9–2 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in...

© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

9–2

Chapter Learning ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter you should be able to:

1. Explain the nature of the individual–organization relationship.

2. Define personality and describe personality attributes that affect behavior in organizations.

3. Discuss individual attitudes in organizations and how they affect behavior.

4. Describe basic perceptual processes and the role of attributions in organizations.

5. Discuss the causes and consequences of stress and describe how it can be managed.

6. Describe creativity and its role in organizations.

7. Explain how workplace behaviors can directly or indirectly influence organizational effectiveness.


Individual Contributions

Understanding Individuals in Organizations

• The Psychological Contract–The overall set of expectations held by an individual

with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.

The Psychological Contract

Organizational Inducements

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FIGURE 9.1 The Psychological Contract


Understanding Individuals in Organizations

• The Person-Job Fit–The extent to which the contributions made by the

individual match the inducement offered by the organization.

• Each employee has a specific set of needs to be fulfilled and a set of job-related behaviors to contribute.

• The degree to which the organization can take advantage of those behaviors and, in turn, fulfill an employee’s needs will determine the level of person-job fit.

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Personality and Individual Behavior

• Personality–The relatively stable set of psychological and

behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Extroversion

Openness

Negative EmotionalityThe “Big Five”

Personality Traits

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FIGURE 9.2 The “Big Five” Model of Personality

High agreeableness Low agreeableness

Agreeableness

High conscientiousness Low conscientiousness

Conscientiousness

Less negative emotionality More negative emotionality

Negative Emotionality

More extraversion More introversion

Extraversion

More openness Less openness

Openness


The “Big Five” Personality Traits

• Agreeableness– A person’s ability to get along with others.

• Conscientiousness– The number of goals on which a person focuses.

• Negative emotionality– The extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and

secure.

• Extraversion– A person’s comfort level with relationships.

• Openness– A person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

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The Myers-Briggs Framework

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– A questionnaire used to differentiate personalities on

the dimensions of the MB framework– Useful to determine communication styles and

interaction preferences; has questionable reliability and validity.

• Personality Types– Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I)– Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N)– Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)– Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)

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Personality Traits

Machiavellianism

Self-Esteem

Risk propensity

PersonalityTraits at Work

Locus of control

Self-efficacy

Authoritarianism

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Personality Traits at Work

• Locus of Control–The extent to which people believe that their behavior

has a real effect on what happens to them.–Internal locus of control—individuals who believe

they are in control of their lives.–External locus of control—individuals believe that

external forces dictate what happens to them.

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Personality Traits at Work (cont’d)

• Self-Efficacy–A person’s belief about his or her capabilities to

perform a task. –High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform

well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform.

• Authoritarianism–The extent to which an individual believes that power

and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.

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Personality Traits at Work (cont’d)

• Machiavellianism–Individual behavior directed at gaining power and

controlling the behavior of others.

• Self-Esteem–The extent to which a person believes she/he is a

worthwhile individual.

• Risk Propensity–The degree to which an individual is willing to take

chances and make risky decisions.

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Emotional Intelligence

• Emotional Intelligence (EQ)–The extent to which people are self-aware, can

manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy, and possess social skills.

Self-awareness

Managing Emotions

Empathy

Social skills

Motivating oneselfDimensions

of EQ

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Attitudes and Individual Behavior

• Attitudes–Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have

about specific ideas, situations, or other people.

• Cognitive Dissonance–The mental discomfort that individuals experience

when their own attitudes are in conflict with their intended behavior.

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Attitudinal Components

Cognitive Component

Why we feel that way

Affective Component

How we feel toward the situation

IntentionalComponent

How we intend to behave toward or

in the situation

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Work-Related Attitudes

• Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction–An attitude that reflects the extent to which an

individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work.

• Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors–Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and

organizational factors.• Satisfied employees are absent from work less often, make

positive contributions, and stay with the organization.• Dissatisfied employees are absent from work more often, may

experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job.

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Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d)

• Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors–High levels of job satisfaction do not

necessarily lead to high job performance.

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Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d)

• Organizational Commitment–An attitude that reflects an individual’s identification

with and attachment to an organization.

• Organizational Commitment and Work Behaviors–Employee commitment strengthens with an

individual’s age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making.

–Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance.

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Affect and Mood in Organizations

• Positive Affectivity–A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have

an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.

• Negative Affectivity–A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic,

tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.

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Perception and Individual Behavior

• Perception–The set of processes by which an individual becomes

aware of and interprets information.

• Selective Perception–The process of screening out information that we are

uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.–If selective perception causes someone to ignore

important information it can become quite detrimental.

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Perception (cont’d)

• Stereotyping–The process of categorizing or labeling people on the

basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race.)–Stereotyping may cost the organization valuable

talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is unethical.

