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Name index

Abell, George, 99, 101Abraham, Robert, 733Abramovitz, Milton, 206, 209Adams, Fred, 353, 369Amsler, Claude, 275Anderson, Carl, 29, 30, 163Arnaud, Monique, 110Arnett, David, 386Arzoumanian, Zaven, 420Auger, Pierre, 29

Babbedge, T., 740Backer, Donald, 417, 418Bahcall, John, 55, 57, 58Bahcall, Neta, 105Balbus, Steven, 455Band, David, 264Barger, Amy, 745Beckwith, Steven, 737, 744Becquerel, Henri, 146Bekefi, George, 193Bell(-Burnell), Jocelyn, 19, 406Bennett, Charles, 16Bethe, Hans, 57, 163, 166, 175Bignami, Giovanni, 197Binney, James, 106, 153Blaauw, Adriaan, 754Blackett, Patrick, 29Blain, Andrew, 743Bland-Hawthorn, Jonathan, 733Blandford, Roger, 251Blumenthal, George, 163, 175, 242Bondi, Hermann, 443Bothe, Walter, 28Boyle, Brian, 591, 724Bracessi, Alessandro, 588Brandt, W., 725, 726Bruzual, Gustavo, 729, 730, 743, 744,

747Butler, Clifford, 30

Côté, Patrick, 94, 95Calabretta, Mark, 754Camenzind, Max, 403, 404Cameron, Alistair, 60, 498Cannon, Annie, 37

Cappelluti, Nico, 729Carter, Brandon, 434Caswell, James, 226Cavaliere, Alfonso, 110Cesarsky, Catherine, 187, 189Challinor, Anthony, 115, 259Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 302, 429, 434,

455Charlot, Stéphane, 729, 730, 747Chwolson, O., 117Cimatti, Andrea, 736, 748Clayton, Donald, 386Clemmow, Phillip, 267Colless, Matthew, 108, 109Compton, Arthur, 231Cordes, James, 420Cowie, Lennox, 733, 736, 743, 745Cox, Donald, 357

Damon, Paul, 297Davies, Rodney, 376Davis, Leverett, 373Davis, Raymond, 32, 54, 55de Vaucouleurs, Gérard, 77, 78Dermer, Charles, 505Deubner, Franz-Ludwig, 51Diehl, Roland, 287Dirac, Adrian, 29Djorgovski, George, 88Dougherty, John, 267Draine, Bruce, 351, 372, 373, 375,

376Dressler, Alan, 84, 88Dunlop, James, 720, 748Dunn, Andrew, 108, 109Dyakov, Sergei, 250

Eastman, Ronald, 393Efstathiou, George, 125Einstein, Albert, 117, 171, 231, 246Ellis, George, 433Ellis, Richard, 118, 731, 736Ellis, Simon, 733Emslie, Gordon, 322, 324Ewen, Harold, 20Ezer, D., 60

825

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826 Name index

Faber, Sandra, 87, 88Fabian, Andrew, 113, 114Fan, Xiaohui, 725Felten, James, 96, 97, 719Ferland, Gary, 341, 343Fermi, Enrico, 141Feynman, Richard, 247, 249, 424Field, George, 360, 361Fisher, Richard, 87Fitzpatrick, Richard, 298, 299Forbes, Terry, 324, 327, 329Ford, Vincent, 374Fort, Bernard, 120Frank, Juhan, 451, 455, 456, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463,

470, 476, 478, 481, 656, 657, 659Frolov, Valery, 429

Garcia-Munoz, M., 514Gavazzi, Raphaël, 122Gel’fand, Israil, 250Genzel, Reinhard, 622Ghez, Andrea, 621Gilli, R., 602, 728, 729Ginzburg, Vitali L., 193, 220Glazebrook, Karl, 747Gold, Thomas, 406Goldreich, Peter, 425, 426Goldsmith, Donald, 360, 361Gough, Douglas, 51Gould, Robert, 154, 163, 175, 242Graham Smith, Francis, 406, 416, 418, 420, 422, 424,

429Green, Richard, 589, 591, 724Greenstein, Jesse, 373Greisen, Eric, 754Greisen, Kenneth, 273Grindlay, Jonathan, 264Gunn, James, 107, 126, 420

Habing, Harm, 360, 361Hall, John, 372Hasinger, Günther, 484, 725, 726Hauser, Michael, 743Hawking, Stephen, 433, 434, 438Hawkins, Michael, 591Hawley, John, 455Haynes, Martha, 86, 87Heitler, Wilhelm, 163, 166, 175Hess, Victor, 27, 28Hewish, Antony, 19, 406Hewitt, Jacqueline, 123Hildebrand, Roger, 352Hillas, Michael, 502, 529, 530, 580Hillebrandt, Wolfgang, 380, 383Hiltner, William, 372Holloway, Nigel, 429

Hoyle, Fred, 443Hubble, Edwin, 77, 78, 757Hulse, Russell, 415Härm, Richard, 304

Jackson, John, 267Jackson, John D., 137, 141Jackson, Robert, 87Janka, Hans-Thomas, 384, 386, 388, 420Jansky, Karl, 17Jokipii, Randy, 186, 187Julian, William, 425, 426

Karttunen, Hannu, 35Karzas, William, 169, 229Kauffmann, Guinevere, 85Kennicutt, Robert, 87, 362, 750Kent, Stephen, 107Kerr, Roy, 434King, Andrew, 451, 456, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 470,

476, 478, 481, 656, 659King, Ivan, 105Kippenhahn, Rudolf, 35, 48, 60, 61, 63, 395, 398,

399Kirshner, Robert, 393Kneib, Jean-Pierre, 118Koch, H. William, 163, 175Kochanek, Christopher, 118Kolb, Rocky, 125Kolhörster, Werner, 27, 28, 29Kompaneets, Aleksander, 250Koo, David, 590Kormendy, John, 77Kramer, Michael, 406Krause, Oliver, 382Kron, Richard, 590Kulsrud, Russell, 189, 298, 308, 310, 324, 329

Lacy, Mark, 748Lagache, Guilaine, 740Landau, Lev, 250, 314, 316, 317, 452, 456Larmor, Joseph, 425Lasenby, Anthony, 115, 259Lasota, Jean-Pierre, 481Latter, Richard, 169, 229Lazarian, Alexander, 375Le Roux, Edouard, 206Leavitt, Henrietta, 757Leger, Alain, 350, 351Leibundgut, Bruno, 380Lequeuex, James, 88Liedahl, Duane, 243, 245, 246, 250, 251, 253Lifshitz, Evgenii, 314, 316, 317, 452, 456Lightman, Alan, 193, 202, 209, 210, 243, 250Lilly, Simon, 743, 748Lingenfelter, Richard, 290




827 Name index

Liu, Q.Z., 485Lizano, Susana, 369Lochner, James, 449Longair, Malcolm, 743Lorimer, Duncan, 406Lotz, Jennifer, 737Lyne, Andrew, 406, 416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429Lyttleton, Raymond, 443

Mészáros, Peter, 705, 709, 713MacDonald, Douglas, 438Madau, Piero, 743, 745Majewski, Steven, 591Malin, David, 389Manchester, Richard, 410Marsh, Thomas, 475Mathewson, Donald, 374Mayor, Michel, 66McCarthy, Patrick, 747McCaughrean, Mark, 365McClintock, Jeffrey, 487, 488, 490McCray, Richard, 393Mellier, Yannick, 120Mellinger, Axel, 7, 8, 755Menjo, Hiroaki, 297Merritt, David, 107, 108Mestel, Leon, 424, 427Metcalfe, Nigel, 732Mewaldt, Richard, 515Meyer, Peter, 497Michell, John, 429, 431Millikan, Robert, 29Mirabel, Felix, 440Misner, Charles, 434Motz, J., 163, 175Murray, Andrew, 753Mushotzky, Richard, 448, 449

Neddermeyer, Seth, 29, 30Neininger, N., 370Newman, Ted, 434Niemeyer, Jens, 380, 383Nikolic, Bojan, 349Northrop, Theodore, 183Novikov, Igor, 429

Occhialini, Giuseppe, 29Oort, Jan, 20Orosz, Jerome, 441, 442Osmer, Patrick, 591Osterbrock, Donald, 341, 343Ostriker, Jeremiah, 93, 420

Pacholczyk, Andrej, 193Pacini, Franco, 406, 424Pagel, Bernard, 497

Palla, Francesco, 361Panagia, Nino, 392Parker, Eugene, 324Peacock, John, 267, 720Pearce, W. P., 189Peebles, James, 93Pengelly, R.M., 341Penrose, Roger, 433, 437Penzias, Arno, 14Petschek, Harry, 327Pogson, Norman, 760Pozdnyakov, L., 243, 253, 255, 256Pratt, Gabriel, 110Price, Richard, 437Priest, Eric, 322, 323, 324, 327, 329Pringle, James, 451Pryce, M.H.L, 429Puget, Jean-Loup, 350, 351, 743Purcell, Edward, 20

Queloz, Didier, 66

Röntgen, Wilhelm, 146Raine, Derek, 451, 456, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 470,

476, 478, 656, 659Raizer, Yuri, 314Ramaty, Reuven, 290Rees, Martin, 705Reimer, Paula, 296Remillard, Ronald, 487, 488, 490Rest, Armin, 382Reynolds, R.J., 341Richards, Gordon, 724Richer, John, 360Rindler, Wolfgang, 433Roberts, Morton, 86, 87Rochester, George, 30Rodrigues, Juan, 440Rossi, Bruno, 273Rowan-Robinson, Michael, 720, 757, 758Rubin, Vera, 92Ruderman, Malvin, 428Rybicki, George, 193, 202, 209, 210, 243, 250

Sérsic, José Luis, 82Sajina, Anna, 739Sandage, Allan, 77, 88Scheuer, Peter, 210Schmidt, Brian, 393Schmidt, Maarten, 362, 589, 591, 720, 724, 725Schneider, Peter, 118, 122Schroeder, Daniel, 770Schwarzschild, Karl, 430Schwarzschild, Martin, 94Shakura, Nicolai, 454, 459Shapiro, Stuart, 399, 400, 403, 422, 433, 434




