638 EVS 312 Unit 1 Solved End Term Paper (1)
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Transcript of 638 EVS 312 Unit 1 Solved End Term Paper (1)
BBA VI SEMESTER
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (BBA 312)
3 YEARS- END-TERM PAPER SOLUTION (PAPER-2011, 2012, 2013)
QUESTIONS OF UNIT-1
PAPER 2011:
Q.I. Write short notes on any three of the following:
(a) Major WTO provisions relating to environment
Ans. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and
liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under
the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The
organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a
framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process
aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by
representatives of member governments.
There are several provisions in the WTO agreements dealing with environment. There is a
reference to sustainable development as one of the general objectives to be served by the WTO
in the Marrakech Agreement which established the WTO. There are provisions in the
Agreement on Agriculture and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). However
by far and away the most important provisions as far as environmental issues are concerned are
Article XX of the GATT and the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.
1. Article XX of the GATT: Article XX specifies what activities are exempt from GATT
rules. These exemptions give members very wide latitude to control trade to protect the
environment. They include protection of national security, protection of morals,
preservation of national cultural heritage. Of particular importance is the right to waive
the rules in order to protect human, animal, plant, health and safety.
2. Preventing abuse – the role of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
(SPS): Such provision stated that decisions be based on science and a process of risk
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assessment introduced transparency into decision-making by creating a visible check on
abuse of executive discretion. This not only protected the rights of members of the WTO,
it also gave assurance to consumers that governments were not abusing their powers.
3. Preventing abuse II – the role of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT):
The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). It was designed to reduce the
scope for countries to use technical standards as disguised barriers to trade. It obliges
members to ensure that national treatment and non-discrimination apply when technical
standards are adopted as mandatory regulations.
Sound regulation, standards and eco-labeling: There is large body of standards which aim
to improve the quality of goods and services and provide information to consumers. Most
of these are national standards and are set by national standard setting organizations. A
set of international standards is produced by the International Standards Organization.
Well-known quality standards developed by that organization include the ISO 9000
series (to improve quality in organizations) and ISO 14000 (to set quality standards to
improve environmental management.). Eco-labelling systems are applied by commercial
entities for the information of consumers, these are voluntary standards.
(b) Factors of land degradation
Rapid increase in industrialization, urbanization and other activities or
civilized man have exercised a tremendous impact on the soils and on
other components of the biosphere.
Deforestation or Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has
brought about serious changes both in land and water.
The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused
great soil erosion.
Soil erosion has resulted in a great increase in run-off, pollution
turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water
reservoirs
Water-logging
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Excessive use of chemicals
agricultural mismanagement
soil salinity
fuel wood consumption
Climatic factors such as rainfall, temperature, etc.
Over-exploitation of land for short-term gain
Overgrazing
Planting unsuitable crops
Poor crop rotation
poor soil and water management
Frequent use of heavy machinery such as tractors, etc.
Q.2. (I) What is Sustainable Development? Highlight the major concerns of sustainable development.
Ans. Concept of Sustainable Development: The concept of sustainable development was brought into focus by Brandtland Report.
The concept of Sustainable Development provides a framework for the integration of developmental strategies with environmental protection. This concept includes reducing excessive resource use and enhancing resource conservation, recycling & reuse of materials, waste minimization with proper technological input and scientific management of renewable resources.
In other words, sustainable development concept underscores that rate of consumption or use of natural resources should approximate the rate at which these resources can be substituted or replaced.
To maintain a balance between environment and development, it is necessary to strive sustainable development to meet the needs of present generation without closing option for future generation.
Sustainable Development maintains a balance between social and economic development along with protection of the environment. Thus, in order to prevent an ecological crisis and for a new sustainable society, the following strategies should be followed:
Conservation and reduction of excessive use of resources. Recycling and reuse of materials. More use of renewable resources (solar energy) than non-renewable resources (oil, coal)
for energy.
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Therefore, sustainable development means concerns for protecting environment and avoiding depletion of non-renewable resources. It refers to equity, i.e., equal access to resources.
Major Concerns or Issues to be resolved to achieve the sustainable development:
1. Transformation of Attitude: One of the best way to achieve sustainable development is through transformation of attitude. We must inculcate the habit of sufficiency. It requires thorough transformation at local, national & global level. We must consider it for the interest of future development.Earth’s Summit slogan for future growth: “Let us do something for the next generation”
2. Principle of Justice & Equity: The principle emphasize that injustice and inequity between developed and developing countries should be eliminated or minimized. For this, national leaders and international Institutions have responsibility for sound development of economies and environment.Slogan: “The Polluter must have to pay”
3. Eradication of Poverty: In order to achieve sustainable development, poverty in developing countries must be reduced. The poor people being poor cause more environmental degradation. It is rightly said by Ms. Indira Gandhi at UN Conference in 1972 at Stockholm, “Poverty & Needs are greatest pollutants”
4. Human Settlement Issues: Human settlement conditions especially in developing countries are deteriorating mainly as a result of low investment in sectors like housing & social welfare. The focus of human settlement programmes should be on:
Providing shelter to all Providing infrastructure such as water, managing sewage and solid waste Promoting land-use management Promoting energy & transport system, etc.
5. Biodiversity: Biodiversity helps in achieving sustainable development as the country which is rich in biodiversity can generate more revenues than other countries. It is unfortunate that human activities cause decline in the biodiversity. Thus, we can prevent or increase biodiversity by conserving our flora & fauna.
6. Business & Industry: Business & Industry play a very important role in achieving sustainable development since, they can change production process. They can check the level of emission of pollutants.
7. Conservation of resources using several techniques: Various methods should be adapted to conserve natural resources as well as the environment.
