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INDEX

1979 Decision see Enabling Clause

Accra Declaration, aims 33African Agricultural Markets

Programme (AAMP), overview372–3

African, Caribbean and Pacific Groupof States (ACP)

Cotonou Agreement see CotonouAgreement (EU–ACP EPA)

objectives 75African Development Bank (AfDB),

support for trade integration364

African Economic Community (AEC)AU relationship 244–5budgetary process 249–50collective self-reliance 27establishment

date xxxstages 386–7Treaty 244

federation, approach to 30financing 245–9Heads of State Assembly 26monetary union 348–9NEPAD, relationship with 368–70Protocol on Relations with RTAs

145, 238relationship with regional bodies

362–4revenue-raising problems 251–4RTAs as pillars xxx–xxxi, 75, 362sanctions, provision for 16transport development, importance

of 384

African Growth and Opportunities Act(AGOA) (USA)

challenges 404–5eligibility 405–6GSP provisions 403–4overview 403–6purpose 403success 406trade facilitation 404

African Peer Review Mechanism(APRM), use of 3

African RTAs see Regional TradeAgreements, African

African Union (AU)Accra Declaration 33AEC see African Economic

Community (AEC)agriculture, importance stressed

367budget (Figure) 250Lagos Plan of Action 30member state contributions (Figure)

253NEPAD see New Partnership for

Africa’s Development (NEPAD)Union Government Proposal 29

Afrique Equitoriale Francaise (AEF),creation 342

agricultureAAMP see African Agricultural

Markets Programmes (AAMP)CAADP see Comprehensive Africa

Agriculture DevelopmentProgramme (CAADP)

cooperation by RTAs 366–8exclusion from EPAs 139, 393

471

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472 index

agriculture (cont.)framework agreement see Trade and

Investment Framework forAgriculture (TIFA) (USA)

importance stressed 367integration challenges and solutions

374–6programmesRTAs, commitments and

developments see specific RTAse.g. Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)

safeguard measures 312–13tariff continuation 78

aid, foreign see foreign aidair transport

liberalization, need for 382regional policies 382–3

AlgeriaAMU

agricultural trade 374membership 202–3

bilateral agreements 207ICT development 378

Alliance for Commodity Trade inEastern and Southern Africa(ACTESA), overview 373

Angolaconflicts 238ECCAS membership 237EPA negotiations 75, 395–6, 401ICT development 379multiple membership of RTAs 75SADC membership 211

anti-dumpingas ‘other restrictive regulations of

commerce’ 112rules of origin 113specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)WTO rules 110, 298–9

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)agriculture development 374Bank for Investment and External

Trade 208–9bilateral agreements with European

countries 207–8cooperative agreements 363economic achievements 205–11

financing 254free movement measures 205–6Greater Arab Free Trade Area

(GAFTA) 210integration

progress 204, 206–7sequencing of steps 204

membership 202–3non-tariff barriers reduction 205–6objectives 203organizational structure 204–5overview 202–4tariff reduction 205–6trade facilitation 209transport development 205–6

armed conflictsas to migration 27effects on regional integration 26,

237–8Article XXIV see GATT Article XXIVAsia, trade with 83–4

Bank of Central Africa, overview 347–9Benin

constitutional supremacy 284ECOWAS

disputes 282–3membership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2ICT development 379revenue sharing 46WAEMU membership 153–4, 155–6,

350Bhagwati, Jagdish, ‘spaghetti bowl’

analogy of RTAs 65, 76–9Bilateral Investment Promotion and

Protection Agreement (BIPPA)(South Africa–Zimbabwe),jurisprudence 293–7

Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs)413–14

bookmain themes xxviii–xxxiipurpose xxvii–xxviii

BotswanaEPA negotiations 75, 230, 396–7,

401industry protection 6






index 473

inter-regional trade 83–4livestock exports 162multiple membership of RTAs 70–2,

75national tariff body 229road transport development 385SACU

commitments 226–7membership 223, 402

SADCcommitments 216membership 211

Burkina FasoCEN-SAD membership 232ECOWAS

membership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2WAEMU membership 155–6,

350Burundi

COMESA membership 166EAC

membership 181political union, support for

195–6ECCAS membership 237EPA negotiations 400inter-regional trade 83–4revenue sharing 49variable geometry decision, and 53,

56

CameroonCEMAC membership 342ECCAS membership 237EPA negotiations 400ICT development 379revenue sharing 39USA BIT 413

Cape VerdeECOWAS


150–2WAMZ membership 156

CEN-SAD see Community ofSahel-Saharan States(CEN-SAD)

Central Africacentral bank see Bank of Central

Africacustoms union see Union Douaniere

et Economique de l’AfriqueCentrale (UDEAC)

economic community see EconomicCommunity of Central AfricanStates (ECCAS)

EPA negotiations 394, 400monetary community see Economic

and Monetary Community ofCentral Africa (CEMAC)

Central African RepublicAGOA eligibility 405–6CEMAC membership 342ECCAS membership 237revenue sharing 39

