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The Spirit of Falsehood

ESTHER J. HAMORI

Union Theological Seminary

New York, NY 10027

ACCORDING to the biblical picture, the heavenly realm is teeming with life.Many types of divine beings have long been recognized, such as the , the, and the . Just as these terms refer to divine beings characterized inspecific and recognizable ways, there is another category of the divine populationwith its own identifying features and narrative function. Several meanings of the

term are familiar (wind, breath, spirit, inclination, and various overlaps),1butthere is also a category of divine being by this name, repeatedly characterizedaccording to a particular role, once called the spirit of falsehood. Although thespirit of falsehood ( ) of Micaiahs throne vision in 1 Kings 22 is wellknown, the tradition generally remains unacknowledged in other texts and in schol-arly pictures of divine society as a whole, from works on the divine council to the

Dictionary of Deities and Demons.2

1 The term can refer to spirit (most commonly the spirit of Yhwh), breath, wind, and mood or

inclination. The logical overlaps are especially clear between breath and wind (e.g., the breath ofGods mouth), and between mood and spirit (e.g., a jealous spirit [Num 5:14]). The overlap betweenbreath and spirit is evident, for example, in Ezek 37:9, where Ezekiel is told that there is no breathin the bones, and to prophesy to the breath (as if the breath of life has a life of its own). Theoverlap between spirit and wind may be observed, for instance, in Ezekiel 1, where the wind comeswith four figures in it, and then the spirit carries Ezekiel away in the wind (i.e., the spirit moves him).Some texts reflect these double meanings because of their natural overlaps; others seem to ring ofwordplay based on knowledge of the overlapping ideas.

2 The term falsehood appears in the Dictionary of Deities and Demons,but much of theshort discussion concerns false prophecy. Hans-Peter Mller (Falsehood, inDictionary of Deitiesand Demons in the Bible [ed. Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst;Leiden/New York: Brill, 1995] 325-26) adds only that [i]n combination with the word rah

i

, spirit,eqercan personify the notion of falsehood in the Hebrew Bible. The term evil spirit of God

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Biblical references to a of falsehood outside of 1 Kings 22 have been readin the same light as the jealous spirit () of Num 5:14, for example, or thespirit of grace and supplication ( ) in Zech 12:10. The of1 Kings 22, however, is the only specific spirit we see in the Hebrew Bible withindividual identity and agency, with the clear exception of the spirit of Yhwh(which functions differently). Only in the case of the of falsehood is it clear thatwe definitely have a tradition of a specific non-Yhwh spirit; the sole question is theextent of that tradition. The phrase occurs in one text, but references to a sent by God in order to bring destructive justice through deceit occur in sev-eral more.

A larger study of Near Eastern spirits would be intriguing, but for the pres-ent, a few notes on Mesopotamian demons and spirits should establish a general

context for the . The Mesopotamian material, as we will see for the Israelitedata, includes a range of ideas. There should be no contrived attempt to create aunified picture in either case or to draw a one-to-one correspondence between thetwo. In an overview of some basic points, however, certain similarities are evi-dent.

Spirits in Mesopotamian literature are often conceived of as related to wind.Similar to the Hebrew , the Akkadianru can refer to wind, to breath (the

breath of the gods, the breath of life, the breath of humans), and to spirits.3 Vari-ous types of demons also are described at times as having an ethereal nature. The

collection utukku limnti (incantations against evil spirits, demons, and the like)includes vivid descriptions of many of these. For instance, one incantationdescribes the evil spirits [utukku] that chase the great storms. . . . Through thedoor like a snake they glide, through the hinge like a wind they blow; anotherincludes an al demon that has no form, and one that will envelop a man.4

In many texts, various types of spirits and demons are listed in a series: utukkulimnu al limnu ekimmu limnu gall limnu ilu limnu rabisiu limnu, in R. CampbellThompsons classic translation, evil spirit, evil demon, evil ghost, evil devil, evil

16 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 72, 2010

20) is that it serves in the narrative as an objectification of Yhwhs abandonment of Saul. Whileboth of these entries include references to the story of the spirit of falsehood in 1 Kings 22, neitherone identifies the as a type of divine being that appears in other texts as well.