828 Name index

Shu, Frank, 352, 353, 360, 369Silberberg, Rein, 283, 285, 286Simpson, John, 497, 498, 511Skobeltsyn, Dmitri, 28, 29Smart, William, 753Smith, Barham, 357Sobol, I., 243Spinrad, Hyron, 748Spitzer, Lyman, 298, 302, 304Springel, Volker, 749Stahler, Steven, 361Starrfield, Sumner, 478, 479Stecker, Floyd, 504, 505, 534, 535Stegun, Irene, 209Steidel, Charles, 743Steigman, Gary, 123Strong, Andrew, 175, 504, 505Sunyaev, Rashid, 151, 243, 257, 454,

459Sutherland, Peter, 428Sutherland, Ralph, 169Sweet, Peter, 324Syrovatskii, Sergei I., 193, 220

Tandberg-Hanssen, Einar, 322Tayler, Roger, 35, 47, 48, 496Taylor, Joseph, 415Tesla, Nikola, 163Teukolsky, Saul, 399, 400, 403, 422, 433,

434Thomson, Joseph John (J.J.), 155, 156, 232Thorne, Kip, 434, 435, 437Tremaine, Scott, 106, 126, 153Trodden, Mark, 126Tsao, Chen-Hsiang, 283, 285, 286Tully, Brent, 87Turner, Michael, 125

Ulrich, Roger, 55

van de Hulst, Henk, 20van den Bergh, Sidney, 77, 736van den Heuvel, Edward, 411, 473van der Klis, Michiel, 484VandenBerg, Donald, 39Velikhov, E.P., 455Visvanathan, N., 88

Waddington, Ian, 724Wambsganss, Joachim, 118Wandel, Amri, 448, 449Wang, Wei-Hao, 745Warren, Stephen, 590Wasson, John, 150Wdowczyk, Jerzy, 503Weaver, Thomas, 383Webber, William, 283, 495, 515Weber, Joseph, 33Wefel, John, 515Weigert, Alfred, 35, 48, 60, 61, 395, 398,

399Weisskopf, Victor, 405Wentzel, Donat, 187Westfold, Kevin, 206Wheeler, John, 434White, Simon, 743Wilkinson, Peter, 123Willingale, Richard, 385Wilson, Robert, 14Wolfendale, Arnold, 503Woon, David, 335Woosley, Stan, 383, 384, 386, 387, 388, 420,

478

Yukawa, Hideki, 29, 30

Zavlin, Vyacheslav, 421Zeldovich, Yakov, 250, 257, 314Zwicky, Fritz, 101




Object index

14016+2610, 3541E1207.4–5209 (isolated neutron star), 1973C 273, 19, 24, 26, 450, 587, 588, 638, 6843C 58, 37947 Tucanae (47 Tuc), 39, 66, 69, 73,

4184C 21.53, 417, 4184U 1700–37, 41351 Peg, 66, 67

A 0620–00, 487A0535+262, 471, 472Abell 478, 112, 113Abell 1413, 110Abell 2218, 99, 100, 118Antennae, 79, 80

B1937+21 (millisecond pulsar),417

B2334+61, 421Becklin–Neugabauer (B–N) object, 364,

365Betelgeuse, 771

Cartwheel Galaxy, 80Cassiopeia A (Cas A), 289, 335, 379, 385, 386, 553,

557, 559as a Type IIb supernova, 385

Centaurus X–3 (Cen X–3), 411Coma Cluster of galaxies (Abell 1656), 24,

106–109core radius of, 105mass of, 107, 759mass-luminosity ratio of, 108X-ray image of, 108, 109

Crab Nebula (M1, NGC1952), 23, 24, 26, 193,379continuous injection of energy into,

410energy requirements of, 409pulsar in, 406, 409, 417, 418, 422, 423, 424, 425,

428Cygnus A, 24, 261, 489, 774Cygnus X–1 (Cyg X-1), 24, 413, 438, 442, 448, 449,

487hard X-ray spectrum of, 256

Cygnus X–2 (Cyg X-2), 483, 484Cygnus X–3 (Cyg X-3), 3, 24

η-Carinae, 71, 72mass loss rate of, 71

EXO 033319–2554.2, 197

G1.9+0.3 (supernova remnant), 379Galactic Centre, 7, 621

supermassive black hole in, 11‘Geminga’, 421Gliese 229B

brown dwarf companion of Gliese 229, 66spectrum similar to that of Jupiter,

66GRB 030329, 706GRO 1744–28, 483GRO J1655–40, 487GRO J1744–28, 472GRS 1915+105, 440, 441

mass function for, 440Guitar Nebula, 420GX5–1, 483, 484

HD 209458, 67HD 93131 (Wolf–Rayet star), 71Hercules X-1 (Her X-1), 197, 405, 412

discovery records of, 412modulation of light curve, 483precession of rotation axis of neutron star, 483unpinning of crust and magentic field from neutron

superfluid, 483HH211, 365, 366HH30, 365, 366HH34, 365, 366Homunculus Nebula (η-Carinae), 72HT Cas, 478

total eclipse observed in, 478

Kepler’s supernova, 379Kleinmann–Low Nebula, 364, 365

Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), 8, 11, 13, 26, 32,379, 388, 389

LMC X–1, 442LMC X–3, 442, 487, 489

829




830 Object index

M1, see Crab Nebula (M1, NGC 1952)M3, 39M31, Andromeda Nebula, 92, 97M33, 439, 440M33 X–7 (X-ray binary), 440M49 (NGC 4472), 94, 95M51 (NGC 5194), 79, 370, 371M67, 39M81, 755M87 (NGC 4486), 23, 78, 79, 94

non-thermal optical jet of, 78Magellanic Clouds, 339MCG–6–30–15, 448, 449, 611, 626, 627,

628Milky Way, 7, 8MXB 1730-335 (rapid burster), 483

NGC 1300, 79NGC 2362, 39NGC 2787, 79NGC 4258, 621NGC 4839, 108NGC 5195, 79NGC 5506, 448, 449NGC 7023, 351North Pole star, 7

Ophiuchus molecular cloud, 354Orion giant molecular clouds, 363, 364Orion Molecular Cloud, 13Orion Molecular Cloud A, 363, 364Orion Nebula, 13, 17, 363, 364, 365

luminous far-infrared sources in, 364Orion star cluster, 66, 69, 70Orion, constellation of, 363, 364

Perseus Cluster of galaxies, 24, 114Lyα and Lyβ emission lines of highly ionised iron,

Fe+25 in, 169X-ray bremsstrahlung of hot intracluster gas in, 169X-ray spectrum of, 169

Plough or Great Bear, 7PSR 1919+21 (CP 1919), 406, 407

discovery records of, 407PSR B0540–69, 409PSR B0656+14, 421PSR B1055–52, 421

PSR B1509–58, 409PSR B1913+16 (binary pulsar), 415,

416change of period due to emission of gravitational

waves, 416tests of general relativity and, 415

PSR J0538+2817, 421PSR J0737–3039, 416, 417

change of period due to emission of gravitationalwaves, 416

PSR J1119–6127, 409

Sérsic 159–03, 113Sagittarius A, 753, 754Sagittarius A∗ (Sgr A∗), 621, 622, 623Sanduleak −69 202, 32, 389Scorpius X–1 (Sco X–1), 24, 483Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), 8, 11,

13SN 1006, 297, 379SN 1054, see Crab Nebula (M1, NGC 1952)SN 1181, 379SN 1572, see Tycho’s supernovaSN 1604, see Kepler’s supernovaSN 1987A, 32, 73, 279, 288, 289, 379, 388–393SU Aur, 354

Taurus molecular cloud, 354Trapezium stars in Orion Nebula, 364, 365Tycho’s supernova, 379, 382

remnant of, 382typing of by light echoes, 382

U Gem, 475, 476

Vega (α-Lyrae), 760, 762Vela supernova remnant, 26

pulsar in, 406, 421, 422, 423, 424Vela X–1, 413Virgo Cluster of galaxies, 24, 99, 100VSSG 23, 354

X1822–371, 480XBT0748–676, 480XTE J1650–500, 492

Z Cha, 475




Index

Abell Catalogues of rich clusters of galaxies,99–102

selection criteria of clusters in, 100space density of clusters in, 100spatial correlations with clusters and galaxies, 101

aberration formula, relativistic, 238absolute magnitude, 763absorption coefficient χν , 170

for thermal bremsstrahlung, 170corrected for stimulated emission, 172uncorrected for stimulated emission, 172

absorption edges at X-ray energies, 228–230K-edges, 229

accelerated charged particlespolar diagram of radiation of, 156

acceleration four-vector A, 161acceleration of an electron in the electrostatic field of

a proton or nucleus, 163acceleration of high energy particles, 561–582

beyond the standard model, 574–580diffusive shock acceleration in strong shock waves,

568–574energy spectrum of cosmic rays at and above the

‘knee’, 579–580Fermi acceleration – original version, 564–568general principles of acceleration, 561–562highest energy cosmic rays, 580–582in solar flares, 562–563magnetic fields in supernova shock fronts, 574–576nonlinear diffuse shock acceleration, 576–579

accretionas an energy source for X-ray sources, 24in X-ray binary systems, 412maximum energy release for Schwarzschild black

hole, 413accretion columns in magnetic cataclysmic variables,

477–478emission of far ultraviolet and soft X-ray emission

from, 477shock fronts in, 477temperature of shocked gas in, 477

accretion disc, thick, 437accretion discs, see thin accretion discs

boundary layeremission from, in cataclysmic variables, 477luminosity of, 457

boundary layer at inner edge of, 456energy flow in, 457formation of, 444luminosities of, 457outward transfer of angular momentum, 444, 445viscous dissipation of energy in, 445

accretion luminosity, 444Accretion Power in Astrophysics (Frank, King and

Raine), 451accretion power in astrophysics, 443–492

accreting binary systems, 473–486accretion in binary systems, 464–473black holes in X-ray binaries, 486–491Eddington limiting luminosity, 445–447efficiency of the accretion process, ξ , 443–444

for neutron stars, 444for white dwarfs, 444onto black holes, 444

general considerations, 443–450thick discs and advective flows, 461–463thin accretion discs, 451–461

accretion radius, see capture, or accretion, radiusaction integral in Lagrangian mechanics, 182,