Adopting Integrated approach for planning & management of land resources Adopting rational approach for the management of forest and forest lands-
dealing with the issues of environmental problems such as deforestation. Sustainable forest development, afforestation, production of forest products and
forest services should be focused upon. Recycling and reuse of materials Alternative for fossil fuels
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8. Agriculture: Adjustments are required in agricultural policy for increasing food production and farm products. To achieve the sustainable development, it is necessary to understand environmental implications arising out of the fertilizers, pesticides and methods used in agriculture.
9. Prevention of resources from degradation: Natural resources can be prevented from degradation through:(a) Watershed Development/ Rain-water harvesting(b) Treatment of Affected Areas in terms of air, water and soil by discouraging those
practices that can further degrade those areas. Fir this, Govt. initiative is required.For example: (1) Govt. banned on the construction of tubewells without the permission of MCD in Delhi; (2) Delhi Govt. has shifted many industries from residential location to its outskirts.
(c) Transfer of technology: Further degradation can be prevented by transfer of technology from low efficient o high efficient devices. For example: Use of CNG vehicle on place of Diesel.
(d) Biomass Production: Use of Animal waste, domestic waste, sewage from which energy can be derived is a great source. Manure is the best way of handling waste. This gives clean fuel and reduces further depletion of soil & water.
(e) Remote-sensing: Remote-Sensing is done for survey of affected areas, with the help of Remote-sensing satellites.
10. Using appropriate technology: is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves local resources and local labour. Indigenous technologies are more useful, cost-effective and sustainable. We should use that technology which uses less of resources and should produce minimum waste.
11. Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: Sustainability of a system depends largely upon the carrying capacity of the system. If the carrying capacity of a system is crossed, environmental degradation starts and continues till it reaches a point of no return.
12. Prompting environmental education and awareness: Making environmental education the centre of all learning process will greatly help in changing the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and the environment.
13. Reduce, reuse, recycle approach: The 3-R approach advocating minimization of resource use, using them again and again instead of passing it to the waste stream and recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the goals of sustainability. It reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces wastage of resources and pollution.
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Q.2. (II) Explain the major provisions of Kyoto Protocol. What are the market-based
emission trading mechanisms provided under the Protocol?
Ans. The Kyoto Protocol has the same ultimate objective as the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the stabilization of atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame
sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food
production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable
manner.
At the first United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of the
Parties in Berlin in 1995, the Contracting Parties reviewed the commitments by the developed
countries under the Convention and decided that the commitment to aim at returning their
emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000 was inadequate for achieving the Convention's long-
term objective. The Conference adopted the "Berlin Mandate" and launched a new round of
negotiations on strengthening the commitments of the Contracting Parties from developed
countries. At the third Conference of the Parties in Kyoto in 1997, the Parties adopted the Kyoto
Protocol.
Key Provisions
In accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, Contracting Parties from developed
countries are committed to reducing their combined greenhouse gas
emissions by at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012.
The targets cover the six main greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), along with some
activities in the land-use change and forestry sector that remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere (carbon "sinks"). Each Contracting Party from
developed countries is required to have made demonstrable progress in
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implementing its emission reduction commitments by 2005.
Implementation of the legally binding Protocol commitments promises to
produce an historic reversal of the upward trend in emissions from
developed countries.
The Kyoto Protocol also establishes three innovative mechanisms, known
as joint implementation, emissions trading and the clean development
mechanism, which are designed to help Contracting Parties included in
Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
to reduce the costs of meeting their emission targets. The clean
development mechanism also aims to promote sustainable development in
developing countries. The operational details of these mechanisms are now
being fleshed out by the Contracting Parties.
The procedure for the communication and review of information is
established in the Kyoto Protocol. Contracting Parties from developed
countries are required to incorporate in their national communications the
supplementary information necessary to demonstrate compliance with their
commitments under the Protocol in accordance with guidelines to be
developed. The information submitted shall be reviewed by expert review
teams, pursuant to guidelines established by the Conference of the Parties,
which is the supreme body that shall regularly review and promote
effective implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.
The Protocol provides that the Contracting Parties shall periodically review
the Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information and
assessment on climate change and its impacts. The first review will take
place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the
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meeting of the Parties to the Protocol. Further reviews shall take place at
regular intervals and in a timely manner. A framework for a compliance
system is required to be developed under the Protocol.
Market-based trading mechanisms provided under Kyoto Protocol:
Three mechanisms have been established under the Kyoto Protocol: ET, the clean development
mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation (JI).
1. Emissions trading
Emissions trading is established by Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. Annex I Parties may
participate in ET for the purposes of fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. ET is closely
related to the accounting of assigned amounts under the Kyoto Protocol, the modalities of which
are defined under the following Articles of the Kyoto Protocol:
(a) Article 3: paragraphs 7 and 8 deal with the establishment of assigned amounts;
(b) Article 3: paragraphs 10, 11 and 12 deal with the transfer and acquisition of some types of
units;
(c) Article 7: paragraph 4 deals with the modalities for accounting assigned amounts.
A summary of decisions by the CMP relating to the above Articles is presented in the annex,
table 1.
2. Clean development mechanism
The CDM is established by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist non-Annex I Parties in
achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the
Convention, and to assist Annex I Parties in achieving compliance with their quantified emission
limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3.
The CDM is supervised by the Executive Board which, inter alia, recommends modalities and
procedures for the CDM to the CMP and performs operational functions under the authority and
guidance of the CMP.
3.Joint implementation
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Joint implementation is established by Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist Annex I Parties
in meeting their commitments under Article 3.
