) will be described in
the next section.
3.2 Pixels Classification Using Bayesian Classifier
After transformation, a Bayesian classifier should be designed to accurately identify
vehicle pixels from background ones with colors. We assume that the RGB color
component in the (u, v) color domain are multivariate Gaussian distribution.
Assume vm and nm are the mean of the vehicle and non-vehicle pixels calculated
from collected training images in the (u, v) color domain, respectively. In addition,
v and n are their corresponding covariance matrices in the same color domain
respectively, which yields
t
vux
vvv
vux
v
mxImxIn
xIn
m
=
=
),(
),(
))()()((1
)(1
where n is the total training images. The probability of the point x belongs to
vehicle class is:
1( | ) exp(- ( ))
2v
v
p x vehicle d x
=
, (6)
where ( ) ( )11
( )2
t
v v v vd x x m x m= . Similarly, the probability of pointx
belonging to a non-vehicle class is defined as follows:
1( | - ) exp(- ( ))2
n
np x non vehicle d x= , (7)
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where ( ) ( )11
( )2
t
n n n nd x x m x m= . If a pointxbelongs to vehicle class, the
probability of a pixelx satisfy:
( ) ( )| - |p vehicle x p non vehicle x> , (8)
With the Bayesian rule, Eq.(8) can be rewritten as follows:
( ) ( )| ( le) | - ( - )p x vehicle P vehic p x non vehicle P non vehicle> , (9)
where ( le)P vehic and (non- le)P vehic are the priori class probabilities of vehicle
pixels and non-vehicle ones, respectively. Plugging Eqs. (6) and (7) into Eq.(9),
we can get:
( | ) ( - )exp(- ( ) ( ))
( - | ) | | ( )
n
v n
v
p vehicle x P non vehicled x d x
p non vehicle x P vehicle
= + >
. (10)
Taking the log form of Eq.(10), we have the following classification rule:
Assign a pixelx to class vehicle if
( ) - ( )>n vd x d x , (11)
where = v
n
( - )log[ ]
| | ( )
P non vehicle
P vehicle
. In this way, we can get a binary image that
denotes the vehicle pixels extraction result.
3.3Pixels Classification Using Neural Network
Learning is an extremely important characteristic of the biological or artificial system
full of wisdom and can be divided into two styles: learning from examples orlearning from observation and discovery. The former is supervised learning and the
later is unsupervised learning. This section describes how to use neural network
method to classify vehicle pixels from background ones.
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Fig. 9 The basic perceptron model
The operation of neural network can be divided into two stages: learning and recall.
In the learning stage, network learns from input data using different study rules. In
each repeated training recurrences, network adjusts the weight values in order to reach
the study and recall effects. The results of learning lies in the change of the network
weight values
In this section, a neural network model called perceptron is used for pixels
classification. The basic architecture of perceptron is shown in Fig. 9. The model
contains three layers which are called input layer, hidden layer and output layer,
respectively. Basic components of perceptron are accumulators which combine each
input pattern linearly with some proper weights. Let R denotes the response
activated by the thi neuron and iw is its corresponding weight. The total response is
given by:
xwxwR j
n
j
i
'
1
== =
Input layer Hidden Layer Output layer
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Then, the response are forwarded into a hard limiter or threshold function f(v). In
general, the responds of a neuron are positive causing the output of hard limiter
function 1, otherwise, the negative responds makes the output 0.f(v) can be described
as the following form:
In section 3.1, we used the equation 5 to transform training images containing
vehicle and non-vehicle pixels into (u, v) domain. Here, we plus a label of each
pattern transformed of the two classes (i.e., vehicle is 1 and non-vehicle is -1).
Assume we have n examples from two classes
}1,1{),,(...1,),( += iiii yvuxniyx
If we want to classify all input patterns into two classes, the discriminate
hyper-plane is defined as:
= =
k
n
k
kxwxf1
)(
Letx denotes ),( ii yx and is the threshold of hard limit function pre-defined.
If 0)( >xf , we say that the pattern belongs to class 1 ; if 0)(
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Step 2: Calculating the output of the network.
Assume input pattern isx(n) , n denotes the thn recurrence. The outputs
of neuron are:
Step 3: Adjust ninw i ...1,)( = according to the following rules:
Step 4: n=n+1, go tostep 2until the network converges or learning recurrences n
exceed some pre-defined values.
