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M A R B U RY v. M A D I S O N , 1 C R A N C H ( 5 U . S . )

13 7 ( 18 0 3 )

Significance: This ruling established theSupreme Court’s power of judicial review, by which the Court decides whether lawspassed by Congress are constitutional. Thisdecision greatly increased the prestige of the Court and gave the judiciary branch apowerful check against the legislative andexecutive branches.

Background: William Marbury and severalothers were commissioned as judges byFederalist president John Adams during hislast days in office. This act angered the newDemocratic-Republican president, ThomasJefferson. Jefferson ordered his secretary ofstate, James Madison, not to deliver the com-missions. Marbury took advantage of a sectionin the Judiciary Act of 1789 that allowed him totake his case directly to the Supreme Court. Hesued Madison, demanding the commissionand the judgeship.

Decision: This case was decided on February24, 1803, by a vote of 5 to 0. Chief Justice JohnMarshall spoke for the Court, which decidedagainst Marbury. The court ruled thatalthough Marbury’s commission had beenunfairly withheld, he could not lawfully takehis case to the Supreme Court without first trying it in a lower court. Marshall said thatthe section of the Judiciary Act that Marburyhad used was actually unconstitutional, andthat the Constitution must take priority overlaws passed by Congress.

M C C U L LO C H v.

M A RY L A N D , 4 W H E AT.( 17 U . S . ) 316 ( 1819 )

Significance: This ruling established thatCongress had the constitutional power to

Important Supreme Court Cases

charter a national bank. The case also estab-lished the principle of national supremacy,which states that the Constitution and otherlaws of the federal government take priorityover state laws. In addition, the ruling rein-forced the loose construction interpretation ofthe Constitution favored by many Federalists.

Background: In 1816 the federal governmentset up the Second Bank of the United States tostabilize the economy following the War of1812. Many states were opposed to the compe-tition provided by the new national bank.Some of these states passed heavy taxes on theBank. The national bank refused to pay thetaxes. This led the state of Maryland to sueJames McCulloch, the cashier of the Baltimore,Maryland, branch of the national bank.

Decision: This case was decided on March 6,1819, by a vote of 7 to 0. Chief Justice JohnMarshall spoke for the unanimous Court,which ruled that the national bank was constitutional because it helped the federalgovernment carry out other powers granted toit by the Constitution. The Court declared thatany attempt by the states to interfere with theduties of the federal government could not be permitted.

G I B B O N S v.

O G D E N , 9 W H E AT. ( 2 2 U . S . ) 1 ( 18 2 4 )

Significance: This ruling was the first case todeal with the clause of the Constitution thatallows Congress to regulate interstate andforeign commerce. This case was importantbecause it reinforced both the authority ofthe federal government over the states andthe division of powers between the federalgovernment and the state governments.

Background: Steamboat operators whowanted to travel on New York waters had toobtain a state license. Thomas Gibbons had a

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federal license to travel along the coast, but nota state license for New York. He wanted thefreedom to compete with state-licensed AaronOgden for steam travel between New Jerseyand the New York island of Manhattan.

Decision: This case was decided on March 2,1824, by a vote of 6 to 0. Chief Justice John Marshall spoke for the Court, whichruled in favor of Gibbons. The Court statedthat the congressional statute (Gibbons’s fed-eral license) took priority over the state statute(Ogden’s state-monopoly license). The rulingalso defined commerce as more than simplythe exchange of goods, broadening it toinclude the transportation of people and theuse of new inventions (such as the steamboat).

W O R C E S T E R v. G E O R G I A ,6 P E T. ( 31 U . S . )

515 ( 18 3 2 )

Significance: This ruling made Georgia’sremoval of the Cherokee illegal. However,Georgia, with President Andrew Jackson’ssupport, defied the Court’s decision. By notenforcing the Court’s ruling, Jackson violatedhis constitutional oath as president. As aresult, the Cherokee and other AmericanIndian tribes continued to be forced off oflands protected by treaties.

Background: The state of Georgia wanted toremove Cherokee Indians from lands theyheld by treaty. Samuel Worcester, a missionarywho worked with the Cherokee Nation, wasarrested for failing to take an oath of allegianceto the state and to obey a Georgia militia orderto leave the Cherokee’s lands. Worcester sued,charging that Georgia had no legal authorityon Cherokee lands.

Decision: This case was decided on March 3,1832, by a vote of 5 to 1 in favor of Worcester.Chief Justice John Marshall spoke for theSupreme Court, which ruled that theCherokee were an independent political com-munity. The Court decided that only thefederal government, not the state of Georgia,had authority over legal matters involving theCherokee people.