3 On the development of the Akkadian ru as comparable to the Latin anima, see MarcelLeibovici, Gnies et Dmons en Babylonie, in Dimitri Meeks et al., Gnies, anges, et dmons:gypte, Babylone, Isral, Islam, Peuples Altaques, Inde, Birmanie, Asie du Sud-Est, Tibet, Chine(Sources Orientales 8; Paris: Seuil, 1971) 85-112, here 87. See also CAD, II, 135b. The word alsofrequently means falsehood or lies, presumably related to the ideas of air, emptiness, vanity; seeCAD, II, 139b-140a.

4 R. Campbell Thompson, The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia: Being Babylonian and

Assyrian Incantations against the Demons, Ghouls, Vampires, Hobgoblins, Ghosts, and KindredEvil Spirits, which Attack Mankind(2 vols.; Luzacs Semitic Text and Translation Series 14, 15;

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god, evil fiend.5 Some texts include different combinations of these terms. Oneincantation includes the first four:

The evil Spirit, the evil Demon, the evil Ghost, the evil Devil,From the earth have come forth;From the Underworld (?) unto the land they have come forth,In heaven they are unknown,On earth they are not understood,They know not how to stand,They know not how to sit,No food they eat,No water they drink.6

A number of incantations against the seven evil spirits are particularly well

known and include similar portrayals of formless spirits. For instance:

They are seven, they are seven . . .They are not male, they are not female,They are drifting phantoms,They take no wife, they beget no son.They know neither sparing of life nor mercy,They heed no prayers nor entreaties.They are steeds that grew up in the mountains,They are the evil ones of Ea . . . .7

The reference to the drifting phantoms as the evil ones of Ea should notbe taken to indicate that spirits were always considered to be evil.8 Many types ofspirits and demons acted as divine agents with both positive and negative functions.The divine agent is generally neutral, sent for the benefit or detriment of the recip-ient, depending on the will of the god. There is ample textual evidence for this, suchas in references to both good spirits and evil spirits, good demons and evil demons,and so on. Anthony Green points also to the specific iconographic similarities

between beneficent and protective spirits and evil beings of various kinds. Heargues on the basis of this evidence that we should guard against a rigid division,in considering Mesopotamian spirits, between the good and the evil: at times, per-haps, the beneficence or malevolence of individual spirits depended more upontheir works at any given time than upon their essential natures.9

THE SPIRIT OF FALSEHOOD 17

5 For example, ibid., tablet III, 1:2-3; and tablet XVI, 1:106-7.6 Ibid., tablet CC, 2:134-35.7 Translation of Benjamin R. Foster,From Distant Days: Myths, Tales, and Poetry of Ancient

Mesopotamia (Bethesda, MD: CDL, 1995) 407. See also Thompson,Devils, tablet V, 1:76-79.8 Drifting phantoms here is, for Thompson (Devils, tablet V, 1:77), the roaming windblast,

Akkadianzaqqu, phantom, ghost, nothingness, foolishness. See CAD, Z, 58b-60a.9 Anthony Green, Beneficent Spirits and Malevolent Demons: The Iconography of Good

and Evil in Ancient Assyria and Babylonia, inPopular Religion (ed. Hans G. Kippenberg, L. P. van

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With this in mind, we return to the biblical context. A few scholars haveobserved a similarity between the spirit of falsehood ( ) of 1 Kings 22and the evil spirit or harmful spirit ( ) that comes upon Saul in 1 Samuel

1619. These observations have not included significant comparison, however, oran examination of the role of the . A few commentators have mentioned one or

both of these texts in connection with Judg 9:23-24, in which God sends a harm-ful spirit ( ) between Abimelech and the Shechemites, but these too havegenerally addressed either the cause or the effect of the incident, not the agent.

In fact, at least eight biblical texts portray a identifiable as a divine beingserving a specific function. This function is more closely related to the divine courtcontext of 1 Kings 22 than to contexts in which means inclination, such asthe spirit of [or inclination to] jealousy in Num 5:14, though that is how almost

all of these texts have been read. In each of these eight texts, a divinely sent causes a person or group of people to hear falsehood or otherwise be deceived,sometimes accompanied by terror. The purpose is judgment-related, as the oneafflicted with falsehood is shown to have been in the wrong already. The result isoften death to a king (usually violent) or removal of political opponents, ensuringIsraels security and preserving Gods plan for the elect. A survey of these texts willdemonstrate the existence of a recurring biblical tradition of a as divine agent,specifically associated with bringing destructive justice by means of falsehood.