A host Party of an Article 6 project that meets all the eligibility requirements for participation
may verify its own emission reductions by sources or enhancements of removals by sinks from
JI projects and issue the resulting emission reduction units (so-called Track 1). If a Party does
not meet those requirements, such verification takes place through the verification procedure
under the Joint
Implementation Supervisory Committee (JISC) (so-called Track 2). The JISC operates under the
authority and guidance of the CMP.
Q3 a) What are different types of natural resources? How can the resources be economised
in the process of economic development?
Ans: Natural Resources
Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by
humanity, in a natural form. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them
are essential for our survival while most are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources may
be further classified in different ways.
There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage
of development, and by their renewability.
1. On the basis of Origin:
(i) Biotic – These are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such
as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such
as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from
decayed organic matter.
(ii) Abiotic – These are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of
abiotic resources include land, fresh water, airand heavy metals including ores such
as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.
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2. On the bases of their stage of development:
(i) Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used
in the future. For example petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but
until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
(ii) Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and
quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual
resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost
involved.
(iii) Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in
the future is called a reserve resource.
(iv)Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used
by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.
3. On the bases of Renewability:
(i) Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these
resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not
noticeably affected by human consumption.
(ii) Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not
naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this
category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of
consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil
fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow
(potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.
4. On the basis of their Distribution:
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(i) National Resources - National resources are those resources that are available within the
national boundaries of a country. In this respect, a few examples would be the minerals and lands
available in profusion in the country.
(ii) Multinational Resources - Multinational resources are those that are shared by more
than one country between two geographical boundaries. Rivers, migratory animals and lakes are
definite examples.
(iii) International Resources - These resources are shared by all nations and are provided in
bounty to all the countries in the earth. Oceans, air, solar energy and precipitation are a few
examples of international resources.
There are two fundamental facts that constitute the economising problem. Society’s material
wants, that is, the material wants of its citizens and institutions, are virtually unlimited, or
insatiable and another is Economic resources which means of producing goods and services—are
limited or scarce.
1. Unlimited wants
At any given time, the individuals and institutions that constitute society have innumerable
material wants unfulfilled. Some of these material wants—food, clothing and shelter—have
biological roots. The social and cultural environment in which we live influence our material
wants as well. As a group, our material wants are unlimited and are incapable of ever being
completely satisfied.
2. Scarce resources
All the natural, human and manufactured resources that go into the production of goods and
services which require innumerable types of labour; and land and mineral resources of all kinds
If our resources are scarce, we cannot satisfy all of society’s material wants.
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Society wishes to use its limited resources efficiently; that is, it wants to obtain the maximum
amount of desired goods and services producible with its available resources. To achieve this, it
must achieve both full employment and full production. Economics is a science of efficiency—
efficiency in the use of scarce resources.
a. Full employment
Full employment means that all available resources should be employed: no workers
should be involuntarily out of work; no capital equipment or arable land should sit idle. For
example, legislation and custom provide that children and the very aged should not be employed.
Further, it is desirable for productivity to allow land to lie fallow periodically. Along with this,
some resources will need to be conserved for the future.
b. Full production
The employment of all available resources is, however, insufficient to achieve efficiency. Full
production means that all employed resources should be used to make the most valued
contributions to output. If we fail to achieve full production, economists say that our resources
are underemployed.
Full production implies that two kinds of efficiency—allocative and productive efficiency are
achieved.
i. Allocative efficiency means that resources are devoted to the combination of goods and
services most wanted by society. For example, society wants CDs rather than records. The most
desired combination of goods and services is known as optimum product mix.
ii. Productive efficiency occurs when the least costly production techniques are used to produce
the desired goods and service.
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PAPER 2012
Q.1. (d) PIL
Ans. Public Interest Litigation means a legal action initiated in a court of law regarding a matter
which relates to or is connected with the interest of the public. Its purpose is to provide justice to
the ordinary people. It has been devised for those people who are unable to approach the court on
their own because of their deprived conditions, i.e., illiteracy, poverty, social and economic
backwardness, lack of awareness.
The PIL can be filed by a third party if the constitutional rights of an individual or group of
individuals are violated. In such case the individual or groups of individuals is not able to move
court personally for justice because of poverty, helplessness, lack of awareness or socially and
economically disadvantaged conditions. The petitioner of the PIL does not file it for personal
gain or private profit. He/she does not file it for political or other oblique motivation.
The PlL can also be filed by a petitioner by writing a letter to the court.
The right of a person to file a suit or conduct a litigation in a court of law is known as 'Locus
Standi'.
There are two types of PILs :
i) Representative Social Action and
ii) Citizen Social Action
i) Representative Social Action:
This is a form of PIL whereby any member of the public can seek judicial redressal for a legal
wrong caused to a person or a determinate class of persons who by reason of poverty, or socially
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and economically disadvantaged position, is unable to approach the court. In such case, the
petitioner is ‘accorded locus standi’ to sue as the representative 'of other person or group.
ii) Citizen Social Action:
In a PIL, under this category a Petitioner sues not as a representative of a class, but as a member
of the public to whom a public duty is owed. hence, the aim of this category of PIL is not to
improve access to justice for the poor unlike a Representative Social Action, but to vindicate
rights that are diffused among the public to be enforced, though no traditional individual right
exists.
Advantages
The first and foremost advantage of PIL is access to a National Forum of decision
making and power by those who were until now voiceless and invisible.
The relaxation from long procedural formalities and thus, ensuring the poor people to
have access to justice.
The relaxation of the rule of locus standi has resulted in representative action where a
person or a group, with a sufficient interest in a particular cause, litigates on behalf of a
large number of others who cannot afford the cost of litigation.