183active galactic nuclei

‘blue-bump’ component in spectra of, 450ratio of black hole to spheroid masses, 748, 750Type 1, 602, 728unobscured, 602, 728

active galaxies, 585–609adaptive optics, 7, 770adiabatic changes in classical mechanics, 182adiabatic expansion

of a magnetic field, 307adiabatic invariance, 184

principle of, 182adiabatic loss problem and the acceleration of high

energy particles, 556–560adiabatic motion of charged particle, 134Adiabatic Motion of Charged Particles (Northrop),

183Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), 122, 732advective transport of mass and energy, 462–463, 656,

657, 659supermassive black holes and, 463through black hole horizon, 463

831




832 Index

Airy diffraction pattern, 768Airy disc, 768Aitoff projection, 755Alfvén and hydromagnetic waves in interstellar

medium, 187–189damping by neutral particles, 189damping rate of, 189energy density of, 188growth rate of, 188momentum density of, 188

Alfvén radius, 469, 470for white dwarfs, 470

Alfvén speed, 188, 189, 321, 323, 325, 326, 327alignment effect in radio galaxies, 654, 655alignment of interstellar grains, 372–374

magnetic field parallel to optical polarisation,374

physical mechanisms for, 373Barnett effect, 373paramagnetic dissipation, 373Rowland effect, 373suprathermal processes, 373

α-discs, 455, 459, 461AM Herculis binaries, 197ambipolar diffusion, 311Ampère’s theorem, 324Anglo-Australian telescope, 589Anglo-Australian Telescope 2dF survey (AAT 2dF), 4,

77, 80, 95, 96, 97, 101angular cyclotron frequency, 179angular diameter distance, 118

in general relativity, 430, 431, 432angular frequency ω0 of electron in atom, 135angular gyrofrequency, 179, 183, 189

non-relativistic, 201relativistic, 201, 211

angular momentum transport by viscosity, 455,456

angular plasma frequency, 446angular resolving power, 764anomalous resistivity of a plasma, 328anomalous X-ray pulsars, 418–419

location on P−Ṗ diagram, 419antenna temperature, 779

minimum detectable, 779aperture grading, 768aperture synthesis, 771–774

Earth-rotation, 774principles of, 21

apodisation, 768Apollo 12 and the Surveyor satellite, 147Apollo 14, 149Apollo 17, 147apparent magnitude

bolometric, 762definition of, 760

Archimedean spiral, 313

Ariel-V satellite, 725ASCA Large Sky Survey, 725associated Legendre functions, 51asteroids

asteroid belt and, 148parent bodies of meteorites, 148

astronomical seeing, 770, 771astronomical unit (AU), 756astronomical units, 757astroparticle physics, 127Astrophysical Flows (Pringle and King), 451Astrophysics of Gaseous Nebulae and Active Galactic

Nuclei (Osterbrock and Ferland), 341asymptotic giant branch stars, 288Atacama Large Millimetre Array (ALMA), 14atmosphere as convertor for cosmic rays, 502atmospheric turbulence and astronomical seeing, 769,

771atomic binding energy, 135Auger air-shower array, 31Auger ultra-high energy cosmic ray observatory,

275aurorae, 320

green and red lines of oxygen in, 320auroral zone, 320Australia Telescope Compact Array, 393Australia Telescope National Facility (ATNF), 21Avogadro’s number, 175, 271

Baade–Wesselink method, 392, 758background intensities in ground-based observations,

761, 775background radiation

submillimetre and far-infraredcontribution of active galactic nuclei, 745main contributors to, 745, 746

ultravioletdecrease at large redshifts, 744, 745decrease in intensity from z = 1 to present

epoch, 745Baksan Neutrino Observatory in the northern

Caucasus mountains, 57Balmer absorption line index HδA as age indicator,

85, 86Balmer break, or discontinuity, Dn(4000) as age

indicator, 85, 86Balmer continuum absorption, 764Balmer decrement, 341Balmer series of hydrogen, 450, 587, 594, 642, 646,

647BATSE instrument of the Compton Gamma-Ray

Observatory, 472BeppoSAX gamma-ray telescope, 289Bernoulli’s equation, 315Bessel functions J0(z), J1(z), 767, 768betatron, 193




833 Index

Bethe–Bloch formula, 140–141, 163, 167bias parameter, 122BIMA Millimetre Array, 115, 116binary pulsars, 415–417binary star systems, 464–467

close, 464contact binaries, 464

common envelope of, 464mass–luminosity relation for, 465

equipotential surfaces in the rotating system, 464,465

evolution of stars in, 465, 466feeding the accretion disc, 467

Roche lobe overflow, 467, 468stellar mass loss and, 468stellar mass loss and winds, 467

mass transfer in, 465, 466non-contact close binaries, 465periods of, 464role of magnetic fields, 469–473

accretion columns and, 469magnetic pressure of, 469mass flow onto magnetic poles, 469, 470ram pressure and, 469

spectroscopic binaries, 464statistics of, 464symbiotic stars and, 467, 474visual binaries, 464

binary X-ray sources, 438bipolar outflows, 353, 355, 364–367

magnetic fields in, 367model for, 367molecular beams in, 364origin of, 369

magnetic fields and, 369polarisation observations of, 367similarity to extragalactic radio sources, 367,

369BL-Lacertae objects (BL-Lac objects), 19Black Hole Physics: Basic Concepts and New

Developments (Frolov and Novikov), 429black hole X-ray binaries, 488

quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs), 488, 490, 491increase in frequency with luminosity, 490

black holes, 76, 123, 378, 429–442accretion luminosity of, 458angular momentum on last stable orbit, 458condition of matter to fall into, 458dragging of inertial frames, 435electrodynamics of, 437, 438ergospheres of rotating, 437evaporation of, 438extraction of rotational energy from rotating, 437‘flickering’ of the X-ray intensity and, 448, 449general case in general relativity, 434–438Hawking radiation from very low mass, 438horizon of rotating black hole, 435

in X-ray binaries, 25, 486–491different active states of, 487, 488disc fraction f , 487hard state, 487, 489–490hard state and presence of radio jets, 489hot corona in, 490, 491iron fluorescence lines, 487, 491, 492luminosity of accretion disc, 488, 489power density spectrum of the variability, 488quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs), 490steep power-law, 487steep power-law state, 490temperature distribution in accretion disc about,

488thermal state, 487, 488–489

last stable orbit, 445, 448, 449, 458, 463, 490, 491,611, 629, 630, 631, 633, 656

evidence for, 489light-travel time across the last stable orbit, 448magnetic fields threading, 437mass estimates for, in binary X-ray systems, 438,

439mass from kinematics of nuclear gas clouds, 448,

450masses from time variability, 448, 450maximally rotating, 436maximum angular momenta of, 435maximum energy release of Schwarzschild, 436,

445observational evidence for, 438–442primordial, 438resistivity of, 437, 438Schwarzschild, 436sketches of, in binary X-ray systems, 441, 442specific angular momentum of, 458static radius about rotating, 435supermassive, 123, 715

epoch of maximum quasar activity, 723non-thermal radiation processes and, 715

temperature of, 438temperature of gas at last stable orbit, 449

Black Holes – The Membrane Paradigm, 437black holes in the nuclei of galaxies, 610–636black holes in X-ray binaries and active galactic

nuclei, 448–450black-body radiation

intensity of, 218, 778Rayleigh–Jeans limit of, 218spectrum of, 5

blue sequence or blue cloud, 80avoid regions of rich clustering, 85properties of galaxies of, 81

Bohr model of the atom, 135Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom, 174bolometric absolute magnitude, 763

of Sun, 763bolometric flux density, 763




834 Index

Boltzmann distribution, 171, 299, 333Boltzmann equation, 250, 259

evolution of photon occupation number and,250

Boltzmann relation, 247Bose–Einstein distribution

as a solution of Kompaneets equation, 253Bose–Einstein spectrum, 257Bose–Einstein statistics, 404bound–free absorption, see photoelectric absorptionbound–free absorption in stars, 47bow shock, 320

density enhancement across, 320Boyer–Lindquist coordinates, 434braking index, 407, 408, 409

energy loss from pulsars and, 407for magnetic dipole radiation, 408magnetic breaking and, 407

‘braking radiation’, see bremsstrahlungbremsstrahlung, 99, 109, 115, 133, 154, 163–177,

301, 759collision parameters bmax and bmin for, 163, 166cooling rate, 111emissivity of, 115low frequency spectrum of, 165, 166non-relativistic energy loss rate, 166–167non-thermal, 290relativistic, 173–177

average energy of photons emitted in, 177catastrophic losses in the atmosphere, 176collision parameters bmax and bmin for, 173–175correction for electron–electron interactions,

175critical energy, 175in terms of the photon number flux density, 175,

176radiation length X0 for, 175the low energy γ -ray emission of the interstellar

medium and, 177total energy loss rate, 174total stopping power for different materials,

175total stopping power in different materials, 175

spectral emissivity of, 109spectrum of, 110, 115thermal, 167–173

absorption, 170–173Gaunt factors for radio and X-ray wavelengths,

168mass of gas and dark matter in clusters of

galaxies and, 169spectral emissivity of, 167–169spectral emissivity of, in terms of photon number

per unit energy interval, 169total energy loss rate of, 168

bremsstrahlung absorption in stars, 47bremsstrahlung, X-ray, 394

brightness temperature Tb, 217, 219, 778, 779Rayleigh–Jeans approximation for, 778

brown dwarfs, 66, 123, 124discovered in 2MASS survey, 66discovered in Pleiades, Orion and ρ Ophiuchus

clusters, 66discovered in Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 66

BUGS experiment of Ariel-VI mission, 499,500

CalTech Submillimetre Observatory (CSO), 14, 115,259

Canada-France Redshift Survey, 743canonical coordinates, 182canonical momentum, 182

of particle in a magnetic field, 182capture, or accretion, radius, 485, 486carbon burning, 64carbon monoxide (CO) map of Galaxy, 17carbon recombination lines in gaseous nebulae

very high order transitions, 342carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle, 44, 45, 48, 50,

62, 72, 478, 479Cassegrain telescope, 770, 771cataclysmic variables, 383, 443, 447, 467, 473–478,

