6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
Transcript of 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
1/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
227
Modelling the Prism of Termitarium-
Strawbale Composite Masonry for its BearingCapacity
V. S. Kamara 1, and D. P. Katale 2 and A. A. Adedeji 3 1,2Department of Civil Engineering, Namibia University of Science
& Technology (former Polytechnic of Namibia),Windhoek, Namibia
3Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
The paper reports the response of termitarium-strawbale composite prism (T-SBP) under compression (vertical) and thermal (lateral)loads, using SAP2000 for the finite element method of analysis. Theanalysis was carried out considering the same thickness of T-SBPformed rectangular section with different heights. The parameters ofstresses under certain pressures and their comparative results were
obtained from stresses and applied loads. The comparison of theresults between the termitarium plastered strawbale masonry and thecement plastered strawbale masonry shows that the former has muchmore stresses affected by the loadings than the later, given thatmaximum allowable stress, due to compression and thermal loads,for termitarium plastered strawbale wall is 62.2kN/m 2 and of thecement is 9.6kN/m 2.
Keywords
SAP2000, termitarium, strawbale, prism, stress rectangularmasonry, composite, finite element method.
1 Introduction
1.1 Termitarium
Beca use of the c limatic con dition in most part of the Namibia ,shapes and si zes of habited an d aba ndoned termite mo ulds do exist ,
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
2/30
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
3/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
229
plastic foams, styro-foam and expanded perlite (Manohar andYarbrough, 2003). Besides their long-term financial benefit are the
use of inorganic insulating materials that may be harmful to humanhealth and body and also can cause environmental pollution, such asemissions of toxic gas and particle, and stick to skin (Liang and Ho,2007). Also, the production of these materials is highly energyintensive and the eventual disposal is an environmental hazard(Panyakaew and Fotios, 2008). Therefore, alternative materialshaving same or better properties as the conventional material needtobe explored as it can offer lower cost (Mohd et al., 2011).
One of the alternative materials that has been widely investigated isthe strawbale material which is very innocuous and can be used as astructural and durable element for a two-storey building to replacesandcrete wall.
2. Methodology
A typical example of prototype stacked strawbale plastered withtermitarium soil is shown in Figure 1 from which different prism
heights were cut out, subjected to compression and thermal loads.The data collected for the proper execution of this project werecollected from these properties data are presented in the Table 1.
Special attention was paid to the wall models for its time-dependence due to static loads from thermal and compressive forcesfor the analyses and optimisation design. Eigen-value solutions wereembarked upon using two applications using SAP2000 and LISA. Inthe analysis, the masonry panels, in the form of prism, were
provided for the prescribed loads for various heights, while thestrawbale size remained constant for various termitariumthicknesses of 10, 15, and 25 mm.
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
4/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
230
Table1 Materials property for termitarium-strawbale prism (T-SBP)Property of sample of T-SBP Detail Data (Static
analysis)Sample material Termitarium-
Strawbale PrismElastic modulus (E)
N/mm 2 Termitarium 6000.00Strawbale 200.00
Poisons ratio Termitarium 0.30Strawbale 0.23
Dimension of T-SBP Strawbale 890mm x 220mm x220mm
Vertical load, kN T-SBP 42Thermal horizontalequivalent load, kN
T-SBP 1.92
Moisture Contents Termitarium 17.50 %Strawbale 5.5%
(a) Composite wall
(b) One-string strawbale block
Figure 1 Plastering of stacked strawbale blocks with termitarium soil
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
5/30
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
6/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
232
Quality of database was considered before proceeding formodelling
2.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions
These are to be fixed before the commencement of the analysisusing software: e.g., essential, natural and mixed boundaryconditions.
2.3 Solutions
Preparation of mathematical formulation Qualitative formulation: the need to explore without expletivelysolving qualitative analysis
Quantitative formulation: by taking into consideration theanalytical, physical and computation method.