PlL has also given the court an opportunity to address important issues in areas like
environmental protection, consumer protection etc., which affect a large number of
people.
The acceptance of even letters and telegrams by the courts, as PILs, reduces the cost of
such litigation and also encourages public spirited individuals and groups to bring to the
notice of the court any situation which requires the Courts interference.
The appointing of commissions by the courts as fact finding bodies to check into the
allegation made in the petition has established a new mode of proof. These commission
reports have formed the basis of direction of the court in cases complaining of violation
of rights.
The monitoring by the Court of the implementation of the directions at periodic intervals
to ensure compliance, enable the vindication of rights in practice. The monitoring
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function has also often been vested in vigilance bodies with participation of Social
Action Groups.
Q.2. (a) What is ecosystem? Discuss various types of ecosystem.
Ans. ECOSYSTEM
According to GEORGE JACKSON, an Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants,
animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all of the non-living things.
An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all the characteristics to support life.
Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban ecosystem are
some of the examples for ecosystems.
An ecosystem varies in sizes from a few square kms to hundreds of square kms. Similarly an
ecosystem may be temporary like a fresh pool / agriculture field or permanent like a forest /
ocean. In an ecosystem both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic environment (rainfall,
temperature, humidity) each, influencing the properties with other for maintenance of life.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS: Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries
to control biotic community as well as physico chemical environment.
Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.
Natural Ecosystem: These ecosystem are more stable. Under the natural conditions, a
variety of ecosystem operates themselves such type of ecosystem are called Natural
ecosystem. Natural ecosystem are of following types:
(1) Terrestrial ecosystem
(2) Aquatic ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem
This ecosystem relates to biotic components
living on the land. Vegetation dominates the
community and the types of vegetation affect
the climate, soil structure & a rapid exchange
of O2, water & CO2
Aquatic Ecosystem
This ecosystem relates to biotic community
living in water. The types of water ( fresh
water, saline water, polluted water ) dominate
and affect the pH of water, depth of water,
temperature of water etc..
Aquatic ecosystem has been sub-divided into
fresh water and saline water based on the
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quality of water.
I. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:
Eco system that exists in water is known as aquatic ecosystem . Water is the primary
requirement for life in biological community. The aquatic ecosystems range from a small
pond to a large ocean.
Varying quantities of nutrients are carried from terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem by the
movement of water and deposited in aquatic ecosystems. The life in aquatic communities is
influenced mostly by physical factors like:
Water depth;
amount light;
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temperature;
salinity of water and
amount of oxygen and Carbon dioxide.
Aquatic ecosystems are broadly classified into fresh water and marine water ecosystems.
In some regions, the marine and fresh water environment overlaps creating “Estuaries”.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
FRESH WATER MARINE ESTUARIES
Eg. lakes, ponds, streams,
river water
Eg. salt lakes, seas, oceans Eg. water bodies
Mix of fresh water and sea
A. Freshwater Ecosystem- (Pond/ Lake Ecosystem)
A pond is a small area of still water, especially is artificial whereas a lake is a large area of
water body and the water is natural. The life span of ponds range from a few weeks or
months and whereas the life span for lakes depend upon their location, size and depth.
Depending upon temperature, the upper part of the lake becomes warm and is called
eplimnion and the lower part of the lake becomes cold which is called as hypolimnion.
These two zones are separated by thermocline zone which acts as a barrier to exchange of
material / nutrients within the pond.
During rainy season, entire water body gets same temperature due to mixing of water while
in non-rainy season very small amount of mixing occurs by surface waves due to wind blow.
A freshwater ecosystem is of 2 types:
1. Lotic (Flowing water): eg. freshwater streams, springs, rivers, etc.
2. Lentic (Stagnant/ Still water): eg. ponds, lakes, swamps, etc.
The components of freshwater ecosystem are as follows:
1. Abiotic (non-living) Components: include Heat; light, pH value of water; organic
compounds ( water, CO2, O2, Ca, N, P ..)
2. Biotic (living) Components: include:
A) Producers- eg. Green plants, photosynthetic bacteria, etc.
B) Consumers- are classified as:
Primary (Herbivores) –eg. Zoo plankton
Secondary (Small Carnivores)- eg. Small fishes. They serve on primary
consumers.
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Tertiary (Top Consumers)- eg. Large fishes. They depend on secondary
consumers.
C) Decomposers- eg. Bacteria, fungi, etc.
B. Marine Ecosystem (or Ocean Ecosystem):
The marine environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals. The
major oceans of the world are Atlantic; Pacific; Indian, Arctic and Antarctic. These are deep
and life extends to all its depths. The sea water contains salt content in the form of NaCl and
rest are Mg, Ca, K .
The components of marine or ocean ecosystem are as follows:
1. Abiotic Components- eg. Chemical components, oxygen, temperature, light, etc.
2. Biotic Components- include:
A) Producers- eg. Phtoplanktons, green algae, sea weeds, red algae, etc.
B) Consumers- are classified as:
Primary (Herbivores)- eg. Small fishes
Secondary (Carnivores)- eg. Shad, mackerel (carnivores fishes)
Tertiary (Top carnivores)- eg. Cod, halibut, etc.
C) Decomposers- eg. Marine fungi and bacteria
C. Stream & River Ecosystems:
Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. Out of all natural ecosystems, rivers
are the most intensively used ecosystems by man. The organization of river and stream
ecosystem includes:
1. Abiotic components: include volume of water, speed of water flow, dissolved oxygen
content, temperature etc.. The energy flow usually the organic matter which is being
imported from adjacent terrestrial ecosystems.