Central Bank of West African States(BCEAO)

legal framework of payment system352

overview 351–2payment system 351–2

CFA Franc Zonechallenges 358–9devaluation of 1994, success

359Euro exchange rate 343Euro Zone crisis, and 359–60

ChadCEMAC membership 342CEN-SAD membership 232ECCAS membership 237inter-regional trade 83–4migration programme 388revenue sharing 39World Bank, aid from 365

Chinaaid from 365–6, 414–15Forum on China-Africa

Cooperation (FOCAC) 419SACU FTA negotiations 419–20Swaziland, technical cooperation

419–20trade with 32, 418

collective self-reliancepolitical leaders’ calls for 28–31RTAs’ commitments 27–33






474 index

colonialism, integration during 11–12,19–20, 38, 342 see alsopost-colonialism

COMESA see Common Market forEastern and Southern Africa(COMESA)

Committee on Regional TradeAgreements (CRTA)

effectiveness 87, 99GATT Article XXIV and 109–10,

119–20common external tariff (CET)

absence 113, 126–7effect of EPA negotiations

401Free Trade Agreements 80–2multiple membership of RTAs, and

79–82specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)Common Market for Eastern and

Southern Africa (COMESA)and AAMP 372–3and ACTESA 373AEC, Protocol on Relations 145agriculture development 179, 370,

371–3air transport policy 383–4anti-dumping actions 305–8cooperative agreements 363collective self-reliance 27–8common external tariff 169–70, 171,

178–9Common Investment Area (CCIA)

172–3communications development 173cooperation, areas of 172–4countervailing measures 309–12Court of Justice, primacy of

decisions 16customs union 169–70, 177–9development fund 27–8EAC

free trade area 202Joint Task Force 219Memorandum of Understanding

180–1rules of origin 186–7

Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP)173, 179–80

energy sector development 173,179–80

EU, aid agreement 365financing 255free movement measures 173free trade area 167–9, 174–5,

386–8ICT development 380–2IGAD

Memorandum of Understanding180–1

relations 164–5infrastructure development 173integration

progress 174–81sequencing of steps 167

inter-regional integration 364inter-regional trade 83–4investment development initiatives

172–3IOC, Memorandum of

Understanding 180–1judiciary 265–8jurisdiction 266–8membership 166monetary union 170–1multiple memberships of parties 70,

81–2non-tariff barriers reduction 176–7objectives 17, 165–7overview 165–7RATES and 371–2rules of origin 171–2SADC, Joint Task Force 180–1, 219safeguard measures 63, 302–5,

312–13science and technology development

173–4Simplified Trade Regime 177subsidies, countervailing measures

309–12sugar industry, safeguard measures

63, 312–13tariff reduction 167–70, 174–6, 375trade remedy regime

overview 298–300






index 475

provision of remedies 300–2remedies

transport development 173, 385wheat industry, safeguard measures

63, 312–13common market, RTAs’ commitments

see specific RTAs e.g. ArabMaghreb Union (AMU)

Communaute Economique del’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEAO),multiple memberships ofparties 72

communications see information andcommunications technology(ICT); transport

Community of Sahel-Saharan States(CEN-SAD)

agriculture commitments 233, 236cooperation agreements 233financing 254–5free trade area 234–5membership 232overview 232progress 235–6Regional Food Security Programme

236strategy 233tariff reduction 234–5trade liberalization programme 233transport development 236–7Treaty 233–7

ComorosCOMESA membership 166EPA negotiations 400

Competitiveness and Trade Expansion(COMPETE), overview 372

Comprehensive Africa AgricultureDevelopment Programme(CAADP)

implementation 370, 372–4objectives 179overview 366–8

conflicts, armed see armed conflictsCongo (Democratic Republic)

armed conflicts 238COMESA membership 166ECCAS membership 237USA BIT 413

Congo (Republic)CEMAC membership 342ECCAS membership 237revenue sharing 39USA BIT 413

corporate mergers, integration through40

costs see also transport costseffect of multiple membership of

RTAs on 78, 79–82of integration, adjustment through

variable geometry 41–9Cote D’Ivoire

AGOA eligibility 405–6ECOWAS

commitments 149membership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2EPA negotiations 74, 399–400ICT development 379Mano River Union 4multiple membership of RTAs

74WAEMU membership 153–4, 155–6,

350Cotonou Agreement (EU–ACP EPA)

benefit for developing countries141–2

Enabling Clause, andmultiple membership of RTAs 75overview 132–3WTO waiver process, and 133–4

counterfeit goods, measures against422–3

countervailing measuresas ‘other restrictive regulations of

commerce’ 112rules of origin 113specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)customs clearance, increased efficiencycustoms union

formation requirements 87–90meaning 79, 89, 101RTAs’ commitments see specific

RTAs e.g. Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)






476 index

Dam, Kenneth, and GATT ArticleXXIV 90

developing countriesand Economic Partnership

Agreements 141–2and Enabling Clauseand FTA IPR provisions 410–11preferential treatment of see

preferencesVinerian model, and 8–15

dispute resolution and tradeconstitution 98

DjiboutiCOMESA

commitments 174membership 166

ICT development 378IGAD membership 157inter-regional trade 83

EAC see East African Community(EAC)