)]()(sgn[)( nxnwnyT
=
+=
01
01)sgn(
vif
vifv
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig. 10 Vehicle color detection result. (a)~(b) Original images.(c)~(d) Colorclassification result using Bayesian classifier. (e)~(f) Color classification result using
perceptron
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3.4 Color Classification Result
This section gives some illustration examples to present the effect about color
classification. The results of color classification are given in two ways which are
described in section 3.2 and 3.3. We plot the vehicle pixels with red color and
preserve the original image for comparison. Fig. 10(a) are shot at high way. It is
noticed that the color of vehicle and road surface are both very similar to gray color.
With the view of the human eye, these two kinds of color are very close to a certain
extent. However, these two kinds of color own different property in our experiment
after color classification. The road pixels with similar gray color are rejected and
vehicle pixels passed which drawn with red color. Fig. 10(c)and (e) demonstrate our
argument. In Fig. 10(b), two vehicles are occlusive by trees but there is no miss by
the power of color classification which has shown in Fig. 10(d) and (f).
In fact, color classification process is a supervised learning. There is no guarantee
which kinds of methods are the best. There are many techniques can achieve this
goal such as Support Vector Machine (SVM), Radial basis function network
(RBF)etc. In this paper, we only give two methods including Bayesian and
perceptron to fulfill color classification. Other experimental results are given in Fig.
11 that vehicles are shot at short range. The experimental results proved that the
proposed method is robust dealing with large variety color changes including different
viewing angle, vehicle colors and lighting conditions. Fig. 11(b) was captured at
dusky lighting situation and the color classification still performs well.
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig. 11 Another vehicle color classification results. Compared with another images,(b) is duskier but can still perform well. (a)~(b) Original images.(c)~(d) Colorclassification result using Bayesian classifier. (e)~(f) Color classification resultusing perceptron .
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CHAPTER 4
VEHICLE VERIFICATION
In the previous chapter, a novel color model and classifiers (Bayesian and neural
network) were presented to extract vehicle pixels by using colors from static images.
After that, different vehicle hypothesizes are generated to tackle the variations of
vehicle appearances. Then, a verification process is applied to verify whether there
exists a vehicle in the scene or not.
4.1 Vehicle Hypothesis
Here, a vehicle hypothesis ( )IsH X is a sub-image extracted from a static image I
with the size s sw h and the centerX. The minimum size of detected vehicles used
in this paper is assumed to be36 36 . We build a set of classesi
C of vehicle
templates to verify the correctness of ( )IsH X estimating its maximum response at
different orientations. Herei
C is a collection of different vehicle templates whose
orientations are at the same anglei
. The maximum response is defined as the
maximum similarity between ( )IsH X and all vehicle templates.
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4.2 Vehicle Features
In this thesis, three features including vehicle contour, wavelet coefficients and
corners are used to measure the similarity. In what follows, details of each feature
are introduced.
4.2.1 Contour feature
Contour is a good feature to describe vehicles shapes and usually represented by
chain coding. However, chain coding is easily affected by noise. Therefore, this
paper uses a distance transform to convert an object contour to a distance map
different from chain coding. Based on this map, different vehicle hypothesis can be
well discriminated.
4.2.1.1 Edge extraction
Edge detecting is a fundamental technique in image processing. Edges in images are
areas with strong intensity and characterize the objects boundaries. Successful edge
detection filters out most useless information such as noise but preserving the
significant structure in images. The first step before detecting edges is to filter out
noise in the original image by Gaussian smoothing.
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Fig. 14 Discrete approximation to Gaussian function with=1.4
If the image I(x, y) with size M*N and the kernel mask K (k, l) with size m*n,
mathematically, we write the convolution as:
= =
++=m
k
n
l
lkKlykxIyxO1 1
),()1,1(),(
The Gaussian smoothing operator is also a 2D convolution operator similar to
median filter which uses a different kernel that represents the shape of a Gaussian
distribution. 2D Gaussian has the form:
2
22
22
exp2
1),(
yx
yxG
+
=
The 2-D Gaussian distribution with mean (0,0) and =1 is shown in Fig. 13. The
Gaussian filter can be created by the user in terms of mask size and standard deviation
. In practice, a discrete approximation to the Gaussian function should becalculated. Then, the filtering process is a convolution by the filter mask and the
image. Fig. 14 shows a suitable integer Gaussian mask that approximates a
Gaussian distribution with a =1.4.