479accretion columns in magnetic, 477–478AM Herculis stars, 474classical novae, 473, 478, 479

event rate in our Galaxy and M31, 478thermonuclear runaway and, 473, 478, 479

dwarf novae, 473, 474, 475, 476, 478eclipse mapping of, 475temperature mapping, 475

intermediate polars, 474magnetic, 474novae-like stars, 474polars, 474recurrent novae, 474strong emitters in the 1−10 keV X-ray wavebands,

477strong emitters in the EUV and soft X-ray

wavebands, 477strong winds from, 478symbiotic stars, 474

celestial equator, 753, 755celestial hemisphere

north, 755south, 755

celestial sphere, 755central limit theorem, 719, 774

Gaussian statistics and, 775Cepheid variables, 757

luminosity–period relation for, 757Cerro Tololo InterAmerican Observatory, 11ChaMP study, 725Chandra Deep Fields, 725, 727




835 Index

Chandra X-ray Observatory, 25, 114, 379, 385, 393,546, 663, 669, 714, 725, 727

Chandrasekhar limit, 383, 397–406Chandrasekhar mass, 382, 383, 384, 400, 466

for neutron stars, 399, 400for white dwarfs, 399

charge-coupled devices (CCD), 7, 776charged particles in magnetic fields

dynamics in time-varying field, 180–184adiabatic invariant approach to,

182–184physical approach to, 181–182

dynamics of, 178–189in static uniform field, 178–180, 193

scattering by Alfvén and hydromagnetic waves,187–189

scattering by irregularities in the field,184–187

spiral motion in uniform field, 179chemical potential µ, 246, 247, 257Cherenkov radiation, 264–270

‘shock wave’ interpretation of, 266Cherenkov cone, 269condition for, 266energy loss rate per unit bandwidth, 270

circumstellar disc, 353Classical Electrodynamics (Jackson), 129classical electron radius, 233classical novae, see cataclysmic variables, classical

novaeclusters of galaxies, 99–127

Bautz–Morgan classification, 102central concentration of galaxies and central profile,

102central mass density of, 105core radius, 102, 104crossing time, 107dark matter in, 123–127galaxy content, 102isothermal gas spheres and, 102–106mass segregation, 102morphologies of, 99–102most massive galaxies in, 153regular, intermediate and irregular, 102symmetry, 102X-ray emission of, 25

clusters of stars, 39coincidence counting, 28collision of high energy particle with stationary

electronduration of, 134limits to collision parameters, 133–136

relativistic case, 139–140non-relativistic treatment, 131–133

maximum energy loss, 132relativistic treatment, 139–140

collision parameter, 132

collision parametersmaximum and minimum for electrostatic scattering,

302collision time of particles in a plasma, 301collisionless plasma, 305colour index

definition of, 763colour–colour diagram for stars, 763, 764colour–magnitude diagram for stars, see

Hertzsprung–Russell diagramcolours

definition of, 763comoving radial distance coordinate, 718comoving volume

variation with redshift, 716compact extragalactic sources and superluminal

motions, 681–713compact H ii region

spectrum at radio wavelengths of, 172,173

compact radio sourcesrelativistic bulk motion in, 264variability of, 263

Compton effect, 236Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO), 288,

289, 292EGRET instrument of, 26, 504

Compton optical depth, 115, 245, 246, 251, 255, 257,258

Compton scattering, 114, 235–237average energy change of photon in, 244average energy gain of photons by, 244derivation of formulae for, 235–237exchange of energy between electrons and radiation

field, 236inverse, 715Klein–Nishina cross-section, 237probability distribution for a single scattering,

260recoil effect, 236

Comptonisation, 243–257, 490basic physics of, 243–246Bose–Einstein distribution

formation of, 246, 247with finite chemical potential µ, 246

Compton optical depth, 245, 246condition for significant distortions of photon

spectrum, 245examples of astrophysical applications, 243interchange of energy between matter and radiation

and, 243–246differential equation for, 245

Kompaneets equation, 250–257number of scatterings to approach saturation, 245,

246occupation number, 246–250recoil effect in, 244




836 Index

computer simulationshydrodynamical simulations of galaxy collisions,

750origin and evolution of cosmic structures and, 749

concentration index C = (R90/R50), 85, 86conductivity of a plasma, 133, 425cone diagram of the distribution of galaxies, 101conservation of angular momentum, 431, 444conservation of energy for Newtonian gravity, 431,

432, 444conservation of energy in general relativity, 432,

444conservation of mass, 47convective transport of energy in stars, 45, 48

condition for, 45, 60in main sequence stars, 61in pre-main sequence stars, 61in red giant stars, 61of different masses on the main sequence, 61

convective transport of mass and energy, 463cooling flows in clusters of galaxies, 110–114Cooper pairs, 404coordinate systems and projections used in astronomy,

7, 753–755coordinate time in general relativity, 431coordinate-space diagram for diffusion-loss equation,

191Copernicus satellite, 337, 338coronal loops, 308, 309, 312, 322coronal mass ejection events, 314coronene, 351COS-B satellite, 26Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 15, 16,

376DIRBE instrument of, 11, 12, 13

The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics andCosmology (Longair), xiii, xiv, 3, 5, 48, 193

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, 14–16, 17,99, 114, 115, 376, 759

cosmological fluctuations in, 16dipole component of, 15, 16distortions from a perfect black-body spectrum, 257

due to energy injection after the recombinationera, 257

due to energy injection prior to therecombination era, 257

limits to, 259motion of the Solar System relative to, 15, 16radiation temperature of, 15Sunyaev–Zeldovich distortions of, 114, 115, 259

cosmic ray astrophysics, 27–32extensive air-showers, 29from space and from the ground, 30–32history of, 27–30ionisation of the atmosphere with increasing

altitude, 28, 29

cosmic ray clocks, 501cosmic ray electrons

spectrum of, 212, 225, 226cosmic ray protons and nuclei

solar modulation of, 185, 187cosmic rays, 493–535

abundances of the elements in the cosmic rays,496–502

air-shower technique at energies E � 1015 eV, 493,494

antiparticles in the flux of, 30, 496chemical abundances of, 497–500

features of, 497–499confinement time in the Galaxy and cosmic ray

clocks, 515–517confinement volume for, 517–520differential energy spectra for different species,

493–495differential energy spectra for electrons, 495–496differential energy spectrum of

‘ankle’ in, 493, 494‘knee’ in, 493, 494overall, 493, 494

energy density of, 358energy spectra of cosmic ray protons and nuclei, 30,

31, 493–496solar modulation and, 493

Galactic halo and, 520–522Greisen–Kuzmin–Zatsepin (GKZ) cut-off, 531–535highest energy cosmic rays and extensive

air-showers, 522–524isotopic abundance anomalies in

origin of, 515isotopic abundances of, 500–502

differences from cosmic abundances, 501isotropy and energy density of, 502–503isotropy of

as a function of energy, 502net stream of cosmic rays and,

503underground muons and, 502

isotropy of ultra-high energy cosmic rays,529–531

local energy density of, 503compared with other local energy densities, 503

observation of the highest energy, 524–529origin of the light elements in, 507–515

abundance differences compared with cosmicabundances, 507

overall statistics for, 493particle detectors in space observatories,

493Solar System abundances of the elements, 496–497,

499source abundances compared with the local

Galactic abundances, 511, 512




837 Index

correlation with first ionisation potential, 513first ionisation potential and, 511

spectrum of, 212transfer equation for light nuclei, 507–512ultra-high energy, 31

anisotropies in distribution of, 31cut-off at very high energies, 32

variations in the chemical composition of cosmicrays with energy, 513–515

boron-to-carbon ratio, 513, 514chromium-to-iron ratio, 513, 514

cosmic rays and the discovery of new particles, 29–30charged and neutral kaons, 30mesotron, 29muon, 30pion, 30positron, 29strange particles, 30

cosmic rays in the atmosphere, 292–297electromagnetic cascades, 292–294formation rate and half-life of 14C, 295formation rate and half-life of 3H, 295nucleonic cascades, 292–294path-length for nuclear interaction, 293pion production, 292–293radioactive nuclei produced by cosmic rays in the

atmosphere, 294–297formation of carbon-14 14C, 294formation of tritium 3H, 294residence time in atmosphere, 295

secondary fluxes of relativistic electrons, 294vertical fluxes of, 295vertical fluxes of at different heights, 293

cosmic rays, solarunderabundances correlated with first ionisation

potential, 511cosmic star formation rate

maximum at redshifts z ∼ 1−2, 748problem of dust extinction, 745submillimetre determinations of

as a function of redshift, 745cosmic web, 101cosmological aspects of high energy astrophysics,

714–752cosmological distance ladder, 758, 759Coulomb’s law of electrostatics, 157

relativistic transformation of, 136–139counts of active galaxies

evolution in infrared waveband, 740counts of extragalactic radio sources, 720

excess of faint radio sources, 720evidence for strong cosmological evolution, 720

counts of galaxies, 731–737excess of faint blue galaxies, 732, 733

and starburst galaxies, 733, 737nature of, 733–737

fluctuations in, due to large-scale clustering, 732,733, 736

for irregular/peculiar/merger systems, 733, 736for spheroidal and spiral galaxies, 733, 736in infrared K-band, 733, 736in U, B, R, I and K wavebands, 736problems of determining, 731

counts of galaxies and active galaxies, predicted,715

at submillimetre wavelengths, 740–742normalised differential counts, 741, 742

Euclidean, 715–716differential, 716integral, 715

for standard world models, 716–731for sources with power-law spectra, 718infrared counts for galaxies, 730normalised, differential, 718optical counts for galaxies, 729–731slopes of integral and differential, 718

counts of infrared and submillimetre sources,737

convergence of, at mid-infrared wavelengths, 740IRAS galaxies

excess of faint sources, 737Spitzer Survey

excess of faint sources, 737submillimetre wavelengths, 742

excess of faint sources, 743counts of mid and far-infrared sources, 740counts of radio quiet quasars, 591, 592, 724counts of submillimetre sources, 740–743counts of X-ray sources, 725–729

evidence for evolution of the source populations,727

hard X-ray energies, 2−10 keV, 602, 727, 729history of, 725problems of interpretation, 727soft X-ray energies, 0.5−2 keV, 727

and the integrated X-ray background emission,728

soft X-ray energies, 0.5–2 keV, 727Crab Nebula (M1, NGC1952), 409, 549, 586, 644, 704

pulsar in, 379critical density for degenerate gas, 396critical angular frequency for synchrotron radiation,