2. Biotic components: include Producers ( algae, grass, amphibians ); consumers ( leaches,
water insects, snails, fishes, crocodiles, reptiles ) and Decomposers (bacteria, fungi,
protozoa).
D. Estuarine Ecosystem
Estuary is the area at the mouth of the river joins the sea and continents. It has a free
connection with the open sea and is thus strongly affected by tidal action. Estuaries are
mixed with fresh water from land drainages. River mouth, coastal bays, tidal marshes etc.
are the examples for estuarine ecosystem.
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Estuaries are one among the naturally fertile in the world. The components of
The components of Estuarine ecosystem are as follows:
1. Abiotic Components- eg. Nutrients received from land as well as sea; rooted plants
2. Biotic Components- include:
A) Producers- Three major life forms of Autotrophs play a significant role in grass
production. They are (a) macrophytes ( sea weeds, sea grass, spartina, Thalassia,
marsh grass, nagrove trees ) (b) Phytoplankton and (c) Benthic flora (algae ).
B) Consumers- eg. Zooplankton, Oysters, shrimps, crabs and some species of fishes
capable of surviving in estuarine conditions form primary, secondary, tertiary
consumers of the estuarine ecosystem.
C) Decomposers- Decomposers include bacteria and fungi which actively take part in
the breaking down the complex and dead organic matter ( Fungi of actinomycites ).
II. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM:
Terrestrial ecosystem is of following types:
A. Forest Ecosystem
B. Desert Ecosystem
C. Grassland Ecosystem
D. Cropland ecosystem
A. Forest Ecosystem:
Forest is a type of terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem. It consists of trees, shrubs or woody
vegetation occupying an extensive area of land. Forests are important renewable resources.
A different types of forests are seen on this earth. The type of forest depend upon its
geographical location and environment factors ( Temperature and moisture ) that influence
the kind of vegetation that occur in an area.
Types of forests:
1. Savannas: These forests develop where a seasonal rainfall occurs. The grass lands of
North Africa are known as savannas. Eg: North Africa, America, Burma & India.
2. Tropical forests: These exits in areas of good rainfall (>200cm per year) with uniform
warm temperature. The Soils found in there forests are old, acidic in nature & poor in
nutrients. Eg: Amazon rain forest (South America, India).
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3. Deciduous forests (or) Temperate forests: Deciduous forests consists of broad leaved
trees & occur where rainfall is plenty (750 - 1000 cms per year). Eg: Europe & North-East
America.
4. Coniferous forest: These occur in areas with long winters with heavy snowfall.
In other words, where moisture is limited & rainfall is low. Herbivores (animals eating
plants) & insects exist in these forests. Eg: Moscow.
(5) Tundras: These are the large flat Arctic regions of Northern Europe, Asia and North
America where no trees grow and where the soil below the surface of the ground is always
frozen. The growing season is short and plants grow very slowly.
Following are the types of forests present in INDIA:
1. Tropical, forests present in Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala.
2. Deciduous forests present at Dehradun, Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, M.P.,
U.P.
3. Littoral and swamp forests present at Sunderbans in West Bengal and Andaman islands.
4. Tropical Thorn forests present in New Delhi, Punjab and Gujarat.
5. Mountain wet temperature forests present at Nilgiri and Palani hills.
6. Alpine scrub forests present at Ladakh and Sikkim.
The components of forest ecosystem are as follows:
A. Abiotic Components: are non-living components of forest ecosystem. These include:
1. Inorganic Nutrients- eg. Ca,N,P,s,K,etc. are found in the soil in a large quantity.
2. Organic Compounds- includes dead remains of palnts and animals such as carbohydrates, fats,
etc.
3. Climatic factors- eg. Temperature, light, rainfall, humidity, etc.
B. Biotic Components: are living organisms of forest ecosystem. These include:
(a) Producers: Green plants (producers) is classified as a biotic components. In a forest, there are
different types of plants, trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns, etc.
(b) Consumers: comprise of 3 categories:
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Primary Consumers: are herbivores animals which depend directly on producers (green
plants). Eg. Beetles, flies, ants, grasshoppers, spiders, deer, elephants, rats, etc.
Secondary Consumers: are primary carnivores which depend on primary consumers. Eg.
Snakes, fox, wolf, frogs, eagles, vultures, jackals, etc.
Tertiary Consumers: are top consumers (top carnivores) which depend on secondary
consumers. Eg. Lion, tiger, leopard, etc.
(c) Decomposers: are the micro-organisms which depend on dead-organic matter. The micro-
organisms include:
Bacteria
Fungi
Myxomycetes, etc.
B. Desert Ecosystem:
Desert consists of bare-ground or bush covered by land, where the average annual rainfall
is less than 25 cm. In India, abou17% land is desert. Eg. Thar Desert
The components of desert ecosystem are as follows:
1. Abiotic Components: includes Dry soil with poor nutrients, days are hot and nights
are cold, low humidity, high temperature and less water, etc.
2. Biotic Components: includes:
a) Producers: includes Bushy shrubs, scanty trees, xerophytic vegetation, etc.
Eg. Cactus, bunch grass, etc.
b) Consumers: includes:
Primary (Herbivores): eg. Camel, jack, rats, rabbits, insects, etc.
Secondary (Carnivores): eg. Reptiles, lizards, fox, snakes, insect-
eating birds, etc.
Tertiary (Top carnivores): eg. Vultures, wild cats, etc.
c) Decomposers: eg. Fungi, bacteria. Due to scarcity of plants and animals, dead
organic matter is less and hence, decomposers are also few in number.
C. Grassland Ecosystem:
Grasslands are characterized by tall or short grasses, herbs and shrubs, with low rainfall.
They occupy about 19% of the earth’s total surface.
