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Transcript of 50 Ecologyintro Text
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PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 50
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Overview: The Scope of Ecology
Ecology
Is the scientific study of the interactions between
organisms and the environment
These interactions
Determine both the distribution of organisms and
their abundance
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Ecology
Is an enormously complex and exciting area ofbiology
Reveals the richness of the biosphere
Figure 50.1
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Concept 50.1: Ecology is the study of
interactions between organisms and theenvironment
Ecology
Has a long history as a descriptive science
Is also a rigorous experimental science
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Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Events that occur in ecological time
Affect life on the scale of evolutionary time
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Organisms and the Environment
The environment of any organism includes
Abiotic, or nonliving components
Biotic, or living components
All the organisms living in the environment, thebiota
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Environmental components
Affect the distribution and abundance oforganisms
Figure 50.2
Kangaroos/km2
> 20
1020
510
15
0.11
< 0.1
Limits of
distribution
Climate in northern Australia
is hot and wet, with seasonal
drought.
Red kangaroos
occur in most
semiarid and arid
regions of the
interior, where
precipitation is
relatively low and
variable from
year to year.
Southeastern Australia
has a wet, cool climate.Southern Australia has
cool, moist winters and
warm, dry summers.Tasmania
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Ecologists
Use observations and experiments to testexplanations for the distribution and
abundance of species
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Subfields of Ecology
Organismal ecology
Studies how an organisms structure, physiology,and (for animals) behavior meet the challenges
posed by the environment
Figure 50.3a
(a) Organismal ecology. How do humpback whales
select their calving areas?
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Population ecology
Concentrates mainly on factors that affect howmany individuals of a particular species live in
an area
Figure 50.3b
Population ecology.
What environmental
factors affect the
reproductive rate of
deer mice?
(b)
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Community ecology
Deals with the whole array of interacting speciesin a community
Figure 50.3c
(c) Community ecology.
What factors influence
the diversity of species
that make up a
particular forest?
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Ecosystem ecology
Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cyclingamong the various biotic and abiotic
components
Figure 50.3d
(d) Ecosystem ecology. What
factors control photosynthetic
productivity in a temperate
grassland ecosystem?
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Landscape ecology
Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how theyare arranged in a geographic region
Figure 50.3e
(e) Landscape ecology. To what extent do the trees lining
the drainage channels in this landscape serve as corridors
of dispersal for forest animals?
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The biosphere
Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all theplanets ecosystems
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
Ecology
Provides the scientific understanding underlyingenvironmental issues
Rachel Carson
Is credited
with starting
the modern
environmentalmovement
Figure 50.4
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Most ecologists follow the precautionary
principle regarding environmental issues The precautionary principle
Basically states that humans need to be
concerned with how their actions affect the
environment
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Many naturalists
Began to identify broad patterns of distribution bynaming biogeographic realms
Tropic
of Cancer
(23.5N)
Equator
Nearctic
Neotropical
Ethiopian
Oriental
Australian
Palearctic
(23.5S)
Tropic of
CapricornFigure 50.5
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Biogeography
Provides a good starting point for understandingwhat limits the geographic distribution of
species
Figure 50.6
Species absent
because
Yes
No
Dispersal
limits
distribution?Behavior
limits
distribution?
Biotic factors
(other species)
limit
distribution?
Abiotic factors
limit
distribution?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Area inaccessible
or insufficient time
Habitat selectionPredation, parasitism,
competition, diseaseWater
Oxygen
Salinity
pHSoil nutrients, etc.
Temperature
Light
Soil structure
Fire
Moisture, etc.