This is not to imply that there is one Spirit of Falsehood in many texts, a sin-gle figure with a permanent title. Rather, various texts include references to anuntitled who fits within a particular role that is recognizable by a tight clusterof identifying features. The use of terminology (rather than or no refer-ence at all to an intermediating divine being) is bound to a specific kind of workthat Yhwh wants to have accomplished, according to each narrative. These textscan be understood in the framework of the description of the explicit in1 Kings 22.

Of these eight texts, five texts (or sets of texts) bear clear connections to thetradition of the spirit of falsehood: 1 Kgs 22:19-23; texts from 1 Samuel (16:14-23;18:10-12; and 19:9-10); Judg 9:23-24; 2 Kgs 19:7; and Isa 19:13-14. Three moretexts (or sets of texts) reflect related traditions. These include Isa 29:9-10; Job4:12-21; and texts from Hosea (4:12; 5:4; 9:7; and 12:2).

I. The Deceiving Spirit

A. 1 Kings 22:19-23

The nature of the as a divine being is most evident in Micaiahs throne

vision of 1 Kgs 22:19-23 (2 Chr 18:18-22). The prophet Micaiah relays a graphicvision of the divine council in action. He sees Yhwh on the throne, and all the host


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go to his death, and one says this and another that. The spirit () comes forthand volunteers to go be(come) a lying spirit ( ) in the mouth of all the

prophets, in a scene rather reminiscent of Job 12. In Job also a divine being steps

forward from the group of anonymous figures and throws out a suggestion toYhwh. The use of the definite article at the first mention of the spirit suggests thatthe divine being in this narrative too has its own role, as does in Job 1.10 Inthe case of Micaiahs vision in 1 Kings 22, the role of the is to be the inciterof deceitful speech, to delude the prophets.11

It is clear from Micaiahs next words that Yhwhs purpose in sending the is related to destructive justice. After describing his vision to Ahab, Micaiah tellshim, Yhwh has decreed evil for you ( ). A royal prophet namedZedekiah promptly strikes Micaiah and says, How did the spirit of Yhwh pass

from me to speak with you?!12 Although Zedekiah intends this as an insult toMicaiahs seemingly arrogant claim, he inadvertently speaks the truth from theauthors perspective: the spirit of Yhwh is not with Ahab and his prophets butwith Micaiah. Yhwh has sent this to bring evil to the king, whose prophetacknowledgesif ironicallythat he no longer has the spirit of Yhwh. Thisreplacement of the spirit of Yhwh with the destructive spirit of falsehood appearsagain in many of the following texts.13

B. 1 Samuel 16:14-23; 18:10-12; and 19:9-10In 1 Sam 16:14-23; 18:10-12; and 19:9-10, Saul is sent into fits of delusion

by a . In chaps. 16 and 18, the is described as both a harmful spirit fromYhwh ( ) and a harmful spirit of God ( ). The ref-erence in chap. 19 is to a harmful spirit of Yhwh ( ). The movementsof this are described in terms very similar to those of the spirit of Yhwh inchaps. 1619. Both spirits can fall upon someone: the spirit of Yhwh fell upon


10 Jerome T. Walsh (1 Kings [Berit Olam; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1996] 351) sug-gests that the definite article shows the uniqueness of the in the divine court, but goes on to saythat this means that it is the spirit of Yhwh, the spirit to which the prophets regularly ascribe theirdivine inspiration.

11 Or as Iain Provan (1 and 2 Kings [OTG; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997] 165)writes, an agent provocateur.

12 All translations are my own.13 A few scholars have noted similarities between this and other passages. Mordechai Cogan

(1 Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [AB 10; New York: Doubleday,2001] 492) mentions the story of Judges 9 but also Yhwh hardening Pharaohs heart, indicating thathis point of comparison is Yhwhs agency, not the role of the . Similarly, Gene Rice (Nationsunder God: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Kings [ITC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990] 187)makes a parenthetical reference to Judg 9:23 and Isa 19:14, both of which will be discussed here,

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David, (16:13); the harmful spirit of God fell upon Saul, (18:10). Both can also come upon someone asexpressed with the verb ,: when the harmful spirit of God comes upon you

(16:16); the spirit of God came upon Sauls messen-gers, (19:20). Both spirits can depart from some-one, as expressed with the verb ,: the spirit of Yhwh departed from Saul (16:14); the harmful spirit departed from him, (16:23). Both spirits cause ecstatic prophecy: the harmful spirit of God fellupon Saul and he prophesied ecstatically, (18:10); the spirit of God came upon Sauls messengers and they prophesiedecstatically, (19:20).

