4º ESO4º ESOTopic TwoTopic Two::

Political and Social Political and Social changes in 19th changes in 19th century in Spain and century in Spain and EuropeEurope

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica. He trained as an artillery officer in France and quickly he rose to prominence under the French First Republic, leading successful campaigns. In October of 1799 Napoleon returned to Paris after having been in Egypt with his armies. He took staged the ”coup d'état of 18 Brumaire” which installed the Consulate. The Consulate led to Bonaparte's dictatorship and, in 1804, to his proclamation as Emperor.

1.- 1.- Napoleon BonaparteNapoleon Bonaparte

After bringing economic prosperity and peace to France, Napoleon set out to conquer Europe. He wanted to defeat the European absolute monarchs who had allied years ago to fight the French revolutionary ideas He wanted to defeat. As a skillful general, he was able to conquer significant tracts of land. By 1812 Napoleon controlled most of Europe, either directly, or indirectly.

In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain, and replaced Carlos IV with his brother Jose Bonaparte. This led to resistance from the Spanish army and civilians in the Dos de Mayo Uprising.

Napoleon took command and defeated the Spanish Army. Before the Spanish population had been fully subdued, Austria again threatened war, and Napoleon returned to France. The costly and often brutal Spanish War of Independence continued in Napoleon's absence. Although Napoleon left 300,000 of his finest troops to battle Spanish guerrillas (helped by British and Portuguese forces commanded by the Duke of Wellington) French control over the peninsula again deteriorated. Following several allied victories, the war concluded after Napoleon's abdication in 1814. Napoleon later described the Peninsular War as central to his final defeat.

The nations that had been conquered by Napoleon resented being ruled by France. One by one, these nations rebelled. By March of 1814, Napoleon had been defeated, and forced to step down as the emperor of France.

A year later in 1815 Napoleon returned to Paris, and called for his soldiers to return to him. He was still popular among the people who had enjoyed their quick rise to power under his rule. For 100 days, Napoleon again ruled France. Monarchs in other European nations feared that Napoleon would again seek to control them. In a decisive battle at Waterloo, France, Napoleon was defeated in June of 1815, and was forced into exile on the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

In 1815 Napoleon was definitively defeated in Waterloo. It was the fall of the French Empire and the end of the Revolution. It would seem to indicate that the old monarchies in Europe had beaten the Revolutionary ideas. The Absolute Monarchies (Austria, Russia, Prussia, etc) managed to impose again the old ideas of the Old Regime in the Treaty of Paris, in the Treaty of the Holy Alliance and, of course, in the Congress of Vienna.

2.- 2.- The Congress of ViennaThe Congress of Vienna

However, the seeds of the new revolutionary ideas had been spread, and all along the 18th century these ideas gradually flourished. After defeating the French armies, the major powers of Europe held a Conference in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815: the Congress of Vienna. The chairman was the Austrian statesman Metternich. The four victorious powers (Russia, United Kingdom, Prussia and Austria) wanted to determinate the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the Treaty of Paris, signed a few months earlier.

Every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna. More than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations and special interest groups. In June 9, 1815 the Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed. It included:

•Russia expanded its territory to the west. The Congress confirmed its possession of Finland as well as most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Poland).•France lost all the conquered territories.•Prussia was given two fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw , Danzig, and the Rhineland Westphalia.•A German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy Roman Empire.•The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approx. modern-day Belgium) were united in a constitutional monarchy.•The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed.•The Austrian Empire regained most of the areas that had lost to Napoleon in Central Europe. Austria became the core of Western Europe for 30 years thanks to this congress.•Norway was transferred from Denmark to Sweden.•The Ottoman Empire granted some autonomy to Serbia, Montenegro, Wallachia and Moldova.