Pre-processing and post-processingWhen FEM is to be considered, the two above are carried out: Pre-processing, here parameters were given as domain
geometry, initial and boundary conditions and constants for the problem formulation.- Value of universal constants;- Formulation of grid; mesh generation of the domain into
mesh generation that encompasses decretisation of thedomain in to elements/nodal points;
- Dimensioning for 2D; and- Performing the real simulation of the problem with
particular numerical method.(In other words, this involves
modeling of the structure, specifying the type and strengthof the materials, applying all the relevant loads andspecifying the code to be used for the analysis and design)
Post-processing: Results were obtained and processed for thereflection in terms of tables, charts, graphs, contours, bar charts etc.(i.e. This stage involves the interpretation of the results produced bythe software (Adedeji, 2007).
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
7/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
233
3. Analysis Investigation
In order to carry out the analysis, Eigenvalue solution was obtained by the application of SAP2000 in the following sequences:
- Creation of model;- Finite element incidences;- End conditions;- Load application;- Solution analysis types;- Analysis of the input; and- Extent of output results.
The prism masonry panel was systematically subjected tocompressive and horizontal thermal loads for various heights of the
panel. Response of the panels, leading to the variation in stresseswas observed to conclude results.
3.1 Termitarium-Strawbale Prism (panel) Dimensions
1 bale size is 890mm x 220mm x 220mm (L P x B P x H P) (Bruce,
2006)Prism (plastered strawbale at H p= 470 mm) has size: 890mm x240mm x 480mm (including termitarium plaster thickness t T =10mm on each side).Prism (plastered strawbale at H p = 710 mm) has size: 890mm x240mm x 710mm (including termitarium plaster thickness t T =10mm on each side).Prism (plastered strawbale at H p = 1040 mm) has size: 890mm x240mm x 1040mm (including termitarium plaster thickness t T =
10mm (minimum thickness on each side). See Figure 2 for thevariation in slenderness ratio.
3.2 Application of Loads
Vertical load N = N B + N T at N T=2N B, then load on N B = N = N T + 0.5N T Where N B = compression load on strawbale and N T = compressionload on termitarium panels. It is assumed that 2t T +t B = B P
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
8/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
234
Figure 2Termitarium-strawbale prism of different slendernessratio ( )
4. Modal Analysis
4.1 Design of a Plastered Strawbale Wall
The optimal design using finite element was embarked upon andwas based on conduction, convection, cost function and loading.Analyses involved expressions for the constraints of conduction,convection, and cost function for the generation of loading equations,while data was input to obtain the required solutions. Figure 3 showsthe cross-section of strawbale wall of a building and also shows theloading applied to the wall. Where H P = height of the strawbale wall,tB = thickness of the strawbale (28t T mm), t T = thickness of the
plaster (15mm each), B P = total thickness of the plastered strawbalewall (30t T mm), b = breadth of the wall (assumed value = 1000mm),ww = wind load (0.33kN/m height (Asonibare 2007, Adedeji and Ige2011)), Q = heat transfer through the plastered strawbale wall, w f =foundation load, w r = roof load, u = earth pressure (upthrust).
= = 2 = = 3 = = 4
890 mm
tB tT
B p
890 mm 890 mm
tT
H p
B p
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
9/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
235
tT
Figure 3 Cross section of a strawbale wall with applied loading.
In order to determine the stress generated in the T-SBP,isoparametric element represented in Figure 4 was used.
w r (kN/m)
Strawbale
Plaster(Termitarium soil)
w f (42 kN/m)
wh(kN/m)
Q
tB tT
BP
u (kN/m )