The components of a grassland ecosystem are as follows:
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1. Abiotic Components: includes-
a) Inorganic or nutrient elements- eg. S, Ca, K, Mg, N,P, etc.
b) Organic matter- eg. fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc. derived from dead organic
matter or plants or animals.
c) Climatic factors- eg. light, high temperature, low rainfall, etc.
2. Biotic Components: includes-
a) Producers: eg. grasses, herbs, shrubs
b) Consumers: are classified as:
Primary Consumers: They feed directly on grasses and include herbivores
animals like cows, goats, buffaloes, mouse, rabbits, etc.
Secondary Consumers: These are primary carnivores animals that feed on
herbivores such as lizards, snakes, jackals, fox, etc.
Tertiary Consumers: These are called Top consumers. They depend on
secondary consumers. Eg. Hawks, eagles, vultures, tigers, leopards, etc.
c) Decomposers: includes microbes, bacteria, fungi, etc.
D. Cropland Ecosystem (or Agro Ecosystem):
Cropland, also called artificial ecosystem, is a man-engineered ecosystem.
The components of cropland ecosystem are as follows:
1. Abiotic Components: includes-
a) Inorganic or nutrient elements- Eg. S, Ca, Mg, S, K,P, etc.
b) Organic matter- includes fats, proteins derived from dead plants and animals.
c) Climatic factors- includes light, temperature, rainfall, etc.
2. Biotic Components: includes-
a) Producers- crops such as wheat, pulses, vegetables, etc.
b) Consumers- are classified as:
Primary consumers- are called as Herbivores. Eg. Insects, beetles, rats,
rabbits, etc.
Secondary consumers- are called as primary carnivores. Eg. frogs, fox,
jackals, etc.
Tertiary consumers- are called as top consumers. Eg. hawks, snakes, etc.
(B) Discuss the various causes for the soil and land degradation.
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Land degradation
Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by
combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land also environmental degradation is
the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals
activities or natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any
change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are
excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods
and bush fires. Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide
range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the
environment around it:
A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land. This can be
seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a
loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients.
Action in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be
measured from a base line of past land use.
Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in
the environmental quality.
Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to
destruction or crisis. This is measured through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of
crisis or destruction.
Causes
Land clearance, such as clear cutting and deforestation
Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
Livestock including overgrazing and over drafting
Inappropriate irrigation and over drafting
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Urban sprawl and commercial development
Soil contamination
Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals
Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as
hedgerows and copses disappear
Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment
Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem
Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastic
In recent years industrial effluents and wastes have become causes of land and water pollution in
several parts of India. Degradation of natural vegetation caused by over-grazing by animals.
Deforestation and careless management of forests. Mining and industry are two important
activities of man which cause degradation of land. Surface mining lead to degradation of land.
There are certain natural causes soil degradation such as running water, glaciers, wind etc. The
mineral processing like grinding of lime stone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for
ceramic industry generates heavy amount of dust and releases it in the atmosphere. It latter on
settles down in the surrounding areas affecting infiltration of water and crop cultivation.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion
refers to the wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind or
through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.
Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions – soil detachment,
movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and soil life, is
relocated elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is carried "off-site" where it fills in
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drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and contributes to the pollution of
adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.
Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming
rate, causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure,
poor internal drainage, salinization and soil acidity problems are other serious soil degradation
conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.
Direct causes of degradation
Deforestation of unsuitable land Deforestation is both a type of degradation as such, and also a
cause of other types, principally water erosion. Deforestation in itself is not necessarily
degrading without it, most productive agricultural lands (in the temperate zone as well as the
tropics) would not be available. Deforestation becomes a cause of degradation first, when the
land that is cleared is steeply sloping, or has shallow or easily erodible soils; and secondly,
where the clearance is not followed by good management.
Overcutting of vegetation. Rural people cut natural forests, woodlands and shrublands to obtain
timber, fuelwood and other forest products. Such cutting becomes unsustainable where it
exceeds the rate of natural regrowth. This has happened widely in semi-arid environments,
where fuel wood shortages are often severe. Impoverishment of the natural woody cover of trees
and shrubs is a major factor in causing both water erosion and wind erosion.
Overgrazing . Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensifies above the
livestock carrying capacity. It leads directly to decreases in the quantity and quality of the
vegetation cover. This is a leading cause not only of wind erosion, but also of water erosion in
dry lands. Both degradation of the vegetation cover and erosion lead to a decline in soil organic
master and physical properties, and hence in resistance to erosion.
Extension of cultivation onto lands of longer potential and/or high natural hazards. These
are also called 'fragile' or marginal lands. Historically the more fertile, or high-potential,
agricultural lands were the first to be occupied. Population increase has led to the widespread use
of lands of longer potential, those which are less fertile or have greater degradation hazards.
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Overpumping of groundwater. In areas of non-saline ('sweet') groundwater, the technology of
tubewells has led to abstraction of water in excess of natural recharge by rainfall and river
seepage. This has progressively lowered the water table, as in Iran, India and Pakistan.
Q.5. (II) Explain forest degradation. What are the different environmental issues related to
Mega Hydroelectric Projects/ Dams?
FOREST DEGRADATION
According to FAO (2006), Forest Degradation is the changes within the forest which negatively
affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply
products and/or services. This takes different forms particularly in open forest formations
deriving mainly from human activities such as overgrazing, overexploitation (for fuel-wood or
timber), repeated fires, or due to attacks by insects, diseases, plant parasites or other natural
sources such as cyclones.