3.- 3.- The workers movementsThe workers movementsThe Industrial Revolution brought many positive consequences. However, as we learnt in the previous topic, it produced many social inequalities. Many philosophers and thinkers denounced these injustices and proposed new models of social organization:

• Luddites• Marxism• Communism• Anarchism• Trade Unions

The Luddites were a social movement of British textile artisans in the nineteenth century who protested – often by destroying mechanized looms – against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, which they felt were leaving them without work and changing their way of life. In modern usage, "Luddite" is a term describing those opposed to industrialization, automation, computerisation or new technologies in general

•The dialectical and materialist concept of history Humankind's history fundamentally is a struggle between social classes. The productive capacity of society is the foundation of society, that evolve through this struggle of the classes (primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism). The legal, political, ideological and other aspects (e.g. art) of society are derived from these production relations.

Marxism is a political philosophy, as well as an economic and sociological worldview, which is based upon a materialist interpretation of history, a Marxist analysis and critique of capitalism, a theory of social change, and a view of human liberation derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The three primary aspects of Marxism are:

• Advocacy of proletarian revolution — In order to overcome the restrictions of private property the working class must seize political power internationally through a social revolution and expropriate the capitalist classes around the world and place the productive capacities of society into collective ownership. Upon this, material foundation classes would be abolished and the material basis for all forms of inequality between humankind would dissolve.

• The critique of capitalism — Marx argues that in capitalist society, an economic minority (the bourgeoisie) dominate and exploit an economic majority (the proletariat). Marx argues that capitalism is exploitative, specifically the way in which unpaid labour (surplus value) is extracted from the working class.

This forms the fundamental contradiction of capitalist society. Without the elimination of the private ownership of the means of production, human society is unable to achieve further development.

Communism, fundamentally, is a system of social organization in which property is held in common. The term Communism is applied to the movement that aims to overthrow the capitalist order by revolutionary means and to establish a classless society in which all goods will be socially owned.The theories of the movement come from Marx, as modified by Lenin. Communism, in this sense, should be distinguished from socialism, which (as the term is commonly understood) seeks similar ends but by evolution rather than revolution.

Socialism: general term for the political and economic theory that support a system of collective ownership and management of the means of production and distribution of goods. Because of the collective nature of socialism, it is to be contrasted to the doctrine of private property that characterizes capitalism. Where capitalism stresses competition and profit, socialism calls for cooperation and social service.In the past 150 years there have been innumerable differing socialist programs. For this reason socialism as a doctrine is ill defined, although its main purpose, the establishment of cooperation in place of competition remains fixed.

A Trade Union or Labor Union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Originating in Europe, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Anarchism (from Greek having no government) is a theory in which equality and justice are to be sought through the abolition of the state and the substitution of free agreements between individuals. Central to anarchist thought is the belief that society is natural and that people are good but are corrupted by artificial institutions. Also central in anarchism are the belief in individual freedom and the denial of any authority, particularly that of the state, that hinders human development. Since the Industrial Revolution, anarchists have also opposed the concentration of economic power in business corporations.

While Spain and the guerrillas were struggling for its freedom from France in the War of Independence, a national assembly known as the Spanish Cortes gathered and drew up in 1812 the Cadiz Constitution (La Pepa, as it was adopted on San Jose’s day). The Constitution of Cadiz took the basic principles of political liberalism: national sovereignty, separation of powers, universal male suffrage and a bill of rights. It also abolished many aspects of the Old Regime: abolition of the feudal system, abolition of guilds and the suppression of the Holy Inquisition.Although progress was being made towards a liberal government, Spain’s American colonies were in threat. The Spanish colonists were demanding independence for themselves and wished to exchange goods freely with all nations and not only Spain. By 1826 only Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, Guam and several settlements in Northern Africa remained under Spain’s flag. Spain had lost the mainland colonies in the Americas and consequently their chief resources.

4.- 4.- Crisis of the Old Regime in SpainCrisis of the Old Regime in Spain

1814-1833: Fernando VII1814-1833: Fernando VII

•1814-1820.- Absolutist Reaction (Restauración Absolutista): Fernando VII, was recognized as king in 1814. He opposed the Cadiz Constitution and liberal ideology: the Ancient Regime was restored and many liberals were arrested and executed (Espoz-y-Mina, Mariana Pineda, etc.)

•1820-1823: Liberal Triennium (Trienio Liberal) However the liberals (led by Colonel Riego) demanded that the liberal Constitution of 1812 be restored. A military uprising took place in 1820 and the King Fernando VII finally agreed to the demands of the revolutionaries and swore by the constitution. A liberal (progresista) government was appointed, though the king expressed his disaffection with the new administration and constitution. Three years of liberal rule (Trienio liberal) followed.