H p
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
10/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
236
Figure 4 Isoparametric element definitions
4.2. Generation of Equations for the Discrete Elements.
The elements are higher order two dimensional isoparametricquadrilateral and triangular elements. For the quadrilateral elementsaselement type 1 is shown in Figure 4, while its shape function is
expressed in Equation (1) and other interpolation functions areshown in Equations (2) to (11).. The interpolation function (Shapefunction) is defined for the four nodal points as;
N1 =14
1 + r 1 + s
N2 =14
1 r 1 + sN3 =
1
41
r 1
s
N4 =14
1 + r 1 s (1)
Hence, the coordinate interpolation for the element is;
x = N 1 x1 + N 2 x2 + N 3 x3 + N 4 x4y = N 1 y1 + N 2 y2 + N 3 x3 + N 4 y4
(2)
4
12
3
b
a
r
s
Element type I
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
11/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
237
And the displacement interpolation function is also given as;
u = N 1 u1 + N 2 u2 + N 3 u3 + N 4 u4v = N 1 v1 + N 2 v2 + N 3 v3 + N 4 v4 (3)
The element strain is given as;
T = xx yy xy (4) where;
xx =
u
x:
yy =
v
yand
xy =
u
y+
v
x (5)
Evaluating the displacement, we need to evaluate
r = J x (6) Where J is the Jacobian operator, shown as;
rs= xr yrxs ys
xy (7)
For any value of r and s, 1 r + 1 and 1 s +1,r = r iand s = s j
The stiffness matrix is calculated from,
= T dvv
or = T tA (8)
The element stress is given as;
= = = xy
xy
(9)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
12/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
238
where
x =
E
1
2
xx +
E
1
2
y
y = E12xx + E12yxy = E2 1 2 xy (10)
also,
=1
2
1 01 0
0 0 12 (11)
5. A Typical Analytical Example
In order to verify the capability of this numerical procedure, thefollowing assumptions are made for the termitarium plasteredstrawbale wall and the properties in Table 1 were also considered.With the use of SAP2000 (Adedeji and Ige 2011, Lofti 2001), the
analytical example shown in Figure 5 refers to show the effects ofcontact between the strawbale and the plastering composition. A
particular value was entered on a computer system, using SAP2000,as the applied loads and quantities of the heat energies, which wastransferred by conduction and convection i.e. Composite (combined)stress constraint values of height, h, = 0.48, 0.71 and 1.01 m withtotal maximum thickness, B P, = 0.45m.
5.1 Stability Analyses
The loading on the strawbale structure used in this work is basicallythe static loading i.e. applied loads (both vertical and horizontalloading), the load due to the self weight of the wall and the upthrust.
These loadings are shown below:
(a) Vertical Loading
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
13/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
239
(i) Upthrust, U = 0.5hbt for quadrilateral structures = 4.5 kN
In which = density of water, h = height of upthrust, b = breadth ofupthrust, t = thickness.
tT
Figure 5 Termiterium-strawbale wall under loads
wr (42 kN/m)
Strawbale
Plaster(Termitarium soil)
w f (42 kN/m)
wh(2.25kN/m)
H p(0.47, 0.71, 1.0m )
Q
tB 220
~ 240) tT
BP(240 ~ 450)
u 10.0 kN/m )
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
14/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
240
(ii) Foundation load and roof load (assumed) W f = W r = 18kN
(iii) Plaster self weight,W T = V T= 8.83kN(iv) Strawbaleself weight,W B = V B= 10.04kN
Therefore, total vertical loading = 42.24 kN
(b) Horizontal Loading
(i) Heat transfer, W q= (0.3 + 1.62) = 1.92kN/m x 1 = 1.92kN
Therefore, total horizontal loading = 1.92 + 0.33 = 2.25kN
(c) Sliding Criteria
Factor of safety; F.S. = Net vertical loading= 18.67 Net Horizontal loading
Therefore, (18.67 kN> 1.6, Hence, sliding criteria is favorablysatisfied.
5.2 Stresses Analysis Using SAP2000
The Figures 6 12show the diagrammatic procedure for theanalytical example (combined loading) from SAP2000 on how thestructure has been analyzed for the prism slenderness ratio, = 2and 3). It should be noted that all the analysed prism have zero
coordinates origin at their principal axes.
