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Chapter 7

Consumer Behavior,Consumer Behavior,Eighth EditionEighth Edition

SCHIFFMAN & KANUK

Consumer Learning

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The Importance of Consumer Learning to New Product Success

• Why did these products fail?

– Listerine Toothpaste

– Ben-Gay Aspirin

– Oreo Little Fudgies• Why did PocketPaks succeed?

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Importance of Learning

• Marketers must teach consumers:– where to buy– how to use– how to maintain– how to dispose of products

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Learning Theories

• Behavioral Theories: Theories based on the premise that learning takes place as the result of observable responses to external stimuli. Also known as stimulus response theory.

• Cognitive Theories: A theory of learning based on mental information processing, often in response to problem solving.

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Consumer Consumer LearningLearning

A process by which individuals acquire the

purchase and consumption knowledge

and experience that they apply to

future related behavior.

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Learning Processes

• Intentional: learning acquired as a result of a careful search for information

• Incidental: learning acquired by accident or without much effort

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Elements of Learning Theories

• Motivation• Cues

• Response• Reinforcement

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Reinforcement

A positive or negative outcome that influences the likelihood that a specific behavior

will be repeated in the future in response to a

particular cue or stimulus.

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Figure 7.1 Product Usage Leads to Reinforcement

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Behavioral Learning Theories

• Classical Conditioning• Instrumental Conditioning• Modeling or Observational Learning

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Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

A behavioral learning theory

according to which a stimulus is paired

with another stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response when used

alone.

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Instrumental Instrumental (Operant) (Operant)

ConditioningConditioning

A behavioral theory of learning based on a

trial-and-error process, with habits forced as the result of positive

experiences (reinforcement)

resulting from certain responses or behaviors.

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Figure 7.2A Pavlovian Model of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned StimulusMeat paste

Conditioned StimulusBell

Unconditioned ResponseSalivation

Conditioned StimulusBell

Conditioned ResponseSalivation

AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS

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Figure 7.2B Analogous Model of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned StimulusDinner aroma

Conditioned Stimulus6 o’clock news

Unconditioned ResponseSalivation

Conditioned Stimulus6 o’clock news

Conditioned ResponseSalivation

AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS

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Cognitive Associative Learning

• Classical conditioning is viewed as the learning of associations among events that allows the organism to anticipate and represent its environment.

• From this viewpoint, classical conditioning is not reflexive action, but rather the acquisition of new knowledge

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Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning

• Forward Conditioning (CS Precedes US)• Repeated Pairings of CS and US• A CS and US that Logically Belong to Each

Other• A CS that is Novel and Unfamiliar• A US that is Biologically or Symbolically

Salient

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Strategic Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Repetition• Stimulus Generalization• Stimulus Discrimination

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Repetition• Repetition increases

strength of associations and slows forgetting but over time may result in advertising wearout.

• Cosmetic variations reduce satiation.

Figure 7.3 Cosmetic Variations in Ads

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Figure 7.4 Substantive Variations

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Three-Hit Theory

• Repetition is the basis for the idea that three exposures to an ad are necessary for the ad to be effective

• The number of actual repetitions to equal three exposures is in question.

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Stimulus Stimulus GeneralizationGeneralization

The inability to perceive differences

between slightly dissimilar stimuli.

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Stimulus Generalization and Marketing

• Product Line, Form and Category Extensions

• Family Branding• Licensing• Generalizing Usage Situations

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Figure 7.5 Product Line

Extension

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Figure 7.6 Product Form Extensions

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Figure 7.7 Product

Category Extensions

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Figure 7-8Shoe

Manufacturer Licenses Its Name

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Stimulus Stimulus DiscriminationDiscrimination

The ability to select a specific stimulus

from among similar stimuli because of

perceived differences.

Positioning

Differentiation

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Figure 7.9 Stimulus

Discrimination

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Figure 7.10 A Model of Instrumental Conditioning

Stimulus Situation

(Need good-looking jeans)

Try Brand D

Try Brand C

Try Brand B

Try Brand A

UnrewardedLegs too tight

UnrewardedTight in seat

UnrewardedBaggy in seat

RewardPerfect fit

Repeat Behavior

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Instrumental Conditioning

• Consumers learn by means of trial and error process in which some purchase behaviors result in more favorable outcomes (rewards) than other purchase behaviors.