Chemical
factors
Physical
factors
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Dispersal and Distribution
Dispersal
Is the movement of individuals away from centersof high population density or from their area of
origin
Contributes to the global distribution of organisms
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New areas
occupied Year
1996
1989
1974
Natural Range Expansions
Natural range expansions
Show the influence of dispersal on distribution
Figure 50.7
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Species Transplants
Species transplants
Include organisms that are intentionally oraccidentally relocated from their original
distribution
Can often disrupt the communities or ecosystemsto which they have been introduced
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Behavior and Habitat Selection
Some organisms
Do not occupy all of their potential range
Species distribution
May be limited by habitat selection behavior
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Biotic Factors
Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may includeInteractions with other species
Predation
Competition
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A specific case of an herbivore limiting
distribution of a food species
Figure 50.8
W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed
abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
100
80
60
40
20
0
Limpet
Sea
urchin Both limpets
and urchins
removed
Only
urchins
removed
Only limpets removed
August
1982
February
1983
August
1983
February
1984
Control (both
urchins andlimpets present)
Seaweedcover(%)
Removing both
limpets and
urchins or
removing only
urchins increased
seaweed cover
dramatically.
Almost no
seaweed grew
in areas where
both urchins and
limpets were
present, or whereonly limpets were
removed.
Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that both
species have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while
removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting
seaweed distribution.
CONCLUSION
A i i
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Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
Temperature
Water
Sunlight
Wind
Rocks and soil
T
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Temperature
Environmental temperature
Is an important factor in the distribution oforganisms because of its effects on biological
processes
W
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Water
Water availability among habitats
Is another important factor in species distribution
S li h
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Sunlight
Light intensity and quality
Can affect photosynthesis in ecosystems
Light
Is also important to the development andbehavior of organisms sensitive to the
photoperiod
Wi d
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Wind
Wind
Amplifies the effects of temperature on organismsby increasing heat loss due to evaporation and
convection
Can change the morphology of plants
Figure 50.9
R k d S il
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Rocks and Soil
Many characteristics of soil limit the distribution
of plants and thus the animals that feed upon
them
Physical structure
pH
Mineral composition
Cli t
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Climate
Four major abiotic components make up
climate
Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
Climate
Is the prevailing weather conditions in a particular
area
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Climate patterns can be described on two
scales
Macroclimate, patterns on the global, regional,
and local level
Microclimate, very fine patterns, such as thoseencountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log
Gl b l Cli t P tt
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Global Climate Patterns
Earths global climate patterns
Are determined largely by the input of solarenergy and the planets movement in space
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Sunlight intensity
Plays a major part in determining the Earthsclimate patterns
Figure 50.10
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Sunlight directly overhead
Low angle of incoming sunlight
North Pole
60N
30N
Tropic of
Cancer
0 (equator)
30S
60S
Atmosphere
LALITUDINAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
Tropic of
Capricorn
South pole
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Regional Local and Seasonal Effects on Climate
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Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
Various features of the landscape
Contribute to local variations in climate
Bodies of Water
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Bodies of Water
Oceans and their currents, and large lakes
Moderate the climate of nearby terrestrialenvironments
Figure 50.11
Cooler
air sinks
over water.
3
Air cools at
high elevation.
2 1 Warm air
over land rises.
4 Cool air over water
moves inland, replacing
rising warm air over land.
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Seasonality
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Seasonality
The angle of the sun
Leads to many seasonal changes in localenvironments
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Lakes
Are sensitive to seasonal temperature change
Experience seasonal turnover
Figure 50.13
In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms to 4Cand sinks below the cooler layers immediately below, eliminating the
thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the water to great depth,bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters (see graphs) and
nutrients to the surface.
2
In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0C) lies just
below the surface ice; water is progressively warmer atdeeper levels of the lake, typically 45C at the bottom.
1
In autumn, as surface water cools rapidly, it sinks below theunderlying layers, remixing the water until the surface begins
to freeze and the winter temperature profile is reestablished.
4 In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with
warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a narrow
vertical zone of rapid temperature change, called a thermocline.