East Africaagriculture programmes 370air transport 383–4commodity trade alliance see

Alliance for Commodity Tradein Eastern and Southern Africa(ACTESA)

common market see CommonMarket for Eastern andSouthern Africa (COMESA)

development authority seeIntergovernmental Authorityon Development (IGAD)

EPA 398–9ICT development 379–80

East Africa Migration RouteProgramme, overview388–9

East African Bank, role 43East African Business Council, activity

23East African Community (EAC)

agriculture development 371–2air transport policy 383–4budget (Table) 256cooperative agreements 363

collapse of original Community 4–5,22, 40, 43

colonial origins 38COMESA

free trade area 202Joint Task Force 219Memorandum of Understanding

180–1rules of origin 186–7

common external tariff 184, 198–9common market

impact of 202opposition to 48overview 187–95progress 199–202

Customs Management Act 185–6Customs Union see East African

Customs UnionDevelopment Fund 197–8EPA negotiations 74, 400EU aid agreement 365financing 257–8free movement measures 189–95free trade area 386–8ICT development 377, 380–2IGAD, Memorandum of

Understanding 180–1industrial licensing 22integration

challenges 197commitments 5progress 196–202sequencing of steps 182

inter-regional integration 364IOC, Memorandum of

Understanding 180–1Lake Victoria Basin Commission 19monetary union 195multiple memberships of parties 70,

74non-tariff barriers reduction 184–5objectives 181overview 181political federation 195–6, 198RATES and 371–2revenue sharing

disputes over 40mechanisms 38–9, 42–4, 47–9






index 477

rules of origin 186–7SADC

free trade area 202Joint Task Force 219

tariff reduction 183–4transport development 385Treaty framework, rigidity of 17variable geometry 6

East African Court of Justicejurisprudence 274–9overview 268variable geometry and 47–9

Advisory Opinion 49–51arguments 52–6Decision 48, 56–61

East African Customs Unionanti-dumping

investigations 336measures 319–31

countervailing measures 331–6overview 182–7progress 196–7, 198–9safeguards

application of 336measures 315–19

subsidiescountervailing measures 331–6investigations 336

trade remedy regimeCommittee on Trade Remedies

313–14overview 313remedies 314–36

variable geometry 60–1East African Law Society

activity 23and variable geometry decision 55–6

Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP) 173,179–80

Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA)EPA 398–9

Economic and Monetary Communityof Central Africa (CEMAC)

air transport policy 382–3Bank of Central Africa see Bank of

Central AfricaCFA Franc 343EPA negotiations 398, 400

inter-regional integration 364legal framework 344–7membership 342overview 342–4transport development 385

Economic Community of CentralAfrican States (ECCAS)

AEC, Protocol on Relations 145,238

cooperative agreements 363collective self-reliance 27common external tariff 239conflicts 238Customs Union 241financing 258–9integration

progress 240sequencing of steps 238–9

inter-regional trade 83–4membership 237most-favoured-nation treatment 36non-tariff barriers reduction 239objectives 237–8overview 237–8re-launch 241transport development 241–2, 385Treaty 238–42

Economic Community of West AfricanStates (ECOWAS)

AEC, Protocol on Relations 145agriculture development 370, 373–4air transport policy 382–3Bank for Investment and

Development (EBID) 147CAADP and 373–4Capital Issues Committee 153Central Banks Committee 153cooperative agreements 363collective self-reliance 27–8common external tariff 146, 149common market 146–8customs union 148–50economic and monetary union see

also West African Economicand Monetary Union(WAEMU/UEMOA)

commitments 153–4Convergence Council 156






478 index

(ECOWAS) (cont.)Monetary Zone see West African

Monetary Zone (WAMZ)progress 155–6

EPA negotiations 74, 147–8,397–8

financing 259–60free movement measures 146–7industrial products, trade

liberalization 150–2industry coordination 22integration

approach 22challenges 154–5progress 154–6sequencing of steps 145

least developed countries 154monetary union see economic and

monetary union abovemost-favoured-nation treatment

35–6multiple memberships of parties 72,

74non-tariff barriers reduction

154–5objectives 144–5overview 144–5reforms 155revenue sharing 44–6security cooperation 25–6tariff reduction 146, 148–50, 155,

375Trade Liberalization Scheme (TLS)

150–2transport development 385variable geometry 151WAEMU see West African Economic

and Monetary Union(WAEMU/UEMOA)

WAMZ see West African MonetaryZone (WAMZ)

economic independence, RTAs asvehicle 27–33

economic integrationadjustment of costs and benefits,

variable geometry asmechanism 41–9

multiple membership, effect of 76–9

RTAs’ commitments see specificRTAs e.g. Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)

Vinerian model 8–15Economic Partnership Agreements

(EPAs)compatibility with WTO rules

133–42Cotonou Agreement see Cotonou

Agreement (EU–ACP EPA)developing countries and 141–2development provisions 397–8disputes 395–7excluded sectors 139, 393GATT Article XXIV and 132–3,