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FIGURE 9.3 Perceptual Processes


Characteristics and Processes That Affect Perception

Characteristics of the person:

• Salience• Disposition• Attitudes• Self-concept• Personality

Characteristics of the object:

• Contrast• Intensity• Movement• Repetition• Novelty

Situational characteristics:

• Selection• Organization• Stereotyping• Halo• Projection

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Perception and Perceptual Processes

• Attribution–A mechanism through which we observe behavior and

attribute a cause to it.

• How Behavioral Attributions Are Formed:–Consensus

• Do other people in the same situation behave the same way?

–Consistency• Does this person behave the same way at different times?

–Distinctiveness• Does this person behave the same way in other situations?

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Stress and Individual Behavior

• Stress–A person’s response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a

stressor.)

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)–Stage 1 Alarm

• Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness.

–Stage 2 Resistance• Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor.

–Stage 3 Exhaustion• Prolonged exposure to stress causes an individual to give up.

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FIGURE 9.4 The General Adaptation Syndrome

Stage 1Alarm

Stage 3Exhaustion

Stage 2Resistance

Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome

Normal level of resistance

Response to stressful

event


Personality Types

• Type A personality–Extremely competitive, aggressive, devoted to work,

have a strong sense of time urgency, impatient.–Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as

possible as quickly as possible.

• Type B personality–Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker

sense of time urgency.–Less likely to experience personal stress or to come

into conflict with other people.–Likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life.

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FIGURE 9.5 Causes of Work Stress

InterpersonalDemands• Group pressures

• Leadership styles

• Conflictingpersonalities

Task Demands

Quick decisions•

Critical decisions

•Incomplete informa-tion for decisions

PhysicalDemands• Temperature extremes

• Poorly designed office

• Threats to health

Role Demands• Role ambiguity

• Role conflict

Organizational Stressors

•


Consequences of Stress

• Negative personal consequences–Behavioral—smoking,

alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse.

–Psychological—sleep disturbances, depression.

–Medical—heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, skin conditions.

• Negative work-related consequences–Poor quality work output and lower productivity.–Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of

commitment.–Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism.

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Individual Consequences of Stress

• Burnout–A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when

someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.

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Managing Stress

Regular Exercise

Relaxation

Time Management

Support Groups

StressManagement Strategies

for Individuals

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Stress Management Strategies

• Regular Exercise–Reduces tension and stress, and improves self-

confidence and feelings of optimism.

• Relaxation–Allows individuals to adapt

and deal with their stress.

• Time Management–Reduces stress by prioritizing activities to accomplish

them in their order of importance.

• Support Groups–Socializing away from work reduces stress.

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Creativity in Organizations

• Creativity–The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or

to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas.

• The Creative Individual–Background experiences and creativity–Personal traits and creativity

• Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity.

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Creativity in Organizations (cont’d)

• Cognitive Abilities and Creativity–Most creative people are highly intelligent.–They are both divergent and convergent thinkers, a

skill they use to see differences and similarities in situations, phenomena, and events.

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The Creative Process

Preparation

Incubation

Insight

Verification

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The Creative Process

• Preparation–Formal education and training is

used to “get up to speed.”–Experiences on the job provide

additional knowledge and ideas.

• Incubation–A period of conscious concentration

during which knowledge and ideas mature and develop.

–Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought.

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The Creative Process (cont’d)

• Insight–A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative

person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation.

–Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding.

• Verification–Determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight.–Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see

if the insight leads to the expected results.

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The Creative Process (cont’d)

• Enhancing Creativity in Organizations–Make creativity part of the

organization’s culture.• Set goals for revenues from

creative products and services.

• Reward creative success; refrain from punishing creative failures—some ideas work out as expected, others don’t.

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Workplace Behaviors

Performance Behaviors

Organizational Citizenship

Withdrawal Behaviors

Types of Workplace Behaviors

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Types of Workplace Behavior

• Workplace Behavior–A pattern of action by the

members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.

• Performance Behaviors–The total set of work-related

behaviors an organization expects an individual to display.

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Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d)

• Withdrawal Behaviors–Absenteeism

• Occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons.

• May be a symptom of other work-related problems.

–Turnover• occurs when individuals quit their jobs for work-related or

personal reasons.

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General BehaviorsGeneral Attitudes

Attitude–Behavior Relationships

Specific Attitude

Example

Positive attitude toward working hard

this morning

Specific Behavior

Example

High work performance during

morning hours

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• Organizational Citizenship–The behavior of individuals that makes a positive

overall contribution to the organization.

Social context of the workplace (work group)

Determinants of Organizational Citizenship

Organization’s capability to reward

citizenship

Individual’s personality, attitudes,

and needs

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• Dysfunctional Behaviors–Behaviors that detract from, rather than

contribute to, organizational performance.• Absenteeism and turnover

• Theft and sabotage

• Sexual and racial harassment

• Politicized behavior

• Intentionally misleading others

• Spreading malicious rumors

• Workplace violence

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9–2 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in...

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Transcript of 9–2 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in...