S C OT T v. S A N D F O R D , 19 H O W. ( 6 0 U . S . )

3 9 3 ( 18 5 7 )

Significance: This ruling denied enslavedAfrican Americans U.S. citizenship and theright to sue in federal court. The decision also invalidated the Missouri Compromise,which had prevented slavery in territoriesnorth of the 36˚ 30' line of latitude. The rulingincreased the controversy over the expansionof slavery in new states and territories.

Background: John Emerson, an army doctor,took his slave Dred Scott with him to live inIllinois and then Wisconsin Territory, both ofwhich had banned slavery. In 1842 the twomoved to Missouri, a slave state. Four yearslater, Scott sued for his freedom according to aMissouri legal principle of “once free, alwaysfree.” The principle meant that a slave wasentitled to freedom if he or she had once livedin a free state or territory.

Decision: This case was decided March 6–7,1857, by a vote of 7 to 2. Chief Justice Roger B.Taney spoke for the Court, which ruled thatslaves did not have the right to sue in federalcourts because they were considered property,not citizens. In addition, the Court ruled thatCongress did not have the power to abolishslavery in territories because that powerwas not strictly defined in the Constitution.Furthermore, the Court overturned the once-free, always-free principle.

P L E S SY v. F E R G U S O N ,16 3 U . S . 5 3 7 ( 18 9 6 )

Significance: This case upheld the constitu-tionality of racial segregation by ruling thatseparate facilities for different races were legalas long as those facilities were equal to oneanother. This case provided a legal justificationfor racial segregation for nearly 60 years untilit was overturned by Brown v. Board ofEducation in 1954.

Background: An 1890 Louisiana law requiredthat all railway companies in the state use“separate-but-equal” railcars for white and

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African American passengers. A group of citi-zens in New Orleans banded together to chal-lenge the law and chose Homer Plessy to testthe law in 1892. Plessy took a seat in a whites-only coach, and when he refused to move, hewas arrested. Plessy eventually sought reviewby the U.S. Supreme Court, claiming that theLouisiana law violated his FourteenthAmendment right to equal protection.

Decision: This case was decided on May 18,1896, by a vote of 7 to 1. Justice Henry BillingsBrown spoke for the Court, which upheld theconstitutionality of the Louisiana law that seg-regated railcars. Justice John M. Harlan dis-sented, arguing that the Constitution shouldnot be interpreted in ways that recognize classor racial distinctions.

LO C H N E R v. N E W Y O R K ,19 8 U . S . 4 5 ( 19 0 5 )

Significance: This decision established theSupreme Court’s role in overseeing state regulations. For more than 30 years Lochnerwas often used as a precedent in striking down state laws such as minimum-wage laws,child labor laws, and regulations placed on thebanking and transportation industries.

Background: In 1895 the state of New Yorkpassed a labor law limiting bakers to workingno more than 10 hours per day or 60 hours perweek. The purpose of the law was to protect thehealth of bakers, who worked in hot and dampconditions and breathed in large quantities offlour dust. In 1902 Joseph Lochner, the owner ofa small bakery in New York, claimed that thestate law violated his Fourteenth Amendmentrights by unfairly depriving him of the liberty tomake contracts with employees. This case wentto the U.S. Supreme Court.

Decision: This case was decided on April 17,1905, by a vote of 5 to 4 in favor of Lochner. TheSupreme Court judged that the FourteenthAmendment protected the right to sell and buylabor, and that any state law restricting that rightwas unconstitutional. The Court rejected theargument that the limited workday and workweek were necessary to protect the healthof bakery workers.

M U L L E R v. O R E G O N , 2 0 8 U . S . 412 ( 19 0 8 )

Significance: A landmark for cases involvingsocial reform, this decision established theCourt’s recognition of social and economicconditions (in this case, women’s health) as afactor in making laws.

Background: In 1903 Oregon passed a law lim-iting workdays to 10 hours for female workersin laundries and factories. In 1905 CurtMuller’s Grand Laundry was found guilty ofbreaking this law. Muller appealed, claimingthat the state law violated his freedom of con-tract (the Supreme Court had upheld a similarclaim that year in Lochner v. New York). When this case came to the Court, the NationalConsumers’ League hired lawyer Louis D.Brandeis to present Oregon’s argument.Brandeis argued that the Court had alreadydefended the state’s police power to protect itscitizens’ health, safety, and welfare.