393intellectual property rights

provisions, compared withFTAs 410–11

interim agreements see interimagreements

most-favoured-nation treatment396–7

negotiationsdiffering configurations 401effect on common external tariff

401issues 392–7multiple membership of RTAs and

73–5progress 399–401

overview 391–2rules of origin and 139Singapore issues 395, 402transition periods 140–1WTO waiver process and 133–4

economic union, RTAs’ commitmentssee specific RTAs e.g. ArabMaghreb Union (AMU)

EgyptCOMESA


GAFTA membership 209–11ICT development 378MERCOSUR FTAg 421migration programme 388Nile River Basin, exploitation of 20






index 479

sugar industry safeguards and 63USA BIT 413

Enabling Clauseadoption 122–3common external tariff, absence

126–7developments prior to adoption

120–3effect 125–8EU GSP scheme and 128–32Generalized System of Preferences

and 134–6justification of preferences and

134–6operation 123–5

energy sectordevelopment 173, 179–80

Equatorial GuineaCEMAC membership 342ECCAS membership 237

equitable benefits of integration seerevenue sharing

EritreaAGOA eligibility 405–6COMESA


IGAD membership 157Ethiopia

COMESA membership 166EPA negotiations 400IGAD membership 157

Euro (currency), CFA Franc exchangerate 343

European Community/Union (EC/EU)ACP Economic Partnership

Agreement see CotonouAgreement (EU–ACP EPA)

aid agreements 365AMU bilateral agreements 207–8COMESA aid agreement 365commonalities 12EAC aid agreement 365ECOWAS trade negotiations 147–8EPAs see Economic Partnership

Agreements (EPAs)food safety standards, effect on trade

163

IGADaid agreement 365Ministerial Meeting 164

India, tariff preferences dispute128–32, 134–6

integration through corporatemergers 40

IOC aid agreement 365Joint Africa–EU Strategy 164–5preferences, granting of 128–32SADC aid agreement 365South Africa, trade with 101‘substantially all the trade’, removal

of duties from, interpretation of101

trade with 83–4variable geometry 55, 58, 59

European Free Trade Area (EFTA),SACU FTAg 401–3

financing of RTAsmain issues 243–5specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)summary of issues 262–3

food safety standards, effect on trade163

food security 236foreign aid

agreements 365effect of integration 37obtaining 31–2sources 365–6

foreign investmentregulatory frameworks 32support for trade integration 365–6

formation of RTAsexternal requirements 88GATT Article XXIV 87–90internal requirements 89notification 88–9, 119–20

FranceAfrique Equitoriale Francaise,

creation of 342and CFA Franc Zone 343

free movement measures see specificRTAs e.g. Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)






480 index

Free Trade Agreements (FTAgs)intellectual property rights

provisions, comparison withother agreements

EPAs 410–11TRIPS 407–10

multiple membership of RTAs and80–2

negotiations 401–3, 406–7, 419–20,421

free trade areaformation requirements 87–90meaning 89, 136RTAs’ commitments see specific


GabonCEMAC membership 342ECCAS membership 237ICT development 379revenue sharing 39

Gambiaagriculture development 374constitutional supremacy 284ECOWAS


150–2Gambia River Basin, exploitation of

20inter-regional trade 83–4loss of autonomy 19WAMZ membership 156

GATT see also GATT Article XXIVeffect of multiple membership of

RTAs on 76–7, 78Enabling Clause see Enabling Clauseestablishment 86–7Generalized System of Preferences

see Generalized System ofPreferences (GSP)

most-favoured-nation treatment 36trade and development provisions,

addition of 121trade constitution as 93–9

GATT Article XXIVchapter summary 86

compatibility of RTAs with GATT119, 214–17

economic rationales 90–3EPAs and 132–3, 393examination of RTAs, problems with

99exclusions 99–106extent of effect of 117–18formation of RTAs 87–90, 119–20further issues 117–20Generalized System of Preferences

and 136–42interim agreements 106–9, 140–1main issues 86–7modification of schedules 88notification of RTA formation,

timing of 119–20‘other regulations of commerce’,

issue over meaning 109–12‘other restrictive regulations of

commerce’, issue over meaning109–12

purpose of RTAs 87–8rules of origin and 112–17, 139‘substantially all the trade’, removal

of duties from, meaning99–106, 136–9

timing of RTA notification 119–20transition periods for interim

agreements 140–1whether imposing distinct legal

obligation 118–19Generalized System of Preferences

(GSP) 128–32and Enabling Clause 128–32, 134–6establishment 121–2GATT Article XXIV and 136–42provisions 403–4

GhanaAccra Declaration 33constitutional supremacy 284ECOWAS


150–2EPA negotiations 74, 399–400ICT development 379






index 481

multiple membership of RTAs 74WAMZ

commitments 357membership 156views on 358

Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA)209–11

‘Group of Twenty’, formation 31–2Guinea

ECOWASmembership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2Mano River Union 4WAMZ membership 156

Guinea-BissauECOWAS


150–2WAEMU membership 155–6,

350

handicrafts, Trade LiberalizationScheme 151–2

IGAD see Intergovernmental Authorityon Development (IGAD)

