5 Yes Chapter i1

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Definition of Vocabulary

Learning a foreign language cannot be separated from practicing vocabulary.

Vocabulary is the central of language teaching and learning. According to

Kridalaksana (1993:127), vocabulary is a component of language that maintains

all of information about meaning and using word in language. There are some

experts who give definition of vocabulary. Furthermore, Hatch and Brown

(1995:1) define vocabulary as a list or set of words for a particular language or a

list or set of word that individual speakers of language might use. It plays an

important role in the four language skills. It gives contribution to the learners to

perform or practice their skills better. It means that by mastering the vocabulary,

the learners will be able to produce so many sentences easily either in spoken or

written one.

Basically vocabulary is a list or collection words arranged in alphabetical

order and explained a dictionary or lexicon, either of a whole language, a single

work or author-a branch of science, of the like. Vocabulary is also is a sum or

stock of words employed (McClauley, 2005: 1). It is impossible for the learners to

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perform their English well if their vocabularies are very poor. The students will

find any difficulties in expressing or mastering their language skills because of

having too limited vocabularies. Therefore, vocabulary mastery must be on the

first priority in English language teaching and learning. Without mastering the

vocabulary, the learners will be difficult to master the other language skills.

2.2 Level of Vocabulary

Notion (2008: 7) divided vocabulary into four levels on the basis of how

often it occurs in the language. They are high frequency words, academic words,

technical words, and low frequency words. These levels can be explained as

follows:

1. High Frequency Words

High frequency words are the most important group of words.

These words occur very frequently in all kinds of use of the

language. They are needed in formal and informal uses of the

language.

The high frequency words of English have the following

characteristics: 1) Each high frequency word occurs very often, so

the effort of learning it will be repaid by plenty of opportunities to


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meet and use it, 2) The high frequency words are useful no matter

what use is made of English, 3) Because of the frequency and wide

range they make up a very large proportion of the running words in

all kinds of texts and language use, and 4) They are relatively small

group of words that could be covered in a school program over

three to five years.

2. Academic Words

Academic words are words that do not appear in daily conversation

frequently, less than 25 percent of the running words in

conversation are from the academic words list, but frequent and

widely used within specialized area. These words are very

important for learners who will use English for academic study

either in upper secondary schools or technical institutes (academic

words occur in all kinds of academic subject areas like Botany,

Politics, Accounting, and Family Law)

3. Technical Words

Technical words occur in more specialized area than academic

words. These words are very important for anyone who specializes

in a particular area. There have not been many statistical studies of

technical vocabulary, but it seems that at least 20 percent of the


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running in most technical texts, such as anatomy text and

economics text, are likely to be technical words.

4. Low Frequency Words

This last words group is the biggest group among the other three.

Low frequency words are diverse group. They include 1) words

that are not quite frequent or wide range enough to be high

frequency words, 2) technical words from other areas (one persons

technical vocabulary is another persons low frequency

vocabulary), and 3) words that just occur rarely.

Low frequency words have the following characteristics: 1) Each

word does not occur very often. 2) Most low frequency words have

a very narrow range. They are not needed in every use of the

language. 3) The low frequency words make up a very small

proportion of the running words in a text. 4) They are a very large

group of words.

The usage of those kinds of vocabulary above can be shown from the table

2.1 below:

Table 2. 1


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Kinds of Vocabulary

Level Number of Words Text Coverage, %

High frequency words 2,000 87

Academic vocabulary 800 8

Technical vocabulary 2,000 3

Low frequency words 123,200 2

Total 128,000 100

English has a very large of vocabulary. No one, even native speakers, is able

to know them all. Fortunately, we do not need to know them all in order to use

English. We only need to know those that are relevant to our practical purposes.

2.3 Teaching Vocabulary in EFL Classroom

There have been a great number of different approaches to language

learning, each with a different outlook on vocabulary (Richards & Rodgers,

2001). At times, language teaching methodologies have attached great importance

to vocabulary learning, and sometimes it has been neglected (Schmitt, 2000).

English language teaching has changed its perspective on the teaching and

learning of vocabulary in foreign language classes.