207, 208critical brightness temperature, 263, 264critical cosmological density, 127

in neutrinos with finite mass, 125critical density

for common ions, 342critical density for stabilisation in degenerate neutron

gas, 402critical density for star formation, 750critical Fermi momentum pF, 402




838 Index

critical frequency for synchrotron radiation, 201, 211,212, 218, 223

crossing time, 107crossing time τcr of star or galaxy in a cluster, 153Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS II), 127current sheets, 323curvature of space-time in general relativity,

430curvature radiation, 201, 428cusp catastrophe, 120cyclotron absorption features in accreting X-ray

sources, 197, 198, 405magnetic field estimates from, 197

cyclotron absorption features in isolated neutron star,197

magnetic field estimates from, 198cyclotron radiation, 195–198

broadening of spectral lines of, 196circular polarisation of, 197

geometry of magnetic field configuration and,197

magentic field estimates from, 197harmonics of gyrofrequency, 196, 197mildly relativistic, 196

cyclotron radius of charged particle in magnetic field,179

dark energy, 381dark matter, 123–127

astrophysical and experimental limits, 126–127axions and, 125baryonic, 123–125black holes and, 123

limits to mass density from gravitational lensing,123

brown dwarfs and baryonic, 123clusters of galaxies and, 99, 108, 109forms of, 123–127in clusters of galaxies, 108, 110in early type galaxies, 122in galaxies, 77, 93

and stability of disc galaxies, 93MACHOs and, 125

gravitational microlensing and, 124masses of dark matter particles, 126, 127neutrinos with finite rest mass and, 125non-baryonic, 125–126searches for dark matter particles, 127structure of, 122WIMPs and, 125

dark matter haloes of galaxies and clusters,122

Davis–Greenstein alignment mechanism, 374de Broglie wavelength, 279de Vaucouleurs r1/4 law for surface brightness, 82,

105

dead stars, 378–442Debye length, 298–300, 302, 446

as shielding distance in plasma, 299, 300decay of binary orbits and gravitational waves,

32declination (Dec or δ), 753deflagrations, 383degeneracy pressure, 394

condition for use of relativistic equation of state,396

conditions under which important, 395, 396degenerate gas

non-relativistic equation of state for, 395,396

relativistic equation of state for, 397of electrons, 397of neutrons, 397

degenerate starsinternal structure of, 394–397

dendrochronology, see tree-ring-datingdensity parameter

for stars in the Universe, 98in baryons, 98

density wave theory of spiral structure, 357,462

forcing mechanisms and, 357depolarisation of polarised radio signals, see Faraday

depolarisationdetection of ultra-high energy γ -rays, 265detonations, 383deuterium formation in stars, 44, 54

neutrinos from, 44differential rotation of Galactic disc, 353diffraction optics, 764diffraction-limited telescopes, 764–770diffusion coefficient D, scalar, 189diffusion coefficients for high energy particles in

fluctuations in magnetic field, 186physical model for, 186–187

diffusion of charged particles, 301–303mean free path and, 301

diffusion time for magnetic field in a plasma, 310,311, 324

diffusion-loss equation for high energy electrons,540–544

distortions of the injection energy spectrum,540–543

diffusion-loss equation for high energy particles,189–192, 253

coordinate-space approach, 191–192elementary approach, 190escape time, 253including spallation gains and losses, catastrophic

loss of particles, radioactive decay, 192source term, 253statistical acceleration and, 252




839 Index

diffusive velocity, 326dipole radiation, 158, 198, 199Dirac delta function, 160, 165, 300

Fourier transform of, 165dispersion measure, 419

of pulsars, 344–345, 346displacement four-vector, 136, 154, 781dissipation time-scale, 324distance indicators, 757

problems of using, 757distance measure D, 716distances in astronomy, 9, 755–759

astrophysical methods, 757, 759Baade–Wesselink method, 758gravitational lenses, 759Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect, 758

using distance indicators, 757Doppler shift formula, relativistic,

238‘drop-out’ galaxies, 736, 737, 744Drude model, see electrical conductivity of a fully

ionised plasma, Drude model fordust, see interstellar dustdust emission in millimetre and submillimetre

waveband, 16dust extinction of galaxy spectral energy distribution,

739dust shells about giant stars, 74dwarf novae, see cataclysmic variables, dwarf novaedynamical friction, 131, 151–153

clusters of galaxies and, 153galaxies and, 153globular clusters and, 153limits to collision parameters and,

152regular clusters of galaxies and, 153

dynamical time-scale of a star, 41dynamics of a charged particle in a magnetic field

with small scale fluctuations, 186

early-type galaxies, 78, 80mass distribution in, 122

Earth’s magnetosphere, see magnetosphere of Eartheclipsing X-ray binary with stellar mass black hole,

439eddies, turbulent, 454Eddington limiting luminosity, 71, 413, 445–447, 449,

450, 454, 461, 462, 469, 470, 473, 478, 483,490, 612, 634, 636, 656, 657, 658, 671

effective aperture of an antenna, 775,779

effective temperature Teff , 35, 48of relativistic gas, 218

Effelsberg 100 m radio telescope, 3718–10 metre optical-infrared telescopes, 7Einstein angle, 118, 120

Einstein coefficients for absorption and spontaneousand induced emission, 171, 220, 249

Einstein radius, 117, 120Einstein ring, 117, 118Einstein X-ray Observatory, 25, 70, 113Einstein–de Sitter world model, 731electric dipole moment, 157electrical conductivity of a fully ionised plasma,

303–304, 308, 323, 324dissipation of energy and, 323Drude model for, 300, 303, 304including effect of electron–electron collisions,

304Lorentz approximation for, 303

electrical conductivity of metalstypical values for, 304

electromagnetic fieldenergy density of, in a medium, 267

Electromagnetic Processes (Gould), 129electromagnetic showers, 265, 272–275

critical energy Ec for, 273, 274degradation of energy by ionisation losses at low

energies, 273degradation of energy through the atmosphere,

273properties of, 275simple model for, 272, 273total number of particles with depth through a

medium, 274electromotive force, 181, 305, 306electron cyclotron radiation features in the X-ray

spectra, 469electron degeneracy pressure, 68, 76, 378electron scattering, see Thomson scattering, 460, 461,

462, 659electron–photon cascades, see electromagnetic

showerselectron–positron annihilation line from the direction

of the Galactic Centre, 278electron–positron pair production, 270–272

cross-section at intermediate photon energies,271

cross-section in the ultrarelativistic limit, 271impossibility in free space, 271radiation length for, 271similarity of radiation length for bremsstrahlung

and for, 271, 272electron–positron annihilation, 275–278

annihilation at rest or in flight, 277broadening of γ -ray lines, 277cross-section for

in extreme relativistic limit, 277thermal electrons and positrons, 278

maximum and minimum energies of photons, 277of positronium atoms, 277

electron–positron annihilation line, 290, 291




840 Index

elliptical galaxiesas triaxial systems, 93, 94

stability of, 94constancy of velocity dispersion with radius, 95dark matter in, 94, 95flattening not due to rotation, 93, 94mass-to-luminosity ratios for, 93rotation along minor axis, 93rotation of, 94variation of ellipticity with radius, 93

emission from the Earth’s atmosphere Tatm, 779emissivity κν , 170

in terms of elementary atomic processes, 171emissivity of telescope in infrared waveband, 775encircled energy fraction, 768, 769

for circular mirror with central hole, 772with varying wavefront errors, 770

end-points of stellar evolution, 76energies

useful conversion formulae, 780useful conversion formulae for hot bodies, 781useful conversion formulae for photons, 781

energy dissipation rate by viscous forces, 456, 457energy generation, 47energy loss processes for high energy electrons,

536–540adiabatic losses, 538–539bremsstrahlung, 537inverse Compton scattering, 539–540ionisation losses, 537synchrotron radiation, 496, 539

energy transport in stars, 45–47enthalpy per unit mass, 315

for perfect gas, 316entropy of plasma

conservation of, 308equation of hydrostatic support, 103, 451equation of mass conservation, 103equation of state of stellar material, 40, 47, 52equations of stellar structure, 47–50, 397equidistant azimuthal polar projection, 7, 755,

756equivalent current loop for particle gyrating in

magnetic field, 181equivalent noise temperature Tn, 777EROS project, 125ESO-SERC Southern Sky Survey, 99Euler’s constant, 168evolution of active galaxies with cosmic epoch,

720–729extragalactic radio sources, 720–724

‘luminosity evolution’, 720cut-off of strong evolution beyond redshift

z ∼ 2−3, 723for sources with steep and flat radio spectra, 720,

722

luminosity-dependent density evolution, 723, 724radio-quiet quasars, 724–725

evolution of galaxies and active galaxies with cosmicepoch, 714–743

mid and far-infrared number counts, 737–740active galaxies, 715, 720–729

extragalactic radio sources, 720–724radio-quiet quasars, 724–725X-ray clusters of galaxies, 729X-ray sources, 725–729

brief history of evidence for, 714–715co-evolution of stellar and black hole properties of

galaxies, 715counts of galaxies, 731–737counts of galaxies and active galaxies, 715

Euclidean source counts, 715–716for standard world models, 731submillimetre counts of dusty galaxies, 740–742

counts of galaxies and active galaxies, predictedfor standard world models, 716

submillimetre number counts, 740stellar and gaseous components of galaxies, 714submillimetre number counts, 743V/Vmax or luminosity–volume test, 718–719

excess of faint blue galaxiesirregular nature of, 737

exoplanets, 66, 68Doppler technique for discovering, 66highly elliptical orbits of, 68Jupiter mass planets very close to parent stars, 68occultation technique for discovering, 67problems of accounting for orbits of, 68

EXOSAT X-ray telescope, 449, 480, 483explosive nucleosynthesis, 65extensive air-showers, 293extinction

role of absorption and scattering, 347–350extinction by interstellar dust grains, 9, 11

extinction coefficient, 9extinction curves, 347extinction efficiency Q, 348, 349extragalactic radio sources, 661–680

luminosity function ofevolution with cosmic epoch, 720–724

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), 22, 23

Faber–Jackson relation and fundamental plane, 87–88and the distances of galaxies, 88

Faraday depolarisation, 346–347Faraday rotation of linearly polarised radio signals,