3
Winter Spring
High
Medium
Low
O2 concentration
O2 (mg/L)
Lakedepth(m)
0 4 8 12
8
16
24
8
16
24
Lakedepth(m) O2 (mg/L)
O2 (mg/L)
Lakedepth(m)
0 4 8 12
8
16
24
O2 (mg/L)
Lakedepth(m)
0 4 8 12
8
16
24Autumn Summer
4C4
44
44
4C4
44
20
4C4
44
44
4C
6818
2022
5Thermocline
0 4 8 12
Microclimate
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Microclimate
Microclimate
Is determined by fine-scale differences in abioticfactors
Long-Term Climate Change
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Long-Term Climate Change
One way to predict future global climate
change
Is to look back at the changes that occurred
previously
Figure 50.14
Currentrange
Predicted
range
Overlap
(a) 4.5C warming over
next century(b) 6.5C warming over
next century
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Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors
influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic
biomes
Varying combinations of both biotic and abiotic
factorsDetermine the nature of Earths many biomes
Biomes
Are the major types of ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
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The examination of biomes will begin with
Earths aquatic biomes
Figure 50.15
30N
Tropic ofCancer
Equator
30S
Continental
shelf
Lakes
Coral reefs
Rivers
Oceanic pelagic
zone
Estuaries
Intertidal zone
Abyssal zone
(below oceanic
pelagic zone)
Key
Tropic of
Capricorn
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Aquatic biomes
Account for the largest part of the biosphere interms of area
Can contain fresh or salt water
Oceans
Cover about 75% of Earths surface
Have an enormous impact on the biosphere
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Many aquatic biomes
Are stratified into zones or layers defined by lightpenetration, temperature, and depth
Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is generally
classified on the basis of light penetration (photic and aphotic zones),
distance from shore and water depth (intertidal, neritic, and oceanic
zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic
and abyssal zones).
Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified on the
basis of three physical criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic zones),
distance from shore and water depth (littoral and limnetic zones), and
whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone).
(a)
Littoral
zone Limneticzone
Photic
zone
Benthic
zone
Aphoticzone
Pelagic
zone
Intertidal zone
Neritic zone Oceanic zone
0
200 m
Continental
shelf
Photic zone
Pelagic
zone
Aphotic
zone
Benthic
zone
2,5006,000 m
Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
(b)
Figure 50.16a, b
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Lakes
Figure 50.17An oligotrophic lake in
Grand Teton, Wyoming
A eutrophic lake in Okavango
delta, Botswana
LAKES
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Wetlands
Figure 50.17
WETLANDS
Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia
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Streams and rivers
STREAMS AND RIVERS
Figure 50.17A headwater stream in the
Great Smoky Mountains
The Mississippi River far
form its headwaters
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Intertidal zones
Figure 50.17
INTERTIDAL ZONES
Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast
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Oceanic pelagic biome
Figure 50.17 Open ocean off the island of Hawaii
OCEANIC PELAGIC BIOME
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Coral reefs
Figure 50.17 A coral reef in the Red Sea
CORAL REEFS
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Marine benthic zone
Figure 50.17 A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community
MARINE BENTHIC ZONE
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Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines the
distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes
Climate
Is particularly important in determining why
particular terrestrial biomes are found incertain areas
Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
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Climate has a great impact on the distribution
of organisms, as seen on a climograph
Figure 50.18
Desert Temperate grassland Tropical forest
Temperate
broadleaf
forest
Coniferous
forest
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
Annualmeantemperature(C)
100 200 300 400
30
15
0
15
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The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S
Key
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Coniferous forest
Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
Figure 50.19
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Tropical forest
TROPICAL FOREST
A tropical rain forest in BorneoFigure 50.20
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Desert
Figure 50.20
DESERT
The Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona
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Savanna
Figure 50.20
SAVANNA
A typical savanna in Kenya
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Chaparral
CHAPARRAL
An area of chaparral in CaliforniaFigure 50.20
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Temperate grassland
Sheyenne National Grassland in North DakotaFigure 50.20
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
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Coniferous forest
Figure 50.20
Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado
CONIFEROUS FOREST
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Tundra
Figure 50.20
TUNDRA
Denali National Park, Alaska, in autumn