Brown (1994:7), learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral

tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. Similarly, teaching which is

implied in the first definition of learning, may be defined as showing or helping


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someone to learn how to do some knowledge, causing to know or understand as

mentioned by Brown (1994).

Although deliberate vocabulary teaching is only one of the least efficient

ways of developing vocabulary knowledge, it is also significantly required for a

well-balanced vocabulary program. Vocabulary teaching helps learners when they

feel it is the most needed one especially for the message-focused activities

involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Nation, 2005).

2.4 The Development of Teaching Vocabulary

Vocabulary development is not just learning more words but also about

expanding and deepening word knowledge. According to Cameron (2001:73),

vocabulary development is about learning more about those words and about

learning formulaic phrases or chunk, finding words inside them, and learning even

more about those words.

Nowadays, some experts and researchers who are concerned with

vocabulary teaching have invented several methods that are considered newer and

more effective methods. Based on empirical research, there are vocabulary

teaching methods that are considered to be more effective.

2.4.1 The Direct Method


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The direct methods is the method for teaching vocabulary where English

should be more like the learners first language-lots of oral interaction,

spontaneous use of the language, no translation between English and the learners

L1, and just a few or no analysis of grammatical rules (Brown, 2001:21-22). The

direct method is suggested by Thombury (2002).

In practice, the direct method stands for the following principles and

procedures as summarized by Richards and Rodgers (2001:12) below:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in

the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentence were taught

3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully

traded progression organized around question-and-

answer exchanges between teachers and students in

small, intensive classes

4. Grammar was taught inductively

5. New teaching points were introduced orally

6. Concrete vocabulary was taught demonstration,

objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught

by association of ideas

7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught


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8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized

2.4.2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT is a set of approaches which have similar beliefs that the goal of

language teaching is based on the communicative competence covering

grammatical competence, social linguistic competence, discourse competence,

and strategic competence. Richards and Rodgers (2001) said that some features of

CLT as follow: 1) Contextualization is a basic premise. 2) Language learning is

learning to communicate. 3) Effective communication is sought. 4) Drilling may

occur, but peripherally. 5) Comprehensible pronunciation is sought. 6) Any device

which helps the learners is accepted varying according to their age, interest, etc. 7)

Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning. 8)

Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it. 9) The target

linguistic system will be learned best through the process struggling to

communicate. 10) Teachers help students in any way that motivates them to work

with the language. 11) Students are expected to interact with other people, either

in the flesh, trough pair and group works, or in the writing. 12) Intrinsic

motivation will spring from an interest on what is being communicated by the

language.

2.4.3 Total Physical Response (TPR)


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Total Physical Response (TPR) is the other forms of teaching method that

offers the kinesthetic learning style. Brown (2001) noted that children, in learning

their first language, appear to do a lot listening before they speak, and that their

listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving,

looking and so forth). In TPR classroom is often focusing of too much anxiety, so

it becomes as stress-free, where learners would not overly self-conscious and

defensive.

For instance, if the command Close your eyes is given, the correct

response is a physical action. In this case young learners may not be able to give a

linguistic response to the instruction but they can give a physical response. In

brief, TPR means that students use their whole body to learn. The basis for TPR is

seen in everyday activities, in every classroom in every country around the world

where it is based on the idea that the natural response to understand a command is

a physical respond (Musthafa. 2008:13). Young learners will be willing to

demonstrate comprehension through a physical action long before they are willing

to give linguistics response.

Additionally, TPR gives more opportunities for the students to activate

their memorized through learners response. Performing their action through

moving their bodies can show their understanding. In other words, these physical

responses are important for the childrens learning as they do not learn in

conscious intellectual way and learn by thinking. On the other hand, children learn

by doing (Musthafa, 2008).


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More specifically, the teacher also describes that TPR has several positive

aspects. First, it utilizes the auditory, visual, and tactile learning channels. The

learners listening watch as the commands are given. Last, the learners have a

chance to use all three channels: they listen, watch one another, and do the

commands themselves. Second, TPR helps to teach children to follow direction

and listen attentively. Third, in keeping with developmentally appropriate notions

or thoughts, children are allowed to listen and then choose when they feel

comfortable to start speaking. Fourth, this method can easily be adapted in many

different ways for young learners.