345–347, 369–371direction of magnetic field and, 346estimates of the Galactic magnetic field and, 346refractive indices of elliptically polarised waves,

345




841 Index

right- and left-handed elliptically polarised waves,345

rotation measure, 346Fermi energy, 402Fermi momentum of a degenerate Fermi gas, 397Fermi–Dirac distribution, 397Fermi–Thomas model of the atom, 174filling factor, 341fine structure constant, 135, 167, 229, 400Finkelstein coordinates, 433FIRAS instrument of the Cosmic Background

Explorer, 259first adiabatic invariant, 182first point in Aries, 753fluctuations in black-body radiation, 777fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background

Radiation, 749fluctuations per mode in black-body radiation,

778Fluid Mechanics (Landau and Lifshitz), 314flux densities, luminosity, magnitudes and colours in

astronomy, 760–764flux density, 762

bolometric, 762, 763definition of, 760

Fokker–Planck equation for stars in clusters, 105fold catastrophe, 120forbidden transitions in spectra of gaseous nebulae,

342–343critical density for, 342metastable energy levels and, 342radiative de-excitation and, 342

Formation of Stars (Stahler and Palla), 36148-inch Schmidt Telescope Palomar Sky Survey

(POSS), 99four-dimensional momentum space

volume element of as a Lorentz invariant, 250four-frequency K, 782four-momentum P, 782four-velocity U, 782Fourier analysis, 771–774

addition theorem, 771convolution theorem, 771, 772

Fourier transformation, 162, 163, 184, 200, 201, 202,211

Fraunhofer diffraction, 766for circular aperture, 767, 768, 769

encircled energy fraction, 768for circular mirror or lens, 767for rectangular slit, 766for single slit, 766

free-fall velocity in general relativity, 431free–free emission, see bremsstrahlungfrequencies of galaxies of different types, 736

in different galactic environments, 732fully convective stars

stability criterion for, 59fundamental plane, 87–88

Galactic Astronomy (Binney and Merrifield), 77Galactic centre, 753, 754, 755Galactic coordinates, 753, 754, 755Galactic Dynamics (Binney and Tremaine), 77Galactic equator, 754Galactic latitude (b), 754Galactic longitude (l), 754, 755Galactic magnetic field, 225, 369–377

aligned with local spiral arm, 374Faraday rotation in the interstellar medium,

369–371large fluctuations in, 369, 370large-scale order in, 369, 370, 374magnetic flux density from pulsar rotation

measures, 226mean magnetic flux density, 377North Polar Spur and, 374optical polarisation of starlight, 371–374radio emission of spinning dust grains and, 374–376radio emission of the Galaxy and, 377summary of the information on, 377Zeeman splitting of 21-cm line radiation and, 377

Galactic north pole, 754, 755Galactic south pole, 754, 755galaxies, 77–98

barred spiral SB, 78collisions between, 79colour–luminosity relation for elliptical galaxies, 88elliptical E, 78

ellipticities of, 78further correlations among the properties of

galaxies, 86–89Faber–Jackson relation and fundamental plane,

87–88mass–metallicity relation for galaxies, 88–89Tully–Fisher relation for spiral galaxies, 87

gas phase metallicity–luminosity relation forlate-type galaxies, 88

Hubble sequence, 78–80interactions between, 99irregular, 78large-scale distribution of

holes and voids in, 101sheets and filaments in, 101

lenticular or S0, 79luminosity density of the Universe due to, 97luminosity function of, 95–98mass–metallicity relation for galaxies, 88, 89mass-to-luminosity ratios for spiral galaxies, 92, 93masses of, 89–95mean number density in the Universe, 97mean separation in the Universe, 97normal spiral S, 78




842 Index

galaxies, (cont.)passive evolution of, 730

importance of red giant branch, 730peculiar, 79red and blue sequences, 80–85ring, 80statistics of galaxies belonging to red and blue

sequences, 85surface brightness distributions of, 81, 85

discs, 82, 84spheroids or bulges, 82, 84

‘tuning fork’ diagram for, 78Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction (Sparke and

Gallagher), 77galaxies, old red, 736Galaxy

dark matter in, 356mass of, 759radio emission of, 224–227

radio disc, 224thickness of radio disc, 225

rotation curve of, 353, 355Galaxy Formation (Longair), xiii, xiv, 78, 100, 118,

127, 759galaxy formation

collisions between galaxies and, 749‘down-sizing’, 749feedback mechanisms and, 749growth of supermassive black holes and,

749Lyman-break galaxies

multicolour technique for discovering,744

observed global star formation rate, 743star-forming galaxies and, 743starburst galaxies at large redshift, 743

star and element formation and, 746star formation and, 749

GALLEX solar neutrino experiment, 32, 57γ -ray background emission

Comptonisation and, 729spectrum of, 728

γ -ray bursts, 27, 384γ -ray luminosity of the Galaxy, 504γ -ray observations of the Galaxy, 493, 503–506

distribution of cosmic rays in the Galaxy and,503–506

pion production and, 503cross-section for, 504

relativistic bremsstrahlung of ultra-relativisticelectrons, 504, 506

spectrum of γ -rays produced by inverse Comptonscattering of starlight, 504, 506

spectrum of γ -rays produced from neutral piondecay, 504, 505

γ -ray waveband, 25–27, 504

γ -ray line emission, 27Cherenkov detection technique, 27detectors for, 26

gauge selection in electrodynamics, 160Gaunt factor, 110, 111, 168, 302, 304

for diffusion of particles in a plasma,302

for electrical conductivity of plasma,302

frequency averaged, 168Gauss’s theorem for Newtonian gravity, 92,

119Gaussian point-spread function, 768Gemini Deep Deep Survey, 747Gemini North telescope, 440general relativity, 430–433

dynamics of particles about point mass,431

GEO600 gravitational wave experiment,33

geodesic distance, 430giant branch, 37, 39, 49, 61, 69, 73, 74giant molecular clouds, 311, 362–364

formation of, 356in spiral density waves, 357percolation processes and, 357supernova explosions and, 357

globular clusters, 39, 69in M49, 94, 95in M49 and M87, 94oldest, 70typical parameters for, 153

Goldstake solar neutrino experiment, 32GOLF experiment of the ESA SOHO mission,

52, 53Gran Sasso Laboratory, in Central Italy, 57grating telescope, 773gravitational deflection of light rays, 120

by the Sun, 117collision parameter for, 117

gravitational fine structure constant, 400gravitational lensing by galaxies and clusters of

galaxies, 99, 116–122, 759caustics and cusps in, 120cluster masses from, 120critical surface density for, 119distortion of background images by, 120galaxy–galaxy imaging and, 122necessary conditions for, 119

gravitational lensing, strong, 122gravitational lensing, weak, 122Gravitational Lensing: Strong, Weak and Micro

(Schneider, Kochanek and Wambsganss),118

gravitational relaxation time τr, 152–153grazing incidence optics, 22, 23




843 Index

Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS),733, 734, 745

grey-body spectrum, 739Grotrian diagram, 342group velocity, 344guiding centre, 193, 208guiding centre motion, 179, 182, 184,

186gyration radius of cosmic ray protons in magnetic

field, 502gyrofrequency, 179, 344, 345

non-relativistic, 179, 195, 201, 202, 208,209

relativistic, 193, 196, 201, 211, 214gyroradius, 179, 184

and rigidity R, 185gyroscopic precession about rotating black holes,

435

Hammer–Aitoff projection, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 23,26, 755, 756

Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics(Zombeck), 129

hard low mass X-ray binary stars, 278Harvard spectral classification system, 37

spectra of main sequence stars in, 37,38

Hawking radiation, 438Hayashi tracks, 59–61, 64

for fully convective stars, 60HEAO-1 X-ray Observatory, 725HEAO-A2 experiment, 169HEAO-C satellite, 27HEAO-C2 cosmic ray experiment, 497HEAO-C3 cosmic ray experiment, 499, 500heat diffusion equation, 45Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, 135, 139, 279,

339, 394, 395, 396helioseismology, 51–54

acoustic or p-modes, 51gravity or g-modes, 51probing the structure of the Sun and, 51–54

heliumprimordial nucleosynthesis of, 54cosmic abundance of, 40

helium burning, 64, 72helium flash, 73, 401helium shell burning, 64Herbig–Haro (HH) objects, 364, 366Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 49,

59, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74for clusters of stars, 39for white dwarfs, 402theorist’s, 68, 69

HESS Cherenkov γ -ray array, 27Hess ultra γ -radiation, 28

hierarchical models of galaxy formationold red galaxies and, 747

High Energy Astrophysics (Longair), xiiihigh energy astrophysics

definition of, 3high energy astrophysics and modern physics and

astronomy, 3–4high energy electron energy spectrum in the local

interstellar medium, 543–544high mass X-ray binaries, 485–486

capture, or accretion, radius for stellar wind, 485,486

O and B stars in, 485properties of, 485X-ray luminosity due to accretion, 486

Hipparcos astrometric satellite, 36, 757Homestake gold-mine, South Dakota, 55homologous stellar models, 47–48, 68

energy generation rates, 47inadequacies of, 48

horizontal branch, 39, 40, 69, 73evolution of stars on, 73mass loss and, 39

hot gas in clusters of galaxiesabsence of cool gas in, 113

associated with heating by radio lobes,114

models to explain the, 114abundance of iron, 110characteristic cooling time for, 111cooling flows and, 110–114cooling flows in, 112

mass inflow rates of, 113cooling time of, 112distribution of, 109–114iron line Fe xxvi from, 109sound waves in, 114

HR diagram for stars, see Hertzsprung–Russelldiagram

Hubble Deep Field, 714, 732, 736, 743, 744Hubble sequence of galaxies, 77, 78–80, 86

correlations along, 86–89luminosity function of H ii regions, 87neutral hydrogen, 86star formation rates and, 87total surface density and surface density of

neutral hydrogen, 87Hubble Space Telescope, 19, 71, 74, 78, 118, 122,

365, 379, 385, 392, 393, 578, 600, 603, 615,618, 654, 663, 692, 693, 706, 714, 732, 733,770, 771, 772, 777

Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), 714, 732, 733, 734,736, 737, 744, 745, 762

Hubble’s constant, 759from Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect, 115Hubble Space Telescope Key project, 759