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Fig. 15 The Sobel mask in x-direction and y-direction.
Fig. 16 Edge detection by Canny operator.
After smoothing the image and eliminating the noise, the second step is to compute
the gradient of the image. Here, the Sobel operator is used for estimating the
gradient in the x-direction and y-direction according to Fig. 15. Then, the magnitude
of edge gradient can be approximated by the following formula:
|||||| yx GGG +=
Finally, Canny method are performed to get more precise edges including non-
maximum suppression thinning the edges and linking edges segments using two
thresholds. Fig. 16 shows some examples of our training vehicle images using
Canny method.
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Fig. 17 The value ofy is nonlinearly increased whenx increases.
4.2.1.2 Distance transform
After getting the binary edge image, a 33 mask is used to detect all boundary points
from a vehicle image. When this mask is used and moved at a non-zero pixelp, if
one pixel in this mask is zero, thenp is a boundary pixel. Assume that VB is a set
of boundary pixels extracted from a vehicle V. Then, the distance transform of a
pixelp in Vis defined as
( ) min ( , )V
Vq B
DT p d p q
= , (12)
where ( , )d p q is the Euclidian distance betweenp and q. Eq.(12) is further modified
to enhance the strength of distance changes as follows
( ) min ( , ) exp( ( , ))V
Vq B
DT p d p q d p q
= , (13)
where 0.1 = . Like Fig. 17, when x increases more, the value ofy will increase
more rapidly thanx. Fig. 18(b) shows the result of the distance transform of Fig. 18
(a). Thus, according to Eq.(13), a set ( )CF V of contour features can be extracted
from a vehicle V. Scanning all pixels of V in a row major order, ( )CF V can be
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then represented as a row vector, i.e.,
0( ) [ ( ),...., ( ),....]V VC iF V DT p DT p= , (14)
where all ip belong to V and i is the scanning index.
(a) (b)
Fig. 18 Result of distance transform. (a) Original Image. (b) Distancetransform of (a).
4.2.2 Wavelet Coefficients
Wavelet transform is a very useful tool to represent images at different resolutions.
It has been successfully applied in many applications like compression, watermarking,
texture analysis, communications, and so on. The wavelet transform uses two kinds
of filers to decompose a signal into different resolutions, i.e., the low-pass filter ( )h k
and the high-pass one ( )g k . Then, given a discrete signalf(n) (assumed at the fine
resolution j=0 and represented as 0 ( )S f n ), with the low-pass filter ( )h k , the
approximation off(n) at lower resolutionj-1 can be calculated as follows:
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1 ( ) ( ) ( 2 )j jk
S f n S f k h k n
=
= . (15)
ng(k)
h(k) 2
2 Wj-1f(n)
Sj-1f(n)
(a)
f(m,n)
h[k] 2 LL
HH
LH
HL
H
L
2
2
2
h[k]
g[k]
g[k]
2g[k]
2h[k]
(b)
Fig. 19 Block diagram of discrete wavelet transform.
(a) 1D Wavelet transform. (b) 2D Wavelet transform.
In addition, information lost between ( )jS f n and 1 ( )jS f n can be obtained using
the high-pass filter ( )g k as follows
1( ) ( ) ( 2 )j j
k
W f n S f k g k n
=
= . (16)
From the view of signal processing,1
( )j
S f n
and1
( )j
W f n
are, respectively, the
components of low frequency and high frequency of ( )jS f n . The above procedure,
which is also known as the sub-band coding, can be repeatedly performed. Fig. 19(a)
shows the diagram of 1D wavelet transform. The 1D wavelet transform can be
easily extended to two dimensions. The simplest way to generate 2D wavelet
transform is to apply two 1D transforms to the rows and columns of a 2D signal f(m,
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n), respectively. Fig. 19(b) shows the block diagram of 2D wavelet
Fig. 20 Wavelet decomposition of three scales
transform. Given f(m, n), convolving its rows with ( )h k and ( )g k , we get two
sub-images whose horizontal resolutions are reduced by a factor 2. Both sub-images
are then filtered columnwise and down-sampled to yield four quarter-size output
subimages.
The filters ( )h k and ( )g k we use are the D4 family of Daubechess basis, i.e.,
{h(0), h(1), h(2), h(3)}=1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
{ , , , }4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
+ + and { g(0), g(1), g(2), g(3)}
= {h(3), -h(2), h(1), -h(0)}. In this paper, a three-scale wavelet transform is used to
process all vehicle images. Then, each wavelet coefficient is quantized to three
levels, i.e., 1, 0, -1, if its value is larger than 0, equal to 0, and less than 0, respectively.