•1823-1833: The Ominous Decade (La Década Ominosa). The King Ferdinand VII appealed to France for assistance. He applied the terms of the Congress of Vienna, asking for the assistance of the other absolute monarchs of Europe to restore absolutism. 60,000 soldiers, called “The Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis” were mobilized by the King of France to restore King Fernando VII to the Spanish throne. As a result, Fernando VII broke his oath and again repealed the Constitution of Cadiz. He declared null and void all the acts and measures of the liberal government.

In 1830, Ferdinand decreed a Pragmatic Sanction (Pragmática Sanción). As a result of the sanction, women were allowed to accede to the Spanish throne, and the succession would fall on Ferdinand's infant daughter, Isabel, rather than to his brother Carlos. When Fernando died in 1833, a Carlist group opposed a woman as ruler and insisted that Don Carlos, Ferdinand’s brother, inherited the crown. This Carlist group followed the traditional religious and political ideals. Yet, Maria had a group of supporters, the isabelinos, who were liberals. Civil war erupted and the isabelinos defeated the Carlist in 1839.

• 1833-1843: The Regencies. In 1833, when Fernando died, his wife Maria Cristina became regent for her daughter, who at that time was only three years old. The liberals became divided between the Liberales Progresistas and the Liberales Moderados. The Moderados supported a constitutional monarchy while the Progresistas demanded a Spanish republic. After a series of uprising, by 1837 a compromise was met and the Constitution of 1837 was proclaimed. Then, a revolt ousted Maria Cristina, and General Espartero was appointed Regent, but only three years later Serrano and Narvaez overthrew Espartero and 13 years-old Isabel assumed the crown.

• 1843-1868: Isabel II reign. During this period, politicians as Narvaez, Serrano, Bravo Murillo made serious efforts to advance Spanish industry and commerce. A new constitution, authored by the Moderados was written in 1845. Due to her turbulent rule the Queen was disposed in the Revolution of 1868, because a coup d'état by General Juan Prim.

1833-1868: Isabel II1833-1868: Isabel II

• First Republic (1873-1874): The Spanish

Cortes resumed leadership and tried for a republican regime. Power was decentralized to the provinces. Each province under the First Spanish Republic was to assert self-government, so Spain became a sort of Federation. The First Republic was led by four presidents (Figueras, Pi-i- Margall, Castelar and Salmeron) However, a stable government eluded Spain.

1868-1874: 1868-1874: Sexenio RevolucionarioSexenio Revolucionario

• Provisional Government (1868-1870): General Juan Prim set up a government of committees called Juntas, in major towns. Prim’s provisional government brought about the Constitution of 1869. Although limited monarchy, universal male suffrage and freedom of press and association were recognized there was still political instability, in support for a constitutional monarchy.

• Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873): In 1870, Prim offered Amadeo of Savoy, a duke from Italy, the throne and he was crowned Amadeo I. Agitated by political and social conflict, popular hostility and Cuban’s revolt against him, he renounced the throne in 1873

By 1874 a group of Spanish generals (General Pavia) figured the restoration of a Bourbon monarchy would put an end to this struggle, and proclaims Alfonso XII, Isabella’s oldest son, king of Spain. By 1876 he drafted the Constitution. A system of rotation called peaceful turnabout (turno pacifico), allowed the parties to alternate in office at regular intervals. Canovas led the Conservative Party, while Sagasta led the Liberal Party. Agriculture and foreign competition were protected. Iron, steel and manufacturing industries flourished. Major cities like Madrid and Barcelona grew. Electrical systems were installed, telephones, electric trams, and other modern conveniences. The culture flourished also. Architecture, painters, and dancers became popular across Europe. Great authors, novelist and playwright were produced in the area of literature. Alfonso XII died in 1885 and his wife Queen Maria Cristina acted as regent until their son, Alfonso XIII became of age in 1902, by which time he took the throne.

1874-1902: Borbon Restoration1874-1902: Borbon Restoration