844 Index

Hubble’s constant, (cont.)measured from power spectrum of fluctuations in

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation,759

Huygens’ principle, 765Huygens’ construction, 266, 269Hydrodynamics (Lamb), 51hydrogen

ionisation potential of, 42hydrogen recombination lines from warm component

of the interstellar gas, 341hydrogen recombination lines in gaseous nebulae,

341–342Hβ line of the Balmer series, 341very high order transitions, 342

hydrogen shell burning, 64hydromagnetic waves, circularly polarised, 188hydrostatic equilibrium, 39, 47, 109hydrostatic support, equation of, 40

IMB solar neutrino experiment, 32impedance of free space Z0, 157Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 10, 13,

74infrared cirrus, 13infrared luminosity function of galaxies

evolution of, 739, 740Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), 737infrared waveband, 9–14

all-sky images in, 11–14emission by dust grains at thermal infrared

wavelengths, 12, 13near-infrared wavelengths in, 10observing it, 9–11thermal infrared wavelengths in, 10wavelength windows in, 10

initial mass function for stars, 361–362Miller and Scalo, 361Salpeter, 361

inner Lagrangian point, 465, 467, 468, 475, 481,486

instability strip, 73instantaneous rest frame, 158INTEGRAL γ -ray observatory, 27, 197, 257, 278,

288, 289, 292intensity of radiation Iν , 170

definition of, 760interactions of high energy photons, 228–278intercloud medium, 342intercombination lines, 342interferometer

eight-elementpower polar diagram of, 773

four-elementpower polar diagram of, 773

grating telescope, 773

two-element, 771power polar diagram of, 773

interferometry and synthesis imaging, 771–774internal energy per unit mass, 315International Linear Collider (ILC), 125International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), 22, 71, 338,

392, 638, 647, 651interplanetary magnetic field, 303interstellar chemistry, 21, 145, 338interstellar dust, 347–353

217.5 nm absorption feature, 350associated with π → π∗ transitions, 350

condensed matter physics of, 373cross-section for scattering and absorption, 348diffuse interstellar bands and, 348, 350electric charging of, 372–373

coupling of grains and neutral particles through,373

electric dipole moments of, 375emissivity of heated, 351extinction law for, 347–348formation of interstellar molecules and, 350graphite grains and, 350heavy elements in the interstellar medium and, 347Mie theory of scattering and absorption, 348, 349obscuration in our Galaxy and, 347optical depth for, 347ratio of total to selective absorption RV , 347reddening, 347, 348reradiation of heated, 351

star formation and, 351rotation frequency–grain radius relation

for different phases of the interstellar medium,375

rotation speed of dust grains, 372–373, 375rotation speed of PAH molecules, 375selective absorption, 347shielding of molecules by, 359, 363silicate absorption features at 9.7 and 18 µm, 348,

350size parameter, 348, 349small grains in, 350

transient heating of, 350sublimation temperature of, 347, 352water ice feature at 3.1 µm, 350wide range of grain sizes present in, 350

interstellar gasaverage properties of, 333cooling mechanisms, 358–359

bound–bound or bound–free emission, 359bremsstrahlung, 359in gaseous nebulae, 359interstellar dust emission, 359low lying energy levels of common elements,

359molecular line emission, 359




845 Index

diagnostic tools21-cm line emission and absorption, 333–335column depth from X-ray absorption, 340dispersion measure of pulsars, 344–345Faraday rotation of linearly polarised radio

signals, 345–347ionised interstellar gas, 340–347molecular radio lines, 335–338neutral interstellar gas, 333–340optical and ultraviolet absorption lines, 338–339permitted and forbidden transitions in gaseous

nebula, 340–343thermal bremsstrahlung, 340X-ray absorption, 339–340

heating mechanisms, 357–358collisions of old supernova shells, 357cosmic rays and, 358ionisation rate by ionisation losses, 358other types of, 358supernova explosions, 357ultraviolet radiation of hot stars, 358

hot component of, 357, 358overall picture of, 353–361

large scale dynamics, 353–357thermal instabilities, 361

condition for, 360–361interstellar gas and magnetic fields, 331–377interstellar medium

phases of, 359, 360cold neutral medium, 360coronal gas, 360, 361diffuse clouds, 360giant molecular clouds, 360H i clouds, 360intercloud medium, 360

two-phase model for, 361interstellar medium and the life cycle of stars,

333interstellar molecules, 20

hydroxyl molecule OH, 20line emission of, 16

An Introduction to the Ionosphere and Magnetosphere(Ratcliffe), 305

invariant four-volume, 240invariant four-volume in four-momentum space, 240,

250inverse β-decay, 385, 401, 404inverse Compton scattering, 237–243, 244, 260,

490average energy of scattered photons, 242derivation of formulae for, 237–243energy density of radiation in moving frame,

238–240geometry of, 238maximum energy of scattered photon,

242

of radio, infrared and optical photons, 243similarity of loss rate to synchrotron loss-rate, 241,

261spectral index of radiation of a power-law

distribution of electron energies, 241spectrum of scattered radiation by a single electron,

241, 242total energy loss rate of, 241

inverse square laws of electrostatics and gravitation,151

ion-acoustic instability, 328ionisation loss formula

adapted for radiation damage density, 147ionisation losses, 292, 301, 358ionisation losses of electrons, 145, 146

maximum energy transfer per interaction, 146ionisation losses of protons and nuclei, 131–153

average energy loss per unit path length, 133Bethe–Bloch formula, 140–141cancer therapy and, 145density effect, 141effects of polarisation of medium, 141energy spectrum of ejected electrons, 135heating of giant molecular clouds and, 131, 145lower limit bmin to collision parameters

classical limit, 134quantum limit, 134

mean energy loss rates in different materials, 142,143

minimum loss rate, 141, 142non-relativistic treatment, 131–136nuclear emulsions and, 146number of ion–electron pairs produced, 145particle detectors and, 131practical forms of the ionisation loss formulae,

141–145range R and, 143, 144relativistic treatment, 136–141stopping power, 142straggling, 144upper limit bmax to collision parameters,

133ionisation potential I , 135, 142IRAM millimetre interferometer, Plateau de Bure,

365IRAS galaxies, 741, 742IRAS infrared observatory, 353, 714, 737Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven (IMB) neutrino

experiment, 389ISAAC infrared spectrograph of the ESO VLT, 441isothermal carbon core, 64isothermal gas spheres, 102–106, 119

core radius, 104projected, 104singular, 119, 120structural index, or structural length, 104




846 Index

isothermal gas spheres, (cont.)tidal radius of, 105truncated, 105

isothermal helium core, 63

Jacobian for transformation between inertial frames ofreference, 240

James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), 14,742

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST),11

Jansky (Jy), 760Jeans’ instability, 368

fragmentation within giant molecular clouds,368

in molecular clouds, 368time-scale for collapse, 368

Jeans’ length, 368Jeans’ mass, 368Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 391Jupiter, mass of, 66, 759

K-correction, 716, 732K20 sample of galaxies, 736, 747

very red galaxies in, 748Kamiokande neutrino experiment, 32,

389Keck 10 metre telescope, 736Kelvin–Helmholtz instability, 320Kelvin–Helmholtz time-scale, 43Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, 92,

356Keplerian orbits, 451, 452, 456, 457, 630Keplerian velocity, 454, 456, 457, 463, 471,

472Kerr black holes, 434

maximum energy release, 436, 445Kerr metric, 434, 435kinetic energy per nucleon, 180

ionisation losses and, 142King profiles for mass distribution in clusters, 105,

107Kirchhoff’s law, 340Klein–Nishina cross-section, 237, 264Kompaneets equation, 246, 250–257, 259,

260‘current’ of photons in phase space and,

251diffusion coefficient for photons in phase space,

252diffusion of photons in phase space and,

252expansion to higher orders in ∂n/∂x ,

259formation of power-law spectrum by thermal

processes, 255

formation of Wien peak, 253–255induced scattering and, 250Monte Carlo solutions of, 254photon conservation and, 251power-law solutions of, 255–257recoil effect and, 251, 255recoil effect and induced scattering,

252solutions for �ω kT , 253spectra of X-ray sources and solutions of,

253–257Kramers opacity, 460, 461Kruskal coordinates, 433Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 14, 359

Lagrangian formulation of classical dynamics,182

action integral in, 182�CDM model of galaxy and structure formation,

749–752problems with

accounting for Faber–Jackson relation andTully–Fisher relation, 752

Lane–Emden equation, 103, 398Laplace’s equation, 425Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 125Large Magellanic Cloud, 125

distance from observations of SN 1987A,392

Larmor’s formula for radiation of accelerated electron,158, 232, 374, 376

laser emission, 778Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory

(LIGO), 33last stable circular orbit, 432, 433, 436late-type galaxies, 78, 80Lectures on Physics, Vol. III (Feynman),

247Leiden–Berkeley Deep Survey (LBDS),

723Lexan polycarbonate, 147, 148Liénard-Weichert potentials, 161, 200, 202,

266doppler shift factor in, 202, 203

lifetimes of stars of different mass,361

light echo technique, 385light, L, group of elements, 508light-year, definition, 756line blanketing, 88Lockman Hole survey field, 725long period variables, 73Lorentz factor γ , 139, 141, 146, 178, 180, 193, 211,

222, 293, 431, 502, 781Lorentz force, 178, 183, 425Lorentz gauge, 160




847 Index

Lorentz transformations, 155, 781inverse, 140, 239

Lorentz transforms for electric and magnetic fields,137–139, 194

low mass X-ray binaries, 479–484, 490accretion disc corona, 480, 481dependence of observed properties on angle of

inclination, 479eclipses and ‘dips’ in X-ray light curves, 479quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs), 483, 484

models for, 484thick absorbing screen about accretion disc,

481X-ray burst sources (bursters), 481

comparison of accretion and thermonuclearrunaway luminosities, 482

properties of, 481Type I, 481–483Type II, 483

X-ray colour–colour diagram for, 484luminosity

definition of, 763luminosity classes for stars, 37, 38luminosity density of starlight in the Universe,

97luminosity function of galaxies, 95–98, 719

for red and blue galaxies, 96luminosity density of starlight and, 97mass-to-luminosity ratio

for the Universe as a whole, 97Schechter, 96

break absolute magnitude M∗, 96break luminosity L∗, 96written in absolute magnitudes, 96

useful statistics about galaxies, 97–98luminosity function of stars, 361luminosity indicators for stars, 37, 38luminosity–temperature diagram for stars, see