There are many different ways that TPR can be used with young learners.

For children who are just beginning to study English, variety of simple one word

commands, such as stay, stand, wave, and wiggle can be used. Gradually, more

complied child-friendly commands can be introduced. However, when TPR is

used for five, six, or seven year olds, be sure to give only one command a time

because they will have trouble to pay attention to multi-step instruction due to

their overall development.

Since TPR is a lot of fun, students will enjoy it and it can be real stirrer in

the class. Hence, this method is very effective with young learners. TPR can be

used to teach and practice many things. They are summarized as follow:

1. Vocabulary connected with actions (smiles, cut, chop, headache,

wriggle)


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2. Tenses past/ present/ future and continuous aspects (every morning I``

clean my teeth, I make my bed)

3. Classroom language (open your books)

4. Imperative instructions (stand up, close your eyes)

5. Storytelling.

2.5 Strategies of Teaching English Vocabulary to Young Learners

Teaching strategies play a central role in the process of teaching and

learning. Strategies are specific methods of operation for achieving a particular or

planned design for controlling and manipulating certain information (Brown,

1994: 192). In order to use an appropriate strategy, the teacher needs to consider

teaching objectives in teaching learning activity. Some strategies commonly used

by the teachers are described as follows:

2.5.1 Direct Instruction

The selection of a model of learning used by teachers is strongly influenced

by the nature of the material to be taught, it is also influenced by the goal to be

achieved in teaching and student ability levels. At the same time, each model of

learning always has the stages conducted by students with teacher guidance. One


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of the models used by teacher in teaching process is direct instruction. Direct

instruction model is a teaching approach that can assist students in learning basic

skills and obtain that can be taught step by step. Teaching approaches often called

the direct teaching model (Kardi and Nur, 2000). According to Arends (2001), a

teaching model that is aimed at helping student learns basic skills and knowledge

that can be taught in a step by step fashion. For our purposes here, the model is

labeled the direct instruction model. When the teacher used direct instruction

model, teachers have a responsibility to identify goal of learning and great

responsibility to level of structure or skill, explain to students, modeling/ show,

combined with training, provide opportunities for students to practice the concepts

or skills they have learned and provide feedback. Arends (2001) also said that

direct instruction is a teacher centered model that has five steps: establishing set,

explanation and or demonstration, guided practice, feedback, and extended

practice. A direct instruction lesson requires careful orchestration by the teacher

and a learning environment that businesslike and task oriented. Later on

demonstration deal with how the teacher conveys the lesson to the children by

demonstrating the process and situation along with oral explanation this strategy

enables the children to understand the lesson easier because they can use their

sense: hearing and seeing. It enables them to imagine the explanation and have a

clearer picture regarding the process of something. This strategy makes the

instruction clearer, concrete and interesting (Lang and Evan, 2006).

2.5.2 Questioning for Comprehension Checking or QCC strategy


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Questioning for Comprehension Checking (QCC) strategy is a two way

communication between the teacher and the children in which the teacher asks the

children and the children answer the teachers questions, the children attention can

be attracted and focused, the children are stimulated to think and memorize some

things, and the children are encouraged to express their ideas (Fisher and Frey,

2007). In this strategy, the teacher asked students to answer the questions. Before

begin the lesson, the teacher asked students a question related to the material

based on their own experienced and objects around them. However, if the teacher

cannot encourage the children and create a conducive atmosphere in the

classroom, the children will be afraid when the teacher addresses them the

question.

2.5.3 Visual Scaffolding

Visual Scaffolding is support that includes images and words that can be

seen as well as heard. According to Herrel and Jordan (2004:19), visual

scaffolding is strategy in which the language used in instruction is made more

understandable by the display of drawing or photograph, maps, and video that

allows the children to hear English words and connect them to the visual images

that are being displayed. When children can see an image of what the teacher is

describing and see the key words that the teacher is explaining, this is not only to

make the input considerably more comprehensible, but also to remove the


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affective filter which results from the fear or boredom that comes of

understanding in the class.