Indiaaid from 366, 414–15and EU GSP scheme 128–32,

134–6India–Africa Forum Summit 416–17SACU, Preferential Trade Area

417–18trade with 32, 415–16

Indian Ocean Commission (IOC)EU aid agreement 365ICT development 380–2Memorandum of Understanding

with African RTAs 180–1industrial licensing 22industrial products, Trade

Liberalization Scheme 150–2industry coordination 22industry protection 6, 226–7, 338–9infant industries protection 6, 226–7,

338–9

information and communicationstechnology (ICT)

cooperation by RTAsregional development 378–80regional support programme see

Regional Information andCommunication TechnologySupport Programme (RICTSP)

infrastructure see energy sector;information andcommunications technology(ICT); transport

integrated development, RTAs asvehicle 19–24

integration see economic integration;trade integration

integration, equitable benefits of seerevenue sharing

intellectual property rights (IPR), FTAprovisions compared withother agreements

EPAs 410–11TRIPS 407–10

Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment (IGAD)

AEC Protocol on Relations 145, 158agriculture development 160cooperative agreements 363COMESA

Memorandum of Understanding180–1

relations 158, 164–5EAC Memorandum of

Understanding 180–1EU

aid agreement 365relations 164

financing 260–1ICT development 380–2integration

Minimum Integration Plan 163–4progress 163–5sequencing of steps 158

inter-regional integration 364IOC Memorandum of

Understanding 180–1least developed countries 159Livestock Policy Initiative 160–3






482 index

(IGAD) (cont.)membership 157migration programme 388objectives 156–8overview 156–8political integration 158security cooperation 26–7strategy 157–8, 159–60transport development 160, 385Treaty 159–60

interim agreementsGATT Article XXIV 106–9negotiations 230, 396–7, 398–400,

401transition periods 140–1

Ivory Coast see Cote D’Ivoire

judiciariesmain issues 264primacy of decisions 16specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)summary of issues 297

KenyaAfrican Peer Review Mechanism 3AGOA benefits 406COMESA


communications development,views on 376–7

counterfeit goods, measures against421, 422

EACdisputes 269–70, 272, 274–9membership 181

economic strength 22, 37ECOWAS, disputes 282–3EPA dispute 395EPA negotiations 400ICT development 378, 379–80IGAD membership 157inter-regional trade 83–4multiple membership of RTAs 70revenue sharing

disputes over 40, 43mechanisms 38–9, 60–1views on 49

safeguard measures 63, 312–13transport development 385–6variable geometry decision and

53–4, 56

La Reunion, ICT development 379Lagos Plan of Action and collective

self-reliance 30Lake Victoria Basin Commission 19Latin America see South Americaleast developed countries (LDCs)

and Enabling Clause 125meaning 74regions 154, 159transport costs 385

legal regimeflexibility

African context 15–19chapter summary 7–8defining features 2economic independence and

27–33functionally specific projects and

19–24integrated development and

19–24main issues 1–8multiple membership as aspect see

multiple membershipnon-trade objectives 24–7understanding of 2–3variable geometry as aspect see

variable geometryVinerian model 8–15

sanctions, provision for 16Lesotho

AGOA eligibility 405–6COMESA commitments 166EPA negotiations 230, 396–7, 401industry protection 6, 47, 226–7multiple membership of RTAs

70–2SACU

commitments 226–7membership 223, 402revenue from 231







index 483

Liberiacivil war 4constitutional supremacy 284ECOWAS



LibyaAfrican political union proposals

29AMU membership 202–3CEN-SAD membership 232collective self-reliance, views on

30COMESA membership 166GAFTA membership 209–11migration programme 388

livestock policies 160–3

MadagascarCOMESA


EPA negotiations 400Malawi

COMESAcommitments 174membership 166


Maliagriculture development 374CEN-SAD membership 232ECOWAS


150–2inter-regional trade 83WAEMU membership 155–6, 350

Mano River Union, failure and revival4

maritime transport, cooperation byRTAs 386

MauritaniaAGOA eligibility 405–6AMU membership 202–3

MauritiusCOMESA


customs clearance, increasedefficiency

EPA negotiations 400ICT development 379SADC commitments 213USA BIT negotiations 413

membership see multiple membershipMERCOSUR

Egypt FTAg 421Morocco FTA negotiations 421, 422SACU PTA 421trade with 420–1

mergers, integration through corporate40

migrationconflicts 27programmes 388–9

monetary unionchallenges 355–7chapter summary 342RTAs’ commitments see specific


specific bodies see specific unions orzones e.g. Economic andMonetary Community ofCentral Africa (CEMAC)

success 355–7summary of issues 360

MoroccoAMU

agricultural trade 374membership 202–3

bilateral agreements 207FTAg with USA 207, 406–7GAFTA membership 209–11ICT development 378MERCOSUR FTAg negotiations 421,

422USA BIT 413

most-favoured-nation (MFN)treatment

adoption 120–1as alternative to multiple

membership of RTAs 79






484 index

most-favoured-nation (MFN) (cont.)as constitutional principle 96EPA negotiations 396–7RTAs’ use of 35