Forest degradation means any negative changes in a forest that damage its productivity; any time
a forest is made worse by
overexploitation (any time it is used too much by farmers or tourists),
logging (deforestation),
logging camps and
logging roads built through the forest.
air pollution,
fires,
insects and
vegetation diseases.
firewood scavenging
animal foraging
pasturing
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industrialisation (factories)
urbanisation (buildings)
The causes of forest degradation have economic, social, ecological, policy and institutional
dimensions, and could be categorized as:
Natural factors:
Physical environmental factors: sloppy topography, fragility, erosion by wind and water,
soil fertility decline, low organic matter and associated physical problems, salinity,
alkalinity, bush fires, etc.
Climatic factors: insufficient and variable total rainfall, unpredictable variation in rainfall
pattern within and between seasons, occurrence of intermittent but serious drought
periods that affect natural and plantation forests, etc.
Biological factors: diseases and pests, e.g. high malaria and tsetse infestations in the
lowlands leading to burning of forests and woodlands and, hence, constraining tree
planting practices; aggressive perennial plants; termite attack, etc.
Anthropogenic factors:
Deforestation – destruction, clearing or incineration of forest and woodland resources for:
(i) expanding crop cultivation spurred by the ever-increasing human population coupled
with several constraints preventing/narrowing possibilities of options for economic
diversification; (ii) charcoal and wood production meant for domestic requirements of
energy (because of shortage or lack of alternative sources of energy), construction
material (because of shortage or lack of alternative sources of construction materials) and
carpentry/household utensils as well as for sale to generate income and support
household livelihood; (iii) urgently required socio-economic/infrastructural development,
namely re-settlement, mining, road construction, etc.
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Overgrazing/grazing by livestock: leading to soil compaction, herbivore damage of
seedlings and hampered natural regeneration.
Unsustainable utilization: improper and unplanned harvesting practices resulting in
wastage of wood (because of very low recovery rates) and damage to the residuals
trees/plants and stands
Introduction of invasive alien species: resulting in the displacement of the native forest
flora in particular and biodiversity in general.
Socio-economic and policy-related factors:
Poverty, population growth and poor economic performance: declining standard of
livelihood of the farming communities and their close dependence on forests and
woodlands have lead to clearing/burning for subsistence farming, cutting of trees/shrubs
for fuelwood and charcoal production (both for consumption and sale), construction
material, overgrazing, burning associated with traditional apiculture, etc.
Inadequate or Absence of land-use classification, land use and forest policies and
legislation: lack or inadequate policies and legislation that lay down guidelines for
development, conservation and sustainable utilization as well as research in forests;
Absence of land and tree tenure/ownership right: because trees have long gestation
period, the decision to plant trees is generally influenced by farmers’ perception of risks
and absence of secured access to land that reduces investment risks.
Lack of pricing and incentive policies: “under pricing” of fuelwood and construction
wood that occurs as a result of “open access” to forest resources in state and communal
land.
Inadequate institutional arrangements/set-up for forestry: low profile given to forestry by
Governments and frequent restructuring of forestry institutions leading to discontinuity
of planned activities and inadequate budget, qualified manpower and infrastructure.
Inadequate or lack of viable forestry development strategies: inadequate participation of
rural population and no demand-driven forest development strategy.
Weak forestry research system: general absence forest research policy that clearly defines
research directions, priorities, strategies, and weak performance that has not been able to
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generate knowledge and technologies useful for forest development, conservation and
utilization.
Insufficient information acquisition, management and dissemination: lack of or
insufficient knowledge about forests, woodlands and their components leading to
inappropriate management and utilization as well as inadequate conservation practices
and lack of or insufficient awareness of the environmental role of forestry by
communities; etc.
Environmental Issues related to Mega Hydro-electric Projects/ Dams:
Ans. Dams are the means to store the water in the river valleys and to release it for hydro-electric
projects, irrigation or other purposes as required. There are various benefits of constructing
dams. Some of the benefits include - year round water supply, use of reservoirs to breed fishes,
multi-river valley projects used for inland water navigation, manage droughts, etc.
Despite various benefits, dam create a number of environmental problems, such as they alter
river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and flood plains, and
destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal species, particularly is
the case with mega dams. Some of the problems are mentioned below:
Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of areable farmland and forest and
land submergence
Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces agricultural
productivity
Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and ecosystems,
deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal
people.
Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and livelihood
Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal people
Dislodging animal populations
Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
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Large landholders on the canals get the lion’s share of water, while poor and small farmers
get less and are seriously affected leading to conflicts. Irrigation to support cash crops like
sugarcane produces an unequal distribution of water.
Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards due
to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases, such as malaria,
schistosomiasis, filariasis.
PAPER 2013:
Q.1. What is Biodiversity? Discuss its importance. Explain major causes and consequences
of degeneration of biodiversity.
The variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity is commonly referred to as biodiversity.The
number of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in
these species, the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs
are all part of a biologically diverse Earth. The existence of biodiversity of species helps in
resisting any extreme disturbances caused to the ecosystems by natural calamities. It is also
essential to deal biodiversity of plants, animals and microorganisms at the levels of terrestrial
fresh water and marine systems. Many pharmaceuticals have traditionally been derived from
plants and animal sources. Extracting medicines from plants are worth over 60 billion dollars a
year (Govt. of India 2006). The total percentage of the people in tropical areas depends upon
traditional medicines. Penicillin and tetracycline and amongst the 3000 antibiotics extracted from
micro-organisms. Guggal is an oleogum which is used in ayurvedic medicines for its anti-
inflammatory, anti-rheumatic and hypocholesteral activity.
Why Is Biodiversity Important?