2.5.4 Drilling

Drilling is the process of students listening to and repeating sentences,

phrases and words modeled by the teacher. Drilling is a strategy to improve

pronunciation by imitating and repeating words, phrases and even whole

utterances (Thombury, 2002:63). It means that it might be useful noticing

technique since it has been attention to the material that learners might not

otherwise have registered. The effect of repeating of bound salience, move new

items from working memory to long-term memory. It provides a mean for gaining

articular control over language of getting the tongue round it.

2.5.5 Games

Although vocabulary is considered as the most important language

component, not all English teachers give great attention in the way of teaching it.

Meanwhile, it is teachers responsibility to seek an interesting way to make

students more motivated to learn. Therefore, games can be applied in vocabulary

teaching. Generally, Elementary school students like playing something funny and


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relaxing. Children enjoy constructive activity play and games. Game is a kind of

forms of strategies in teaching English to young learners that can be funny and

relaxing. It is not only motivating and fun but also it can also provide excellent

practice for improving pronouncing, vocabulary, grammar, and the four language

skills. In addition, for young learners games also provide an important link

between home and school which helps to make them to feel more secure and

confident.

Further, Musthafa (2008:12) stated game is a potentially useful to enhance

children learning because it is really a part of day-to-day menu for children in

every culture. When a lesson consists of game, then it is not a lesson in the eyes of

young learners, therefore it is greatly appreciated. For example a lesson that gives

the teacher the opportunity to help learners acquire new forms and lexis in the

easiest and most effective with the young learners who find it difficult to

understand a long list of rules. It is a strong argument for incorporating them in

EFL of young learners classroom. Then, the teacher discusses that language

game is a healthy challenge to a childs analytical thought where the keys to a

successful language game are clear rules and well defined the ultimate goal.

In addition, Philips (1993:79) proposed that games in the language

classroom help children to see learning English as enjoyable and rewarding.

Games are one way which can develop the ability of children to cooperate, to

compete without being aggressive.


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2.5.6 Song

Most children enjoy singing songs. For the teacher, using songs in the

classroom can also be a nice break from following a set curriculum. It will give

opportunity for children to have listening and speaking experiences. In the age of

learning foreign language, children may have a few opportunities to speak English

to other people outside the classroom. A teacher must be able to balance the

serious study of English with the more entertaining activities. A good teacher is anentertainer, students enjoy being entertained and amused. However, a balance has

to be stuck between entertainments. According to Paul (2003:58), songs can add

feeling and rhythm to language practice that otherwise be felt, help children

remember things more easily, and draw them.

Most children feel that there is a barrier between the classroom world and

their world away from the classroom where they play with their friends and their

daily lives. If the teacher wants the English language plays a more central role in

the daily lives of children, the teacher must find a way to solve this barrier. One of

the ways to solve this barrier is song, because song can make children enjoy in

learning process.

2.6 English for Young Learner

Teaching language to children is different from teaching teenagers or adults.

Cameron (2001:1) proposed that children are often more enthusiastic and lively as


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learners than adults. They always have an activity to be done even when they do

not quite understand why or how.

In learning English as foreign language, children need to play with the

language. According to Mustafa (2008), try it out, test it, receive feedback, and

try again. Thus teaching materials should be appropriate with childrens need in

mastering English. There are: (1) Learning should be fun and natural for young

learners. In order for them to be successful in learning the target language, there

must be the absence of stress. It is commonly believed that the environment of

foreign language learning often causes stress and anxiety. Young learners are

believed not to learn language forms directly: commands are believed to be

helpful for children to interpret meanings. This activity is believed to liberate self-

conscious a stressful situations. (2) The language should be first presented through

sounds, not written symbols. Listening and speaking are worked on as the learners

produce meaningful utterances concerning physical object and their own

experience. After young learners can produce sounds in the target language and

connect the sounds in the truth, they may begin to read symbols in the target

language. This process can begin after the children are able to understand what

other people speak (listening) and able to produce the language (speaking). (3)