Hertzsprung–Russell diagramluminous infrared galaxies

evolution of, 740N1–015

spectral energy distribution of, 739Lundquist number, 326Lyman continuum absorption, 22Lyman limit for hydrogen, 22

Mach number, M, 316, 452, 454, 554, 570, 577, 579,671

Alfvén, 575MACHO project, 124, 125MACHOs, 124

mean mass of, 125Magellanic Clouds, 446, 447magnetars, 418–419

magnetic fields in, 419

magnetic buoyancy, 321–323formation of magnetic loops and, 323in a plane-parallel stratified atmosphere, 322

magnetic dipole radiation, 422, 425, 427pulsars and, 408

magnetic field fluctuations in interplanetary mediumpower spectrum of, 184, 185, 187

magnetic field, energy density of, 307magnetic field, Galactic, 225magnetic fields

in extragalactic radio sources, 18slowly varying, 180, 182

magnetic fields in our Galaxy, see Galactic magneticfield

magnetic fields in supernova shock fronts, 574–576magnetic fluctuations generated by Alfvén and

hydromagnetic waves in interstellar medium,187–189

physical model for, 187magnetic flux freezing, 304–314, 405, 425, 463

change of magnetic flux density with density ofplasma, 310

diffusion time for magnetic field in a plasma and,310

magnetohydrodynamic approach, 307–311physical approach, 305–307similarity to adiabatic motion of charged particles,

183magnetic lines of force

Faraday’s concept of, 321magnetic flux freezing and, 305

magnetic lines of force, reconnection of, seereconnection of magnetic lines of force

magnetic mirroring, 181in the Earth’s radiation belts, 181

magnetic moment µ of the current loop, 181Magnetic Reconnection (Priest and Forbes), 329magnetic reconnection, see reconnection of magnetic

lines of forcemagnetic Reynolds’ number, 311

‘longitudinal’, 326Lundquist number and, 326

magnetic rigidity, see rigidity Rmagnetic tubes of force, 322magnetoactive medium, 345magnetohydrodynamics

aspects of, 298–329derivation from microscopic description of particle

dynamics in a magnetic field, 184equations of, 307–308

entropy equation, 308equation of continuity, 307force equation, 307Maxwell’s equation, 307Ohm’s law, 308

magnetopause, 320




848 Index

magnetosheath, 321magnetosphere of Earth, 319–321, 323

collisionless plasmas in, 321collisionless shocks in, 321

plasma wave interactions in, 321magnetopause, 320magnetotail, 320neutral sheet, 320plasma sheet, 320shock wave discontinuity in, 321

magnetotail, 320, 323magnitude

absolute, definition of, 763apparent, definition of, 760bolometric absolute, definition of, 763bolometric apparent, definition of, 762

magnitudes in optical and infrared astronomy,760

main sequence, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 48, 49, 50, 61,62, 63, 68, 69, 70, 71, 764

main sequence termination point, 39, 68, 73main sequence lifetimes of sun and stars, 50Mariner 4, 184, 185maser action of interstellar molecules, 21maser emission, 778mass absorption coefficient for high energy photons,

271, 272mass conservation, equation of, 41mass function of a binary system, 414, 439mass loss

formation of white dwarfs and, 378quiescent, 70rates of for massive stars, 71

mass–luminosity ratioearly-type galaxies, 122

mass–luminosity relation for main sequence stars, 36,48, 50, 68

mass–luminosity relation for stars, 361,731

mass–metallicity relation for galaxies, 88–89mass-to-luminosity ratio

for the Universe as a whole, 97for visible parts of galaxies, 98of elliptical galaxies, 97of spiral galaxies, 97

masses in astronomy, 9, 759–760masses of galaxies, 89–95

masses of elliptical galaxies, 93–95from widths of absorption lines, 93, 95

rotation curves of spiral galaxies, 92–93virial theorem for galaxies and clusters, 89–92

massive galaxies in clusters, 750Mathematical Theory of Black Holes

(Chandrasekhar), 429Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii, 14Maxwell’s equations in free space, 158

Maxwellian velocity distribution, 168McGill pulsar group, 419mean free path, 454

for pitch angle scattering, 186of particle in a plasma, 301of a proton in the interplanetary medium,

303mean free time between particle collisions in a

plasma, 303Medium Deep Survey of galaxies (MDS), 736medium, M, group of elements, 508metallicity Z , 68, 69, 88metals, 40meteorites, 148–151

constancy of the flux of cosmic rays and, 151exposure ages of, 151fossil tracks of cosmic rays and, 148–150Galactic cosmic rays and, 149, 150history of Solar System and, 148–151Solar cosmic rays and, 149, 150

Mg2 index, 88correlation with (B–V) colour, 88

microquasar, 440Mie theory of scattering and absorption, 348, 349Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein (MSW) effect, 57,

58Milky Way, 755Millennium galaxy catalogue, 83, 97Millennium Simulation, 749, 751, 752

first quasar candidate, 751Miller and Scalo initial mass function, 361, 362millimetre and submillimetre waveband, 14–17

all-sky images in, 14–17Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation in, 14molecular lines in, 14observing in, 14

millisecond pulsars, 405, 417–418as members of old galactic populations, 420discovery of, 418distribution in the Galaxy, 420in globular clusters, 418limit to spin-up of, 418location on P−Ṗ diagram, 418magnetic fields in, 418space velocities of, 420spin-up of, 418

minimum energy requirements for synchrotronradiation, 549–552

Minkowski metric, 430MKK spectral classification system, 37modified Bessel functions of order 2/3 and 1/3, 206

asymptotic expressions for, 210modified Bessel functions of order zero and one, 164

asymptotic values of, 164molecular hydrogen

distribution in the Galaxy, 356




849 Index

molecular radio lines, 335–338list of molecules identified by their, 335maser action and, 335molecular doubling processes and, 337rotational ladder of, 337

molecules in the interstellar gas, 335–338acetylenic, 338CO as a tracer of molecular hydrogen, 337discovery of, 335electronic transitions of, 335glycine, 338in large redshift quasars, 338list of known species, 335molecular hydrogen, 337rotational transitions of, 335self-shielding, 337shielding by dust, 337types of, 338unsaturated, 338vibrational transitions of, 335

momentum four-vector, 139, 140, 154for electrons, 235for photons, 235, 275

momentum impulse, 132, 139, 165, 301morphological classification of galaxies, 77–80morphologies of clusters of galaxies, 99–102Mount Hopkins Observatory, Arizona, 11muons

decay of, 293mean lifetime of, 293test of relativistic time dilation and length

contraction, 293underground

measurements of intensity and isotropy ofcosmic rays from, 293

negative pressure equation of state, 433neutral hydrogen

21-cm line emission of, 2021-cm map of the Galaxy, 20distribution in the Galaxy, 356

neutral sheets, 320, 324, 325, 327thickness of, 326

Neutrino Astrophysics (Bahcall), 54neutrino interactions

charged current interaction (CC), 57, 58, 59elastic scattering (ES), 57, 58, 59neutral current interaction (NC), 57, 58, 59

neutrino oscillations, 57, 125and solar neutrinos, 57, 58, 59in atmospheric µ neutrinos, 58in terrestrial neutrino experiments, 58

neutrinoslaboratory limits to the masses of, 125laboratory limits to the number of species of, 126

neutrinos, solar, see solar neutrinos, 279

neutron capture γ -ray line at 2.223 MeV, 290,291

neutron degeneracy pressure, 76, 378neutron drip, 403neutron production by (γ, n) interaction, 297neutron stars, 19, 68, 76, 311, 378, 401–406

binding energy of, 379cooling by neutrino emission, 421diffusion time for magnetic field from, 311discovery of, 406–419ellipticity � due to rotation, 424galactic population of, 419–420in X-ray binary systems, 410–415internal structure of, 401–406

core region, 404inner crust, 404inverse β-decay process and, 401neutron liquid phase, 404outer crust, 404superconductivity and superfluidity and, 404–405surface layers, 403zones within, with increasing density, 403–404

magnetic dipole moment of, 408magnetic flux density of, 311mass estimates in binary star systems, 416, 417,

439predicted surface temperatures, 421rotating neutron superfluid and, 424

pinning of quantised vortices in, 424quantisation of angular momentum, 424

rotation of, 405rotational break-up speed, 405scale height of atmospheres of, 421thermal emission of, 421–422‘truly isolated’, 422X-ray emission from surfaces of, 421

neutronisation, 402Newton’s law of gravity, 759Newton’s laws of motion, 759Nobeyama Radio Observatory, 45 m millimetre

telescope, 364noise power, 779

fluctuations of, 778in thermal equilibrium, 777

noise temperatureof the receiving system Tsys, 779

non-electromagnetic astronomies, 32–34astroparticle physics, 33–34gravitational waves, 32–33neutrino astrophysics, 32

nonlinear diffuse shock acceleration, 579non-relativistic gyroradiation, 195–198

energy loss rate by, 195linear and circular polarisation of, 195,

214non-thermal emission, 5, 193




850 Index

non-thermal sourcesspectra of, 212

nonlinear diffuse shock acceleration, 576norm of four-vector, 161, 781north celestial pole (NCP), 753, 754,

755North Polar Spur, 224, 374northern celestial hemisphere, 754novae, 383, 478–479nuclear γ -ray lines

important, 292nuclear cascades, 275

number of particles produced in, 281nuclear deflagration, 479nuclear emission lines, 287–292

44Ti from supernova remnant Cas A, 289asymptotic giant branch stars, 288collisional excitation of nuclei, 289–292

cross-sections for, 289, 290in the interstellar medium, 289, 290, 291

decay of radioactive isotopes, 287–289astrophysically important examples of, 287conditions for observability of, 287–288

diffuse 26Al and 60Fe emission from the Galaxy,288

diffuse 26Al emission from the Galaxy, 288explosive nucleosynthesis and, 288supernovae and, 288Wolf–Rayet stars and, 288

nuclear emulsions, 146development of, 146discovery of elementary particle and, 146silver bromide crystals, AgBr, 146

nuclear energy generation rates in stars,43–45

nuclear int

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