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
15/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
241
Figure 6Applied loads on termitarium plastered strawbale wall( = 2,3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
16/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
242
Figure 7 Deformed shape of termitarium plastered strawbale wall ( =2,3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
17/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
243
Figure 8 Shear force diagram of termitarium plastered strawbalewall ( = 2,3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
18/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
244
Figure 9 Bending moment diagram of termitarium plasteredstrawbale wall( =2,3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
19/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
245
Figure 10 Minimum stress diagram of termitarium plasteredstrawbale wall ( =3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
20/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
246
Figure 11 Maximum stress diagram of termitarium plasteredstrawbale wall ( =3)
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
21/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
247
Figure 12 Both minimum and maximum stress diagram oftermitarium-plastered strawbale wall( =3)
However, Figure 13 shows the discretization of the wall intofinite elements. The results shown in Table 3are the typical values of
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
22/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
248
the stresses from the analytical example (combined loading) fromSAP2000 and the stresses between the plaster composition and the
strawbale as well as the stresses in the middle of the strawbale.
Figure 13 Discretization of the plastered strawbale wall
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
23/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
249
Table 3 Stresses within the termitarium plastered strawbale wall.Area AreaElem S11Top S22Top SMaxTop SMinTop SAngleTop
Text kN/m 2 Degrees
12 1 1.91 44.56 47.09 -0.62 -76.682
12 1 -9.38 14.4 16.7 -11.68 -73.456
12 1 3.77 -15.52 6.49 -18.24 -19.387
12 1 -1.32 -44.44 1.19 -46.95 -13.191
13 2 -4.58 -60.78 -1.23 -64.13 13.344
13 2 2.51 -21.78 6.69 -25.96 20.96213 2 -10.84 20.12 23.57 -14.3 72.414
13 2 4.68 60.8 64.16 1.33 76.639
14 3 -9.93 14.29 15.16 -10.8 -79.43
14 3 -0.28 4.78 6.03 -1.54 -65.978
14 3 -1.01 -5.04 0.43 -6.49 -27.228
14 3 4.23 -15.43 5.29 -16.49 -12.737
15 4 2.97 -21.69 5.06 -23.77 15.588
15 4 -0.65 -3.2 3.59 -7.43 38.304
15 4 -0.73 2.92 6.76 -4.57 54.419
15 4 -11.41 20 21.69 -13.09 77.294
16 5 -1.62 4.51 5.35 -2.47 -70.846
16 5 -0.74 4.16 5.13 -1.7 -67.883
16 5 -0.2 -4.34 0.89 -5.43 -24.482
16 5 0.74 -4.69 1.66 -5.61 -20.884
17 6 1.06 -2.86 4.4 -6.2 34.163
17 6 0.41 -1.93 4.27 -5.79 38.248
17 6 -1.01 1.82 5.49 -4.69 53.058
17 6 -2.35 2.6 5.63 -5.39 58.345
18 7 -1.81 46.45 49.42 -4.77 -76.474
18 7 -0.092 44.16 47.26 -3.19 -75.645
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
24/30
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
25/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
251
-0.74 4.69 2.51 5.67 -1.72 68.615
-1.19 2.83 -4.84 6.06 -4.42 -56.288
-0.13 1.99 -4.82 5.87 -4.01 -51.205
-1.34 -2.29 -4.82 3.03 -6.66 -42.21
0.11 -3.05 -4.84 3.62 -6.56 -35.962
-0.6 -46.94 12.32 2.47 -50.01 14.004
-2.32 -44.64 12.1 0.9 -47.85 14.879
-0.38 44.1 12.1 47.18 -3.45 75.726
-1.95 46.43 12.32 49.38 -4.91 76.502
1.47 63.53 -15.61 67.24 -2.23 -76.648
2.89 60.45 -15.39 64.3 -0.97 -75.929
-6.26 -61.12 -15.39 -2.24 -65.14 -14.649
Table 3 cntdSVMBot S13Avg S23Avg SMaxAvg SAngleAvg
KN/m 2 Degrees
46.94 -8.96 -27.37 28.8 -108.13
23.79 -8.96 -7.67 11.8 -139.43
22.86 4.04 -7.67 8.67 -62.257
47.95 4.04 -27.37 27.66 -81.612
63.74 5.63 38.03 38.44 81.577