• A favorable experience is instrumental in teaching the individual to repeat a specific behavior.

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Instrumental Conditioning and Marketing

• Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement)• Reinforcement Schedules

– Shaping

• Massed versus Distributed Learning

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Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement: Positive outcomes that strengthen the likelihood of a specific response

• Example: Ad showing beautiful hair as a reinforcement to buy shampoo

• Negative Reinforcement: Unpleasant or negative outcomes that serve to encourage a specific behavior

• Example: Ad showing wrinkled skin as reinforcement to buy skin cream

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Other Concepts in Reinforcement

• Punishment– Choose reinforcement rather than punishment

• Extinction– Combat with consumer satisfaction

• Forgetting– Combat with repetition

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Observational Observational LearningLearning

A process by which individuals observe

the behavior of others, and

consequences of such behavior. Also known as modeling

or vicarious learning.

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Figure 7.11 Consumers Learn by Modeling

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Cognitive Cognitive Learning Learning TheoryTheory

Holds that the kind of learning most characteristic of human beings is problem solving,

which enables individuals to gain some control over their environment.

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Figure 7.12 Appeal to Cognitive Processing

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Information Information ProcessingProcessing

A cognitive theory of human learning patterned after

computer information processing that focuses on how

information is stored in human memory

and how it is retrieved.

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Figure 7.13 Information Processing and Memory Stores

Sensory Store

Sensory Store

Working Memory (Short-term

Store)

Working Memory (Short-term

Store)

Long-term Store

Long-term Store

Sensory Input Rehearsal Encoding Retrieval

Forgotten; lost

Forgotten; lost

Forgotten; unavailable

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Retention

• Information is stored in long-term memory– Episodically: by the order

in which it is acquired– Semantically: according

to significant concepts

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Table 7.1 Models of Cognitive Learning

Attention Cognitive

Action Conative PurchasePostpurchaseEvaluation

TrialAdoption

DecisionConfirmation

AffectiveEvaluation

InterestEvaluation Persuasion

KnowledgeAwarenessAwareness

Knowledge

InterestDesire

Sequential Stages

of Processing

Innovation Adoption

Model

Decision-Making Model

Tricompetent Model

Innovation Decision Process

Promotional Model

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Involvement Theory

A theory of consumer learning which postulates that

consumers engage in a range of information processing activity from extensive to limited problem

solving, depending on the relevance of the

purchase.

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Figure 7.14Split Brain

Theory

• Right/ Left Brain Hemispheres specialize in certain functions

Figure 7.14

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Figure 7.15Encouraging

Right and Left BrainProcessing

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Issues in Involvement Theory

• Involvement Theory and Media Strategy• Involvement Theory and Consumer

Relevance• Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion• Measures of Involvement

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Central and Peripheral Routes to

Persuasion

A theory that proposes that highly involved consumers

are best reached through ads that focus on the specific

attributes of the product (the central route) while

uninvolved consumers can be attracted through

peripheral advertising cues such as the model or the

setting (the peripheral route).

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Elaboration Elaboration Likelihood Likelihood

Model Model (ELM)(ELM)

A theory that suggests that a person’s level of

involvement during message processing is

a critical factor in determining which

route to persuasion is likely to be effective.

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Figure 7.16 Peripheral Route to

Persuasion

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Figure 7.17 Unexpected Headline Metaphor Increases Impact

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The Elaboration Likelihood Model

Involvement

Central Route

Peripheral Route

Peripheral Cues

Influence Attitudes

Message Arguments Influence Attitudes

HIGH LOW

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Measures of Consumer Learning

• Recognition and Recall Measures– Aided and Unaided Recall

• Cognitive Responses to Advertising• Copytesting Measures• Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of

Brand Loyalty

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Figure 7.18 Starch

Readership Scores Measure

Learning

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Phases of Brand Loyalty

• Cognitive

• Affective

• Conative

• Action

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Figure 7.19 Brand Loyalty As A Function of Relative Attitude and Patronage

Behavior

LatentLoyalty

No Loyalty

Spurious Loyalty

Loyalty

LowLow

HighHigh

HighHigh LowLow

Repeat PatronageRepeat Patronage

Relative Relative AttitudeAttitude