Decision: This case was decided on February24, 1908, by a vote of 9 to 0 upholding theOregon law. The Court agreed that women’swell-being was in the state’s public interestand that the 10-hour law was a valid way toprotect their well-being.

B R O W N v. B O A R D O FE D U C AT I O N , 3 4 7 U . S . 4 8 3 ( 19 5 4 )

Significance: This ruling reversed theSupreme Court’s earlier position on segrega-tion set by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). The deci-sion also inspired Congress and the federalcourts to help carry out further civil rightsreforms for African Americans.

Background: Beginning in the 1930s, theNational Association for the Advancement ofColored People (NAACP) began using thecourts to challenge racial segregation in publiceducation. In 1952 the NAACP took a numberof school segregation cases to the SupremeCourt. These included the Brown family’s suitagainst the school board of Topeka, Kansas,over its “separate-but-equal” policy.

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Decision: This case was decided on May 17,1954, by a vote of 9 to 0. Chief Justice EarlWarren spoke for the unanimous Court, whichruled that segregation in public education cre-ated inequality. The Court held that racial seg-regation in public schools was by natureunequal, even if the school facilities wereequal. The Court noted that such segregationcreated feelings of inferiority that could not beundone. Therefore, enforced separation of theraces in public education is unconstitutional.

G I D E O N v.

WA I N W R I G H T , 3 7 2 U . S .3 3 5 ( 19 6 3 )

Significance: This ruling was one of severalkey Supreme Court decisions establishingfree legal help for those who cannot other-wise afford representation in court.

Background: Clarence Earl Gideon wasaccused of robbery in Florida. Gideon couldnot afford a lawyer for his trial, and the judgerefused to supply him with one for free.Gideon tried to defend himself and was foundguilty. He eventually appealed to the U.S.Supreme Court, claiming that the lower court’sdenial of a court-appointed lawyer violated hisSixth and Fourteenth Amendment rights.

Decision: This case was decided on March 18,1963, by a vote of 9 to 0 in favor of Gideon. TheCourt agreed that the Sixth Amendment(which protects a citizen’s right to have alawyer for his or her defense) applied to thestates because it fell under the due processclause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Thus,the states are required to provide legal aid tothose defendants in criminal cases who cannotafford to pay for legal representation.

M I R A N D A v. A R I Z O N A ,3 8 4 U . S . 4 3 6 ( 19 6 6 )

Significance: This decision ruled that anaccused person’s Fifth Amendment rightsbegin at the time of arrest. The ruling causedcontroversy because it made questioning sus-pects and collecting evidence more difficult for law enforcement officers.

Background: In 1963 Ernesto Miranda wasarrested in Arizona for a kidnapping. Mirandasigned a confession and was later found guiltyof the crime. The arresting police officers, how-ever, admitted that they had not told Mirandaof his right to talk with an attorney before hisconfession. Miranda appealed his convictionon the grounds that by not informing him ofhis legal rights the police had violated his FifthAmendment right against self-incrimination.

Decision: This case was decided on June 13,1966, by a vote of 5 to 4. Chief Justice EarlWarren spoke for the Court, which ruled inMiranda’s favor. The Court decided that anaccused person must be given four warningsafter being taken into police custody: (1) thesuspect has the right to remain silent, (2) any-thing the suspect says can and will be usedagainst him or her, (3) the suspect has the rightto consult with an attorney and to have anattorney present during questioning, and (4) ifthe suspect cannot afford a lawyer, one will beprovided before questioning begins.

R E E D v. R E E D , 4 0 4 U . S . 71 ( 19 71 )

Significance: This ruling was the first in acentury of Fourteenth Amendment decisionsto say that gender discrimination violated theequal protection clause. This case was laterused to strike down other statutes that discriminated against women.

Background: Cecil and Sally Reed were sepa-rated. When their son died without a will, thelaw gave preference to Cecil to be appointedthe administrator of the son’s estate. Sally suedCecil for the right to administer the estate,challenging the gender preference in the law.

Decision: This case was decided on November22, 1971, by a vote of 7 to 0. Chief JusticeWarren Burger spoke for the unanimousSupreme Court. Although the Court hadupheld laws based on gender preference in thepast, in this case it reversed its position. TheCourt declared that gender discrimination violated the equal protection clause of theFourteenth Amendment and therefore couldnot be the basis for a law.