Young learners are more sensitive to anything that can be touched and sensed;

they react easily to physical objects, language is taught by having the students use

their senses, touch, listen, smell, and even taste necessary. This will help them

relate the linguistic signed to the truth that they perceive with their senses. (4)

Meaning should be made perceptible through concrete objects or by the


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presentation of experience. When language learners make mistakes or

misconception of something, teachers do not correct it through translation but they

need to show to something to make the meaning are better. (5) The idea that

teaching should start from what the students already know in order to encourage

association processes seem to favor children. By teaching through this way, young

learners are expected to know not only by saying but also by doing something

without being aware of what they are doing. In order to make them aware, the

new materials have to have relationship between previous one so that they can

easily make an association since association process is necessary part of learning.

Thus language teacher should build upon the meaning process by adding new

segment of language to the previous one; he or she starts from what the language

learners already know in order to encourage association process.

According to Moneey (2000:64), there are four stages of Cognitive

Development in children. All children go through identifiable stage of cognitive

developments as follows: Sensomotoricperiod (birth +/- years), children tend to

explore the words physically and grasp things. Preoperational (2-7 years), this

staged marks the beginning language and vocabulary, and the first learning of

good and bad. Concrete Operational (7-12 years), when children used

reference to familiar actions, objects, can reason with concept relationship,

abstract properties, and theories.

Based on the cognitive development above, the fifth grade students of

Elementary School, who are involved in this research, are in the concrete


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operational stage. It means that they are in the beginning stage of learning

language and vocabulary and thinking more concrete to actions, objects, and

properties.

Teachers require plenty of object and pictures to work, and to make full use

of the school and their surroundings. Thus, the students will learn by doing things

since they learn naturally. By seeing and doing what the teacher has said, they will

understand the lesson unconsciously.

Young learners are usually full of enthusiasm and energy, and the language

lesson will be full of variety and change activity. Thus, the teachers should be

very creative in planning the lesson be considered when teaching young learners.

Many aspects deals with young learners characteristics proposed by Harmer

(2007:82) are as follow: children have their own culture and learning preference.

Children learn by way of physical activities. Children have relatively short

attention and concentration span. Children learn naturally. Children learn best

when learning is meaningful, interesting and functional. Non-verbal language is

important because children will indeed attend very sensitively to the teachers

facial features, gestures, and touches.

Further explanation about each of the characteristics is explained below.

First, young learners have their own culture and learning preference. It means that

the instruction should be child friendly. Therefore, they will find the instruction

easily.


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Second, young learners learn by way of physical activities (learning through

hand-on activities, learning by doing). It is believed that students physically can

internalize the language they are learning especially vocabulary.

Third, young learners have relatively attention and concentration span;

unless the activities are extremely engaging, they can easily get bored, losing

interest after ten minutes or so.

Forth, young learners learn naturally. As part of their development, children

are always active in exploring their environment and accumulating knowledge and

experiences. For this exploration, children construct their understanding of how

things work, including the language they use as both a system and tools for

communication. Also learning for everything around them rather than only

focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.

Fifth, young learners learn best when learning is meaningful, interesting, and

functional. Young learners will find things meaningful, interesting, and functional

when they are relate these things with their needs and personal experiences.

Sixth, non-verbal language is important because young learners will indeed

attend very sensitively to the teachers facial features, gestures, and touches.

The last one is young learners often learn indirectly rather than directly, they

take in information from all sides, learning for everything around them rather than

only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.


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2.7 Teaching Difficulties

Teaching English vocabulary especially to very young learners is not an

easy job to do, we know that a child who cannot read even speak not fluently have

to learn foreign language. The teacher may find some difficulties when teaching

English vocabulary to young learners. The difficulties might include the

followings:

Table 2.2

Teaching difficulties by Moon (2005)

No Difficulties

Difficulties from Teachera Limited English profiency

b Time management

c Adjustment to childrens language

d Teachers feedback

Difficulties from Students

a Childrens interest

b Children limited attention span and short concentration

c Children have less awareness to learn

d Children level knowledge

e Children dealing with their memory

Teacher may have limited English or insufficient fluency in the language, so

this way may enable to give students incorrect models. It is because young

learners have special sensitivity to pronunciation though they will not be able to


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make use to this particular instinct. Thus teachers need to possess very good

English language skills since they provide the main language input for children

who may have limited exposure outside the classroom.