MozambiqueEPA negotiations 401SADC


USA BIT 413multiple membership

chapter summary 65–6common external tariff and 79–82criticisms, categories of 76effect on administration and

transaction costs 79–82effect on economic integration 76–9EPA negotiations 73–5Free Trade Agreements and 80–2GATT and 76–7, 78implications 82–4incidence (Figures) 66–7main issues 65–6most-favoured-nation treatment as

alternative 79overlapping memberships (Figures)

68–9reasons 67–72reflection of African diversity as

73–5regime-shifting 70rules of origin and 79–82‘spaghetti bowl’ analogy 65, 76–9summary of issues 84–5trade volume and 78transport costs and 78WTO and 76–7

NamibiaCOMESA commitments, exceptions

to 166EPA negotiations 230, 395–6, 401industry protection 6multiple membership of RTAs 70–2SACU

commitments 226–7membership 402

SADC commitments 216

national treatment principle asconstitutional principle 97

New Partnership for Africa’sDevelopment (NEPAD)

AEC, relationship with 368–70as development cooperation

framework 3foreign funding and 31–2

new industries protection 6, 226–7,338–9

Nigeragriculture development 374CEN-SAD membership 232ECOWAS

disputes 283membership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2migration programme 388WAEMU membership 153–4, 155–6,

350Nigeria

African political union, views on59

agriculture development 374constitutional supremacy

284economic strength 37, 72ECOWAS


150–2EPA negotiations 74ICT development 379security cooperation, views on

25–6WAMZ


non-African trade areas, trade with seealso Regional TradeAgreements, non-African

chapter summary 390–1counterfeit goods, measures against

422–3EPAs with Europe see Economic

Partnership Agreements (EPAs)






index 485

main issues 390–1South–South trade 414–21summary of issues 423USA see United States (USA)

non-discrimination measuresmost-favoured-nation treatment see

most-favoured-nationtreatment

RTAs’ use of 35non-tariff barriers reduction see

specific RTAs e.g. ArabMaghreb Union (AMU)

non-trade objectives of RTAs24–7

North Africaagriculture programmes 374Arab Maghreb Union see Arab

Maghreb Union (AMU)Community of Sahel-Saharan States

see Community ofSahel-Saharan States(CEN-SAD)

ICT development 378notification of RTA formation 88–9,

119–20

Organization of African Unity (OAU)see African Union (AU)

‘other regulations of commerce’issue over GATT meaning 109–12rules of origin as 115–17

‘other restrictive regulations ofcommerce’, issue over GATTmeaning 109–12

overlapping memberships see multiplemembership

overseas aid see foreign aid

Pan-African InfrastructureDevelopment Fund (PAIDF),establishment 31

political integrationproposals for African 28–31RTAs’ commitments 158, 195–6, 198views on 59, 195–6

post-colonialism and collectiveself-reliance 11–12, 28–31,32–3

preferencesand Enabling Clause 134–6granting of 128–32GSP see Generalized System of

Preferences (GSP)Preferential Trade Agreement

(PTA) negotiations 417–18,421

proliferation of RTAs see multiplemembership

rail transport, cooperation by RTAs384–6

‘regime’, meaning 70regime-shifting and multiple

membership of RTAs 70Regional Agriculture Trade Expansion

Support (RATES), overview371–2

regional economic communities seeRegional Trade Agreements,African

Regional Economic Communities(RECs) see Regional TradeAgreements, African

Regional Information andCommunication TechnologySupport Programme (RICTSP)380–2

regional security see securitycooperation

Regional Trade Agreements, African seealso specific RTAs e.g. ArabMaghreb Union (AMU)

and AEC Protocol on Relations 145,238

agriculture see agriculturealternative view of 2collective self-reliance 27–33cooperation between see trade

integrationcosts see costseconomic independence and

27–33examination under GATT, problems

with 99financing see financing of RTAsfirst wave, failure of 4–5, 13






486 index

Regional Trade Agreements (cont.)flexible legal regimes as see legal

regimeformation see formation of RTAsfunctionally specific projects and

19–24GATT Article XXIV and see GATT

Article XXIVintegrated development and 19–24membership see multiple

membershipmonetary union see monetary unionnon-African RTAs and see Regional

Trade Agreements, non-African

non-African trade areas and seenon-African trade areas, tradewith

non-trade objectives 24–7performance evaluation 3–4pillars of AEC as xxx–xxxi, 75,

362proliferation see multiple

membershipsecond wave, objectives 5security cooperation and 24–7‘spaghetti bowl’ analogy 65, 76–9trade integration see trade

integrationtrade liberalization commitments

overview 143–4specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)trade remedy regimes see trade

remedy regimesumbrella for further agreements as 7understanding of 2–3variable geometry see variable

geometryVinerian model and 8–15

Regional Trade Agreements,non-African

contrast with African RTAs 1influence on African RTAs 41

revenue sharingdisputes over 40mechanisms 19, 38–9, 41–9variable geometry and 36–49

river basins, integrated development19–20

road transport, cooperation by RTAs384–6

rules of origin (RoOs)Agreement 115Common Declaration 115Economic Partnership Agreements

139effect 114–15Free Trade Agreements 80–2GATT Article XXIV 112–17, 139multiple membership of RTAs and