Beacause it provides following services:-
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Provisioning Services
Products obtained from ecosystems:
diverse food products
timber and fuel
textiles
medicinal products
fresh water
Regulating Services
Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes:
regulate our climate
control floods
pollinate crops
purify our water
absorbs CO2 gases
stops erosion
Cultural Services
Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems:
beautiful landscapes
a sense of place
cultural heritage
peace and tranquillity
a healthy environment
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recreation and tourism
Biodiversity matters for a whole variety of reasons: ethically, emotionally, environmentally and
economically. It is at the very foundation of our society and the basis of our economic success
and wellbeing. Living things, the rocks and soils, water and air interact to provide a range of
conditions that favour life on Earth. If the ecological systems that support life on Earth collapse
or radically change, our very existence is threatened. Soil biodiversity alone influences a huge
range of processes and functions vital to ecosystem services. From the harvesting of fish to the
growing of timber, biodiversity provides the source for an enormous range of products we
consume and use. Many pharmaceuticals, as well as soaps, starches, rubber, oils, dyes, and
fabrics, have been derived from wild plant products – and many more are yet to be discovered.
At the larger ecosystem scale, biodiversity plays an enormous role in regulation of the
atmosphere, of the water cycle and the nutrient cycles of the soil. From flood control to soil
conservation, the annual contribution of these services is worth millions.
The Causes and Consequences of Degeneration of Bio-Diversity
Biodiversity contains various species, sub-species, and types. Different species and sub-species
have different types of nature and qualities.
These nature and qualities are exploited by mankind for benefit and progress, e.g., we use some
types of vegetation for food purpose and some types of animals for transportation and some
others for food also. But, this bio-diversity gets degenerating due to some or the other reasons as
narrated below:
a. Over exploitation of a particular type of species gets them reduced to such a lower number to
sustain.
b. Some species of birds are in danger due to hunting and/or loss of their natural habitats.
c. Some animals are also on the verge of extinction because of hunting, loss of their natural
home in forests etc.
d. Some species of animals and birds are used for medicinal and experimental purposes.
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.
e. Some forests are being destroyed for urbanization and with them gets destroyed habitation of
many species of living beings.
f. Climate change also destroys species because some species cannot adapt to such changes.
g. Sometimes some natural calamity or sudden change in geographical set-up may destroy
species.
Consequences:
Such degeneration of bio-diversity creates imbalance in the food-chain. This does not only affect
the nature but also human being and their daily activities. Such changes also destroy “other
species dependent upon the diversity, e.g., oceanic activities change chemistry of oceanic climate
that destroy corals and some other organisms dependent upon them.India is one of the 12
countries with most bio-diverse area. So, naturally its economical, cultural and social activities
are closely related to them
Q 2 (a). What is Agenda 21?
Ans. Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations
with regard to sustainable development. It is a product of the UN Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It is an action agenda for the
UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be
executed at local, national, and global levels. The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century.
It has been affirmed and modified at subsequent UN conferences.
It offers policies and programmes to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption,
population and the Earth’s life-supporting capacity. It describes some of technologies and
techniques that need to be developed to provide for human needs while carefully managing
natural resources. Agenda 21 does not shun business. It says that sustainable development is the
way to reverse both poverty and environmental destruction.
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Structure of Agenda 21:
Agenda 21 is a 300-page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into
4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combatting poverty,
especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health,
achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Includes
atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments,
conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the
management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and
youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and
strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation: implementation includes science, technology
transfer, education, international institutions and financial mechanisms.
Agenda 21 calls on governments to adopt national strategies for sustainable development. These
should be developed with wide participation, including non-government organizations and the
public. Agenda 21 puts most of the responsibility for leading change on national governments,
but says they need to work in a broad series of partnerships with international organizations,
business, regional, state, provincial and local governments, non-governmental and citizens’
groups.
As Agenda 21 says, only a global partnership will ensure that all nations will have a safer and
more prosperous future.
Q. 2(b). Explain the salient features of RIO declaration on Environment and Development.
Ans. The 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development defines the rights of the
people to be involved in the development of their economies, and the responsibilities of human
beings to safeguard the common environment. The declaration builds upon the basic ideas
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concerning the attitudes of individuals and nations towards the environment and development,
first identified at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972).
The Rio Declaration states that long term economic progress is only ensured if it is linked with
the protection of the environment. If this is to be achieved, then nations must establish a new
global partnership involving governments, their people and the key sectors of society. Together
human society must assemble international agreements that protect the global environment with
responsible development.
There are a number of principles to the Rio Declaration. The main features of the declaration are:
People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Development today must not undermine the developmental and environmental needs of
present and future generations.
Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing
environmental damage beyond their borders.
Nations shall develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that
activities under their control cause to areas beyond their borders.
Nations shall use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertainty shall not be used to
postpone cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an
integral part of the development process, and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in different parts of the
world are essential to achieve sustainable development and meet the needs of the
majority of people.
Nations shall cooperate to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the
Earth’s ecosystem. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they
bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their
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societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources
they command.
Nations should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption, and promote appropriate demographic policies.
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens.
States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making
environmental information widely available.
Nations shall enact effective environmental laws, and develop national law regarding
liability for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. Where they have
authority, nations shall assess the environmental impact of proposed activities that are
likely to have a significant adverse impact.
Nations should cooperate to promote an open international economic system that will
lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries. Environmental
policies should not be used as an unjustifiable means of restricting international trade.
The polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution.
Nations shall warn one another of natural disasters or activities that may have harmful
trans-boundary impacts.
Sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems.
Nations should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of
sustainability.
The full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development. The
creativity, ideals and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are
needed too. Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests of
indigenous people.
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Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development, and Nations shall respect
international laws protecting environment in times of armed conflict, and shall cooperate
in their further establishment.
Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.
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