30.21 5.63 11.46 12.77 63.839
32.04 -12.32 11.46 16.83 137.066
62.93 -12.32 38.03 39.97 107.954
21.62 7.65 -8.45 11.4 -47.822
6.8 7.65 -1.81 7.86 -13.329
7.1 -4.16 -1.81 4.54 -156.458
20.4 -4.16 -8.45 9.42 -116.23
27.12 -2.88 12.26 12.59 103.201
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
26/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
252
9.75 -2.88 0.4 2.9 172.084
9.58 8.47 0.4 8.48 2.703
29.37 8.47 12.26 14.9 55.359
6.5 9.96 -2.78 10.34 -15.591
5.96 9.96 -2.55 10.28 -14.349
6.05 -10.31 -2.55 10.62 -166.123
6.7 -10.31 -2.78 10.68 -164.918
9.11 -8.48 1.63 8.64 169.141
8.6 -8.66 1.06 8.72 173.0368.58 15.36 1.03 15.4 3.829
8.94 14.98 1.57 15.06 6.003
51.29 19.16 -28.79 34.59 -56.351
48.31 19.16 -27.25 33.32 -54.884
49 -17.44 -27.25 32.35 -122.614
52.01 -17.44 -28.79 33.66 -121.201
68.38 -15.74 40.29 43.26 111.338
64.79 -15.74 38.26 41.37 112.359
64.05 20.94 38.26 43.62 61.312
6. Discussion of Results
It was observed from the analysis that the minimum and maximumstresses between the plaster compositions and the strawbale materialshows that the use of termitarium plaster can hold a strawbale fromdeflecting for the wall prism of H P = 2. The adequacy of this type ofdesign can be measured in terms of the minimum acceptable drift ofthe strawbale work system. The minimum acceptable drift is given
by as 1m H P 4m and 0.36m BP 0.45 m, where B P is themaximum thickness attained, H P is the height of the strawbale wall.For the height of the strawbale H P = 1m and thickness, B P = 0.45m,the maximum stresses allowable and calculated using SAP2000 are
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
27/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
253
also shown in the Tables 4 and 5 for both cement (Adedeji, 2011)and termitarium plaster composition.
Table 4.Minimum and maximum stresses between each of the plaster compositions and the straw bale material.
Outside plaster
Inside plaster
Plastercomposition
Minimumstress
Maximumstress
Minimumstress
Maximumstress
*Cement -9.8 9.6 -19.3 18.3
Termitarium -60.0 62.2 -6.3 6.5*Adedeji (2011)
Table 5Differences between the allowable and calculated stressesfor both plaster compositions.
Wall composition Maximumallowable stressMaximum calculatedstress using SAP2000
*Cement plasteredstrawbale wall 70.14kN/m
2 38.836kN/m 2
Termitarium plasteredstrawbale wall 73.14kN/m
2 67.452kN/m
2
*Adedeji (2011)
7. Concluding Remarks
Termitarium plastered strawbale wall as a material has shownadequate resistance against vertical loading, as there are referencedevidences in this case. In the same vein, the comparison of theresults between that of termitarium plastered strawbale wall and ofthe cement show that the earth wall has much more stresses affected
by loading than the cement (i.e. maximum stress for termitarium plastered strawbale wall is 62.2kN/m 2 and of cement is 9.6kN/m 2).This implies that under higher load, which is above the allowablestresses, the collapse or response of the strawbale Termitariummasonry will be significantly higher compared to that of cementstrawbale masonry.
Also the allowable stresses (i.e. 70.14kN/m 2 for cement plastered strawbale masonry and 73.14kN/m 2 for termitarium
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
28/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
254
plastered strawbale masonry) are lower than that of the calculatedstresses using SAP2000, i.e. 38.836kN/m 2 for cement plastered
strawbale masonry and 64.2kN/m2
for the termitarium plasteredstrawbale masonry, which implies that the stress stability of the plastered strawbale wall are adequate after using the best fitvariables for wall design.
From this work, it could also be recommended that further work bedone on this project to incorporate other aspects on other plastercomposition to produce optimum solutions to engineering problems.