79–82‘other regulations of commerce’ as

115–17purpose 66, 113–14specific RTAs of see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)types 113

RwandaCOMESA membership 166conflicts 238EAC


195–6ECCAS membership 237EPA negotiations 400ICT development 380revenue sharing 49USA BIT 413variable geometry decision and

52–3, 56

SACU see Southern African CustomsUnion (SACU)

SADC see Southern AfricanDevelopment Community(SADC)

safeguard measures see specific RTAse.g. Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)

Sao Tome and PrıncipeECCAS membership 237EPA negotiations 400

science and technology development173–4






index 487

security cooperationbenefits of 25RTAs and 24–7

self-reliance see collective self-relianceSenegal

ECOWAScommitments 149membership 144Trade Liberalization Scheme

150–2Gambia River Basin, exploitation of

20ICT development 379USA BIT 413WAEMU membership 153–4, 155–6,

350Seychelles

COMESA membership 166EPA negotiations 400

Sierra Leoneagriculture development 374civil war 4ECOWAS



Singapore issues 395, 402Somalia, IGAD membership 157South Africa

African Peer Review Mechanism 3collective self-reliance, views on 30conflicts over migration 27counterfeit goods, measures against

422–3economic strength 37, 228EPA negotiations 230, 395–7, 401EU trade 101ICT development 379imperial power as 19, 70–2inter-regional trade 84revenue sharing 47SACU

membership 223, 402revenue sharing 231

SADCcommitments 213, 216

disputes 292–7Zimbabwe BIPPA 293–7

South America see also MERCOSURtrade with 420–1use of variable geometry 41–2

South–South trade 414–21Southern Africa

agriculture programmes 370air transport 383–4commodity trade alliance see

Alliance for Commodity Tradein Eastern and Southern Africa(ACTESA)

common market see CommonMarket for Eastern andSouthern Africa (COMESA)

EPA 398–9ICT development 379–80regional conflicts 26security cooperation 25

Southern African Customs Union(SACU)

agriculture commitments 224,228–9

challenges 228–32China FTAg negotiations 419–20common external tariff 75, 228countervailing measures 229EFTA FTAg 401–3EPA negotiations 75, 396–7, 401India PTA 417–18industry protection 6inequalities within 19intellectual property rights and 407membership 223, 402MERCOSUR PTA 421multiple memberships of parties

70–2, 75, 81–2National Bodies 339–40new industries protection 6,

226–7objectives 224overview 223–4progress 228–32revenue sharing 46–7, 226–7SADC, overlap with 219trade liberalization scheme 224–8trade remedy regime 339–40






488 index

(SACU) (cont.)US TIDCA see Trade, Investment

and Development CooperativeAgreement (TIDCA)(US–SACU)

WCO consultation 227–8Southern African Development

Community (SADC)AEC Protocol on Relations 145agriculture commitments 219air transport policy 383–4anti-dumping measures 337budget (Table) 262cooperative agreements 363collective self-reliance 27–8COMESA Joint Task Force 180–1,

219common external tariff 219, 220–2,

401countervailing measures 337–8customs union 218–19, 220–2EAC

free trade area 202Joint Task Force 219

EPA negotiations 74, 75, 395–6, 401EU aid agreement 365financing 261–2flexibility 16free movement measures 222Free Trade Agreement as 81–2free trade area 386–8GATT Article XXIV and 214–17ICT development 380integration

approach 18, 24challenges 222model 18progress 217–22sequencing of steps 212

inter-regional integration 364inter-regional trade 83large programmes 7membership 211multiple memberships of parties

70–2, 74, 75, 81–2new industries protection 338–9non-tariff barriers reduction 218objectives 211–12

overview 211–12Protocol on Trade 212–17Regional Indicative Strategic

Development Plan (RISDP)220

road transport development 385SACU, overlap with 219safeguard measures 338subsidies, countervailing measures

337–8tariff reduction 212–18, 375Trade Monitoring and Compliance

Mechanism (TMCM) 218trade remedy regime

overview 336remedies 336–9

transport development 385Treaty 212–17Tribunal

jurisprudence 288overview 284

variable geometry, example of 58‘spaghetti bowl’ analogy of RTAs

(Bhagwati) 65, 76–9Sub-Saharan Africa Transport

Programme (SSATP) 385subsidies, countervailing measures see

countervailing measures‘substantially all the trade’, removal of

duties from, meaning 99–106,423

SudanCEN-SAD membership 232COMESA


GAFTA membership 209–11IGAD membership 157Nile River Basin, exploitation of 20

sugar industry safeguard measures 63,312–13

surface transport, cooperation by RTAsSwaziland

AGOA eligibility 405–6China technical cooperation 419–20COMESA







index 489

EPA negotiations 230, 396–7, 401industry protection 6, 47, 226–7inter-regional trade 83multiple membership of RTAs 70–2,

81–2SACU

commitments 226–7membership 223, 402revenue from 231


sugar industry safeguards 63

TanzaniaEAC


196economic strength 48–9EPA negotiations 74, 400ICT development 378multiple membership of RTAs