After that, all the quantized coefficients are recorded for further recognition. As
shown in Fig. 20, when recording, each wavelet coefficient is further classified into
different bands, i.e.,LL,LH,HL, andHH. According to this classification, a pixelp
is labeled as 1, 2, 2, and 4 if it locates in the LL, LH, HL, HHbands, respectively.
Let ( )l p denote the labeling vale ofp. Then, given a vehicle V, from its wavelet
coefficients, we can extract a set ( )WF V of WT features. Scanning V in a row-major
order, ( )WF V can be further represented as a row vector, i.e.,
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0 0( ) [ ( ) ( ),...., ( ) ( ),....]W W
W V i V iF V l p Coeff p l p Coeff p= , (17)
where all ip belong to V and i is the scanning index.
4.2.3 Corner Features
Corner is another type of image features like edge. Corner means interesting points
of the object which have stable invariance property even suffers noise, rotation,
compression, and scale or illumination variation. They are often used in image
alignment (homography, fundamental matrix), motion tracking, and image retrieval.
Corner happens in image intensity which has significant change in all directions, yet
edge has no change along the edge direction.
The Harris corner detector is a popular one using the locally averaged moment
matrix M computed from the image gradients:
=
yx yyx
yxx
III
IIIyxwM
,2
2
),(
where w(x, y) means a window function, Ix and Iy means the first derivative of
image inx andy direction respectively. Then, combines the eigenvalues( 1 and 2 )
of M, which describes the intensity structure of local image, to measure of corner
responseR:
21
21
2
*det
)(det
+=
=
=
Mtrace
M
MtracekMR
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where kis empirical constant, k= 0.04~0.06. The maximum value, larger than a
threshold, indicates the corners position. To avoid corners due to image noise, a
Gaussian filter can be used to smooth the image firstly.
(a) (b)
Fig. 21. Corner detection of vehicles (a)Vehicle contains many corners(b)Comparison with background, vehicle contains more corners than background thuscorners features can be adapted as features.
Vehicles contain strong edges and lines with different orientation and scales. The
corners happen in areas of cross lines. In Fig. 21, we present the results of the corner
detector in two vehicle images. Obviously, the area with vehicles often contains
many corners than background.
4.3 Integration and Similarity Measurement
In Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, two features have been illustrated to describe the visual
characteristics of a vehicle template V. We are now able to integrate these two
features together for computing the similarity between ( )IsH X and V. Given V,
based on Eqs. (14) and (17), we can extract two feature vectors ( )CF V and
( )WF V from its contour and wavelet transform, respectively. For convince, we
combine these two features together to form a new feature vector ( )F V , i.e.,
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( ) [ ( ), ( )]C WF V F V F V = . For a vehicle class iC , if there are iN templates in iC ,
we can calculate its meani
and variancei
of ( )F V from all samples V in
iC . Then, given a vehicle hypothesisH, the similarly between Hand iC can be
measured by this equation:
-1( , ) exp(-( - ) ( - ) )i i i i
t
H HS H C F F = , (18)
where tmeans the transpose of a vector. Therefore, given a position X, its vehicle
response can be defined as follows
,( ) max ( ( ), )
ii
I
ss
R X S H X C
= . (19)
When calculating Eq.(19), the parameter i can be further eliminated if the direction
of the hypothesis ( )Is
H X is known in advance. In [18], a good moment-based
method is provided for estimating the orientation of the longest axis of a region. If
( )Is X is denoted the orientation of ( )
I
sH X , Eq.(19) can be then rewritten
( )( ) max ( ( ), )I
s
I
s XsR X S H X C
= . (20)
Fig. 22. The cascade classifier used for vehicle detection
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Fig. 23. Image pyramid structure. Assume the original image size is 320*240,processing the image at each resolution rescaling the original size with 0.8 ratios untilpre-defined resolution is achieved.
4.4 Verification Procedure
This section describes the method constructing a cascade classifier that improves
detection performance and reduces the computation time. We follow the idea from
Viola and Jones [19] to construct a simple cascade classifier. The classifiers are
connected in cascade to create a pipeline structure. In general, a classifier with low
threshold causes higher detection rates and higher false positive rates. Once many
features can be utilized, a progressive classifier should be designed.