ReferencesAdedeji A A and S. P. Ige, (2011) Comparative Study of SeismicAnalysis for Reinforced Concrete Frame Infilled with masonry andShape Memory Alloy Wire, Trends in Applied Science Research,Academic Journal Inc., 6(5), pp 426-437,DOI:10.3923/tasr.2011.426-437.
Adedeji, A. A. (2010), Interaction Analysis and Optimal Design of
Composite Action of Plastered Straw Bale, MultidisciplineModeling in Materials and Structures, Emerald Group PublishingLimited, Vol. 7 No. 2, 2011, pp. 146-169, DOI10.1108/15736101111157091
Adedeji, A. A. (2007), Introduction and Design of Straw baleMasonry, Olad Publishers & Printing Enterprises.
Adedeji, A. A. (2002), Thermal Effects on the Bearing Capacity of
Earth Wall in Optimal Design, Association for the Advancement ofModelling and Simulation Techniques in Enterprises (AMSE),France, Modelling B-2002, Vol.71.No.3, pp.17 28.
Adedeji, A. A. (2006), Seismic Analysis of Earth Wall GravityDams Using Decoupled Modal Approach, Department of CivilEngineering, University of Ilorin, Global Research Publication,Vol.1, No. 1, pp. 1-17.
-
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
29/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
255
Amazon nails (2001), Information guide to straw-bale building, Nebraska, pp 1-82.
Bruce King, (2003), Load-bearing straw bale structures asummary of testing and experience to date, Ecological Building
Network (EBNet), www.ecobuildnetwork.org/strawbale .
Bruce King (2006), Design of Straw Bale Buildings, Green BuildingPress, San Rafael, CA.
Kamara, V. S. and D. P. Katale. 2012. Comparison of the
Compressive Strength of Stabilised Termitarium Brick withConventional Concrete Bricks Produced in Namibia, Proceedings ofCIVIL2012 @ UNILORIN 4th Annual &2nd InternationalConference of Civil Engineering, 4-6 July, 2012, pp.225 232.
Liang, H.H., M. C. Ho. 2007. Toxicity characteristics ofcommercially manufactured insulation materials for buildingapplications in Taiwan. Construction Building Materials, 21,
pp.1254-1261.
Lofti, V. (2001), Seismic Analysis of Concrete Gravity Dams usingDecoupled Modal Approach in Time Domain, Electronic Journal ofStructural Engineering, Vol. 3, www.ejse.org , pp.102 116.
Manohar, K., Yarbrough, D.W. (2003). A comparison ofBiodegradable Fiber Insulation with Conventional FibrousInsulation, Proceedings of the International Conference on ThermalInsulation, Volume 18, January 13 15, White Sulphur Springs, WestVirginia,U.S.A., Product Safety Corporation, pp.133-140.
Miller, B. E. (1992), Optimization of building design variables, MS,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University,Fort Collins, Co.
Mohd, Y.Y., H. Sihombing, A. R. Jeefferie, M. A. Z. Ahmad, A. G.Balamurugan, M. N. Norazman, A. Shohaimi. 2011. Optimizationof coconut fibers toward heat insulator applications. GlobalEngineers & Technologist Review, Vol.1, No.1, pp.35-40.
http://www.ecobuildnetwork.org/strawbalehttp://www.ecobuildnetwork.org/strawbalehttp://www.ecobuildnetwork.org/strawbalehttp://www.ejse.org/http://www.ejse.org/http://www.ejse.org/http://www.ejse.org/http://www.ecobuildnetwork.org/strawbale -
8/11/2019 6Kamara_USEP 9(2)_2012
30/30
Kamara, et al. USEP: Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering, 9(2), 2012
256
Nehemiah. S, (2003), Thermal performance of a strawbale wallsystem and ecological building network, www.ecobuildnetwork , pp
1-7.
Panyakaew, S., S. Fotios.(2008). Agricultural waste materials asthermal insulation for dwellings in Thailand. Preliminary Results,PLEA 2008 25th Conference on Passive and Low EnergyArchitecture, Dublin, 22nd to 24th October 2008.
http://www.ecobuildnetwork/http://www.ecobuildnetwork/http://www.ecobuildnetwork/http://www.ecobuildnetwork/