74revenue sharing

disputes over 48, 50–1mechanisms 38–9, 60–1

SADCcommitments 213, 216membership 211

transport development 385–6variable geometry decision and

54–5, 56tariff see common external tariff (CET)tariff reduction commitments see

specific RTAs e.g. ArabMaghreb Union (AMU)

technical cooperation agreement419–20

technology and science development173–4

TogoECOWAS


150–2inter-regional trade 83WAEMU membership 155–6, 350

Trade, Investment and DevelopmentCooperative Agreement(TIDCA) (US–SACU),overview 411–12

trade adjustment assistance 41Trade and Investment Framework for

Agriculture (TIFA) (USA),overview 411–12

trade constitutioncomponents of 95dispute resolution and 98GATT and WTO as 93–9meaning 94–5TRIPS as 95–6

trade integrationchapter summary 361cooperation by RTAs 366–8foreign aid 365–6formal compliance approach

5–6institutional framework

362–4main issues 361perspectives 1pessimist approach 4–5summary of issues 389

trade liberalizationeffect of variable geometry

35–6scheme 150–2‘substantially all the trade’, removal

of duties from, interpretationof

trade liberalization commitmentschapter summary 143–4specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union(AMU)

trade remedy regimeschapter summary 298specific RTAs see specific RTAs e.g.

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)summary of issues 340–1

traditional handicrafts, TradeLiberalization Scheme151–2

transition periods, interim agreements140–1






490 index

transportcooperation by RTAs 173, 376–8,

382–6development, importance for AEC

384transport costs

effect of multiple membership ofRTAs on 78

LDCs 385TRIPS (Trade-Related Intellectual

Property Rights)FTA provisions compared 407–10reference to 403trade constitution as 95–6

TunisiaAMU membership 202–3bilateral agreements 207GAFTA membership 209–11ICT development 378migration programme 388USA BIT 413

UEMOA see West African Economicand Monetary Union(WAEMU/UEMOA)

UgandaCOMESA


counterfeit goods, measures against422

EAC membership 181economic strength 48–9EPA negotiations 400ICT development 378IGAD membership 157inter-regional trade 83–4investment regulation 32revenue sharing 38–9, 60–1transport development 385–6variable geometry decision and 54–5

UNCTAD (UN Conference on Tradeand Development), role of 121

Union Douaniere et Economique del’Afrique Centrale (UDEAC)

change of goals 344establishment 342reforms 346–7revenue sharing 39

United States of Africa, proposal for 29United States (USA) 413

African RTAs, agreements with403–11

AGOA see African Growth andOpportunities Act (AGOA)(USA)

Bilateral Investment Treaties413–14

Development Agency (USAID),assistance by 179, 371

Free Trade Agreementsintellectual property rights

provisions, comparison withother agreements

Morocco 406–7gasoline dispute 127GSP provisions 403–4line pipe dispute 112rules of origin, views on 115–16TIDCA see Trade, Investment and

Development CooperativeAgreement (TIDCA)(US–SACU)

TIFA see Trade and InvestmentFramework for Agriculture(TIFA) (USA)

trade adjustment assistance 41trade with 83–4

Upper Volta see Burkina Faso

variable geometryand adjustment of integration costs

and benefits 41–9adoption, reasons for 36–41Advisory Opinion 49–51African context 35chapter summary 34–5court decision 48, 56–61effect on trade liberalization

35–6example of 151legal arguments as to 52–6main issues 34–6summary of issues 62–4use of 6–7

Viner, Jacoband GATT Article XXIV 90model of economic integration 8–15






index 491

WAEMU see West African Economicand Monetary Union(WAEMU/UEMOA)

waiver process (WTO) and EPAs 133–4West Africa

agriculture programmes 373–4air transport 382–3central bank see Central Bank of

West African States (BCEAO)economic community see

Communaute Economique del’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEAO);Economic Community of WestAfrican States (ECOWAS)

EPA negotiations 393–4,399–400

ICT development 378–9West African Economic and Monetary

Union (WAEMU/UEMOA)Central Bank see Central Bank of

West African States (BCEAO)challenges 357–8Gambia River Basin, exploitation of

19membership 153–4, 155–6, 350objectives 350organizational structure 350–1overview 350revenue sharing 19success 357–8transport development 385

West African Monetary Institute(WAMI), role 354–5

West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ)challenges 357–8Monetary Institute 353organizational structure 353overview 352–3success 357–8

wheat industry safeguard measures 63,312–13

World Bank, aid from 365World Customs Organization (WCO),

SACU consultation 227–8WTO see also entries at GATT; TRIPS

(Trade-Related IntellectualProperty Rights)

effect of multiple membership ofRTAs on 76–7

EPAs and 133–42, 395‘Group of Twenty’ formation 31–2Singapore issues 395, 402trade constitution as 93–9trade remedy agreements 298–9waiver process 133–4

ZambiaCOMESA


EPA negotiations 400road transport development 385SADC


ZimbabweAfrican Peer Review Mechanism 3collective self-reliance, views on 30COMESA


EPA negotiations 400inter-regional trade 83road transport development 385SADC

disputes 288–92, 293–7membership 211

South Africa BIPPA 293–7






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