As shown in Fig. 22, corner features formed a simple classifier which is used to
eliminate the almost impossible candidates though some false candidates survive.
The threshold of the corner classifier can be adjusted such that the detection rate is
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close to 100%. In the second step, edge maps and Wavelet coefficients are combined
to form more complex classifiers to achieve low false positive rates. Thus, we
prevent to verify most candidates with all features and save a large number of
computation times. The negative candidates in any classifier are rejected and the
survivals get into the subsequent classifiers. Subsequent classifiers eliminate
additional negatives but require additional edges and wavelet features. Finally a real
vehicle is determined through the cascade classifier.
In real implementation, we borrow a well-known pyramid technique from face
detection methodologies [19]-[21] to speed up the calculation of Eq.(20). This
technique constructs a pyramid structure (see Fig. 23) of image by gradually resizing
the input image. For a vehicle pixel X at the full resolution, its corresponding
vehicle hypothesis ( )IsH X will be generated at the pyramid level s. Then, ( )R X
can be found by searching the optimal value of( )
( ( ), )Is
I
s XS H X C
across each
pyramid level. Two thresholds are used to remove spurious responses and to declare
whether a vehicle is detected at the position X. Let R be the average value of
( )R X for all the centersXof the training vehicle samples. For a vehicle pixelX, if
its response ( )R X is larger than 0.8 R , it is considered a vehicle candidate. In
addition to R , another threshold C (threshold of corners) is used to remove false
detections of vehicles. IfXcontains a real vehicle, the number of corners around X
should be larger thanC
. The parameters R and-1
i (the weight used in
Eq.(18)) can also be learned using the AdaBoost algorithm [22] for increasing the
accuracy of vehicle verification.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 24 Red points represent the possible vehicle candidates with stronger responses.These points should be clustered by nearest-neighbor algorithm. (a) Original image(b) The white area denotes the region of possible vehicle pixels.
From experimental results, we can find that the above verification scheme performs
well enough in detecting all reveal vehicles. Finally, due to noise or shadows, there
would be many vehicle candidates which are overlapped together. These candidates
should be eliminated if they are inside other stronger candidates. Once an image
conations many vehicles and they parks very closely to each other, location of a
vehicle position is starting when the verification procedure is completed. A real
vehicle position may contain more than one vehicle pixel that has the stronger
respones. As shown in Fig. 24, these candidates are performed nearest-neighbor
algorithm for locating the best position of vehicles or separating the two vehicles that
are very close to each other.
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CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
5.1 Data Set
To ensure our proposed method works well under large varieties of the data, training
examples were collected in different days, different weather conditions, and different
viewing angles. Especially, vehicle training examples are collected in different
orientations and various colors where vehicle parks on road, high way, and parking lot,
etc. The images used in our vehicle detection system were collected in the campus
of National Central University and Zong-shan high way during different seasons.
Highway images were captured in the summer of 2002 and the others were captured
from the summer of 2003 until the spring of 2004.
5.2 Performance Analysis of Pixels Classification
The dimension of training vehicles is clipped into the size of 3636. To tackle the
variations of vehicle orientation, eight classes of vehicles with different orientations
were collected in training samples. In order to analyze the robustness and
effectiveness of the proposed method, several experiments under different conditions
were demonstrated in this paper. The first experiment was conducted to evaluate the
performance of our vehicle-color detection method. Fig. 25 shows the result of
detecting vehicle colors using Eq.(11). (a) is the original image and (b) the result
obtained from (a). To evaluate and measure the performances of our proposed
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method to detect vehicle colors, the precision and false-alarm rates are defined.
Precision is the ratio of the number of correctly detected vehicle pixels to the number
of exactly existing vehicle pixels. False alarm rate is the ratio of the number of
background pixels but misclassified as vehicles to the number of all background
pixels. These two measures are defined as:
Precision = Cvehicle / Nvehicle and
Rate of False-Alarm = Fvehicle / Nbackground-pixels,
whereNvehicle is the total number of vehicle pixels, Cvehicle the number of correctly
detected vehicle pixels, Nbackground-pixels the number of all background pixels, and
Fvehicle the number of background pixels but misclassified as vehicle ones. When
calculating these two measures, the ground truth of vehicle pixels was manually
obtained. In Fig. 25 (a) and (b), the precision rate and false-alarm rate of vehicle
pixel detection were 86.1% and 6.3%, respectively. The lower false-alarm rate
implied that most of background pixels were filtered out and didnt need to be further
verified. Thus, many redundant searches can be avoided in advance and the
verification process can be significantly speeded up to find desired vehicles. It is
noticed that none of vehicle candidates was missed at this stage of vehicle hypothesis
generation. Fig. 26 shows another result of vehicle color detection. The precision
rate and false-alarm rate of vehicle pixel detection are 89.9% and 2.1%, respectively.