Teacher also may have difficulties in time management. This kind of

difficulties could cause the planned activities unaccomplished well. The

incapability in classroom management becomes one of the obstacles coming from

the teacher in teaching vocabulary. It surely could affect the process of teaching

and learning where all the planned activities could not be accomplished.

Teachers need to be flexible to be able to adjust their language to the

childrens level knowledge of English. So, they can provide feedback and a rich

knowledge of the culture so as to get children interested.

Young learners were not interested in learning vocabulary. Since the

students were not interested on the vocabulary learning, they did not focus and

pay much attention during the learning process.

It is an effect of the use of English by the teacher. According to Moon

(2005), students, who are anxious to do the activity, can lose their interest and

concentration because the students have limited English.

Students have less awareness of children to learn. It is because the age of

five or earlier, as stated Moon (2005), will be less able to reflect on their learning

in a conscious way as this ability to reflect consciously and to analyze is linked to

young learners of cognitive development.


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In a review by Kim cited in Moon (2005) it is pointed out that one of the

difficulties that appears in teaching vocabularies because of the gap in word

knowledge among children. Teachers may get obstacles especially if the teacher

intends to have some exposure of English to the students without using native

language at all during the class. The gap can distract the accomplishment of

vocabulary instruction. It is as same as the use of full English during the class that

students may need too much effort to try to understand, and this situation can

make them feel low motivated.

The existence of young learners with special needs in an ordinary classroom

can create another difficulty. The problem dealing with their memory is one of

learning obstacles.

Young learners have special sensitivity to hearing or pronunciation though

they will not be able to make use to this particular instinct if their teachers lack

fluency of foreign language. Therefore, very young learners need good English

teachers with good strategies in teaching, because very young learners are in basic

level for learning, if teachers give incorrect models, they will follow it. Teachers

should facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching learners useful words and by

teaching strategies to help learners figure out meaning on their own (Nation,

2003)

From statement above, it can be concluded that there were several

difficulties appeared along the process of teaching and learning faced by the

teacher. All of the difficulties were related to the implementation and the


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preparation of strategies employed in those three observations. The difficulties

were adjustment to young learners language, the students interest in learning and

young learners limited attention span and short concentration.

2.8 Previous Study

Some studies have been conducted previously concerning teaching

vocabulary and young learners. They are the studies conducted by Schippert

(2005) and Huyen and Nga (2003).

Schippert (2005) entitled Read Aloud about Vocabulary: A New Way of

teaching. The research focused on investigating the students vocabulary by

reading aloud at first grade elementary school. The first goal is the teacher reads a

book to the children for pure enjoyment. Thus, children would acquire two or

three words in each week; teachers went back and reread the passage that

contained the vocabulary words. Further, teacher introduced and read a new story

aloud. Then, teacher reviewed vocabulary words from the story and before by

showing words written on sentence strips and asking children about their

meaning. Second goal children make a personal connection with these words.

Then, teacher posted the words on bulletin in the classroom. Teacher set up a box

for children to find new words they wanted the class to learn. Overall, children

showed a new awareness of vocabulary in the world around them.


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Another study is proposed by Huyen and Nga (2003) explained that learning

vocabulary through games. The research focused on effective in helping students

to improve their vocabulary building skills. The research used communicative

language teaching (CLT) approach, learners are required to take part in a number

of meaningful activities with different tasks. This is to improve learners'

communicative competence by encouraging them to be a part of the lessons

themselves. The research used observation and interview to find difficulties of

teaching vocabulary. After collecting data by observing CLT teachers' classes,

interviewing teachers and students, and from our reflections of applying games in

the classes we are teaching, we have some findings that will be helpful for

teaching and learning vocabulary. The results will be displayed in three

subsections, (i) students' expectations and attitudes, (ii) students' progress and (iii)

unanticipated problems. The results of this research suggest that games are used

not only for mere fun, but more importantly, for the useful practice and review of

language lessons, thus leading toward the goal of improving learners'

communicative competence.

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