Gazetteer R17

GA

ZETTEER

Baltimore Maryland city northeast of Washington, D.C., onthe Chesapeake Bay. (39°N 76°W) A1

Bataan Peninsula Peninsula in the western Philippines.(14°N 120°E) 791

Belgium Kingdom in northwestern Europe. Capital: Brussels.(51°N 13°E) A8

Black Sea Sea between Europe and Asia. A8

Bosnia and Herzegovina Country in southeastern Europeannexed to Austria-Hungary in 1908; after World War Ibecame part of the former Yugoslavia; declared indepen-dence in 1992. Capital: Sarajevo. (44°N 17°E) A8

Boston Capital of Massachusetts. (42°N 71°W) A1

Brazil Republic in eastern South America. Capital: Brasília.(9°S 53°W) A7

Bulgaria Republic in southeastern Europe. Capital: Sofia.(42°N 23°E) A8

California (CA) State in the western United States. Admitted as a state in 1850. Capital: Sacramento. (38°N 121°W) A1

Cambodia Republic in southeastern Asia. Capital: PhnomPenh. (11°N 105°E) A9

Canada Country in northern North America. Capital: Ottawa.(50°N 100°W) A6

Cape of Good Hope Southern tip of Africa. A10

Caribbean Sea Arm of the Atlantic Ocean between Northand South America. A4

Central America The southern portion of North America,beginning south of Mexico. A6

Charleston Port city in southeastern South Carolina.Originally called Charles Town. (33°N 80°W) A1

Chesapeake Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean in Virginia andMaryland. 67

Chicago City in northeastern Illinois on Lake Michigan. Majorport and large U.S. city. (42°N 88°W) A1

China Country in central and eastern Asia with the world’slargest population. Capital: Beijing. (Official name: People’sRepublic of China) A9

Colombia Republic in northwestern South America. Capital:Bogotá. (3°N 72°W) A7

Colorado (CO) State in the west-central United States.Admitted as a state in 1876. Capital: Denver. (39°N107°W) A1

Connecticut (CT) State in the northeastern United States.One of the original thirteen colonies. Admitted as a statein 1788. Capital: Hartford. (41°N 73°W) A1

Croatia Country in southeastern Europe; part of the formerYugoslavia until 1991. Capital: Zagreb. (45°N 15°E) A8

Cuba Country north of the Caribbean about 90 miles southof Florida. Capital: Havana. (22°N 79°W) A6

Czechoslovakia Former republic in central Europe made upof present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia. 821

Czech Republic Country in central Europe. Capital: Prague.(50°N 14°E) A8

Africa Second-largest continent. Lies in both the Northernand the Southern Hemispheres. A10

Alabama (AL) State in the southern United States. Admittedas a state in 1819. Capital: Montgomery. (33°N 87°W) A1

Alaska (AK) U.S. state in northwestern North America.Purchased from Russia in 1867. Organized as a territory in 1912. Admitted as a state in 1959. Capital: Juneau.(64°N 150°W) A1

Albany Capital of New York State. (42°N 74°W) A1

Alsace-Lorraine Region between Belgium, France, Germany,and Switzerland. 675

Andes Mountain range that extends along almost the entirewestern coast of South America. A7

Antarctica Continent that surrounds the South Pole. A4

Appalachian Mountains Mountain system in eastern NorthAmerica that extends from Canada to central Alabama. A2

Arctic Ocean Ocean north of the Arctic Circle. A4

Argentina Republic located in the south-central and south-ern part of South America. Capital: Buenos Aires. (34°S64°W) A7

Arizona (AZ) State in the southwestern United States.Organized as a territory in 1863. Admitted as a state in1912. Capital: Phoenix. (34°N 113°W). A1

Arkansas (AR) State in the south-central United States.Admitted as a state in 1836. Capital: Little Rock. (35°N93°W) A1

Asia Largest continent. Occupies the same landmass asEurope. A9

Atlanta Capital of Georgia. (33°N 84°W) A1

Atlantic Ocean Body of water separating North and SouthAmerica from Europe and Africa. A4

Austin Capital of Texas. (30°N 98°W) A1

Australia Island, continent, and country located between theIndian and the Pacific Oceans. Capital: Canberra. (25°S 135°E) A11

Austria Republic in central Europe. Capital: Vienna. (48°N16°E) A8

Austria-Hungary Monarchy in central Europe from 1867 to1919. Consisted of Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Monrovia, andparts of Poland, Romania, and the former Yugoslavia. 675

Bahamas Country in the Atlantic Ocean consisting of hun-dreds of islands. Capital: Nassau. A6

Balkans Region that occupies the Balkan Peninsula; includesAlbania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece,Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, Yugoslavia, and northwesternTurkey. A8

Baltic Sea Arm of the Atlantic Ocean in northern Europe. A8

Gazetteer