All of possible vehicle candidates were also correctly extracted.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 25. Result of vehicle color detection. (a) Original image. (b) Detection result
of vehicle color.
(a) (b)
Fig. 26. Result of vehicle color detection. (a) Original image. (b) Detection result ofvehicle color.
5.3 Detection Result in Various Environments
Some detection examples are given in this section. All testing images are collected
outdoor under different lighting and weather conditions even vehicles contain various
sizes, shapes and orientation. Although these vehicles have different colors, all of
them were correctly detected and located. Fig. 27 shows result of vehicle detection
in the parking lot. The proposed method is suitable for constructing a parking space
display system. This system can provide drivers real-time and accurate information
of free parking space.
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Fig. 27. Result of vehicle detection in a parking lot
Fig. 28. Result of vehicle detection in a parking lot with different orientation.
Fig. 28 shows another result of vehicle detection when vehicles pose with another
orientation. Fig. 29 shows result of vehicle detection when vehicles driven on road.
Fig. 30 shows two results of vehicle detection when vehicles were driven on highways.
This technique can also be used for counting numbers of vehicle in duration to
estimate the traffic flow. Fig. 31 shows another result of vehicle detection on road.
It is noticed that although vehicles were occluded by a tree, they still were correctly
detected. The average processing time is 0.54 ~ 0.72 seconds per image depending
on vehicle numbers. The average accuracy rate of vehicle detection using the
proposed algorithm is 94.5% and the false alarm rate is 3.2%.
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Fig. 29. Result of vehicle detection on road.
Fig. 30. Result of detecting vehicles from highway. Although these vehicles werewith different colors, all of them were correctly detected.
Fig. 31. Result of vehicle detection in road with occlusion.
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CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Discussions
In this section, a brief discussion will be addressed about the proposed color model.
Although the experimental results demonstrate satisfactory results of color
classification, some false alarms still exist. They may be resulted from the following
two reasons.
1. The fraction of the proposed color model is calculated and generated by K-Ltransform. In fact, the eigenvector of each eigenvalue is floating points
represented as the coefficient of R, G, and B components. For convenience
sake, we take them to be nearly an integer. The accuracy will be more or less
lost in this part to a certain extent.
2. The training set is made up of two groups (i.e., vehicle and non-vehicle). The performance of the Bayesian classifier is heavily influenced by the collected
training set. Some erroneous judgments are due to the lack of representative
non-vehicle training set. The choosing of good non-vehicle examples will
efficiently decrease the false classification.
6.2 Conclusions
In this thesis, a novel vehicle detection method is presented to detect various vehicles
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from static images. Firstly, a novel color projection method is presented. All
pixels of the input image are projected onto a 2D feature space such that vehicle
pixels form a compact cluster and can thus be easily identified from background ones.
Many redundant vehicle candidates are eliminated in advance using the Bayesian
classifier.
Then, three features including corners, edge maps, and wavelet coefficients are
employed to form a cascade and multi-channel classifier. The correctness of each
vehicle hypothesis can be effectively calculated even with different sizes and
orientations. Since the classifier can well record different changes of vehicle
appearances, real vehicles can be accurately detected from static images. The
contributions of this thesis can be summarized as follows:
(a)A novel color model is proposed to identify vehicle colors pixels from background ones. This identification procedure eliminates most impossible
candidates before the performing of vehicle verification. Different from
other methods [6]-[7] which need an exhaustive search to find possible
vehicles candidates, the proposed method detects vehicles more quickly and
efficiently.
(b) A cascade and multi-channel classifier is proposed to verify each vehicle
hypothesis. According to this classier, an effective scan is performed to
verify all vehicle candidates from static images even though they have
different sizes and orientations.
The proposed method is robust in dealing with various outdoor images containing
different weather and lighting conditions. Experimental results demonstrate the
superiority of our proposed method in vehicle detection.
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