The parallel roles of the two spirits are evident also in the initial note in 1 Sam

16:14 that the spirit of Yhwh first departs from Saul, and then a harmful spirit fromYhwh falls upon him. This is evident again in 18:12, which reemphasizes thatYhwh is with David but had departed from Saul.14 This is analogous to 1 Kings 22,in which the king loses the spirit of Yhwh, and in exchange his prophets receivethe spirit of falsehood. For biblical authors, it seems to be a basic rule of cosmic

physics that no two spirits can occupy the same space at the same time.The precise relationship between the and Yhwh is unclear. This harm-

ful spirit from Yhwh can fall upon persons and cause them to prophesy (18:10), asthe spirit of Yhwh/God does elsewhere (including 19:20-25). This would indi-

cate a similar type of identification between each spirit and Yhwh, the crucial dif-ference being that from the authors perspectives, the spirit of Yhwh brings true

prophecy and the harmful spirit from Yhwh is connected to delusional behavior.(As will be discussed later, it is not necessary to assume either that the harmfulspirit is always identified with God, or that it is always a separate divine being.)

The implication is not that Sauls ecstatic prophecy or raving in 18:10 is initself false, but that this both deludes and causes prophecy. In 1 Kings 22,Yhwh sends a to inspire false prophecy, which leads to the death of the king.In the Samuel texts, Yhwh sends a to inspire delusion in Saul; the consequencescontribute directly to Sauls downfall, and the path is cleared for Yhwhs chosenking.


14 P. Kyle McCarter (1 Samuel: A New Translation [AB 8; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980]280-81) notes that the one spirit comes after the other leaves, so that the infusion of spirit is neverneutral. However, he compares this incident to mental illness and places the evil spirit from Yhwhin quotation marks. Some scholars discussing this text mention the similarity to 1 Kings 22; see, e.g.,David Jobling (1 Samuel[Berit Olam; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1998] 90). Ralph W.

Klein (1 Samuel[WBC 10; Waco: Word, 1983] 165) notes 1 Kings 22 and Judges 9 as well, but alsoDeut 13:2-4; Amos 3:6; and 2 Sam 24:1, indicating that he too is addressing the goal but not theagent.

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C. Judges 9:23-24

Judges 9:23-24 mentions another human encounter with a .

Abimelech, Gideons son by his concubine, aligns himself with his mothers She-chemite relatives and has Gideons seventy sons killed, with the exception ofJotham. After this, Abimelech rules Israel for three years. Then God sends a between Abimelech and the Shechemites. Strife and duplicity ensue as theShechemites deal treacherously () with Abimelech. The statement of causeand effect is clear: Then God sent a harmful spirit between Abimelech and themen of Shechem; and the men of Shechem dealt treacherously with Abimelech, (9:23).This treachery results in the death of a thousand Shechemites and the violent death

of Abimelech, as a woman drops an upper millstone on his head and an attendantstabs him to death.As in 1 Kings 22 and 1 Samuel 1619, the spirit in Judges 9 is an instigator

of deception, with now familiar consequences. The intended result of this deceitis made plain: God sends a harmful spirit between these parties in order that theviolence done to the seventy sons of Jerubbaal might come, and their blood might

be laid on Abimelech their brother, who killed them, and on the men of Shechem,who strengthened his hands to kill his brothers (v. 24). The theme of deceptioncontinues through v. 31, in which Zebul sends messengers to Abimelech deceitfully

.()15

Zebul then tricks Gaalperhaps the deceitful intention referenced inv. 31and shortly thereafter nearly everyone involved is dead. As in 1 Kings 22and 1 Samuel 1619, God uses a of deceit to vindicate those who are on Godsside and to depose those who are not. Here God vindicates the seventy sons ofJerubbaal and wipes out all others. This divine motive for sending the isrepeated in the conclusion to the story: God repaid both Abimelech and the sonsof Shechem for what they had done (9:56-57).

As seen in 1 Kings, where the lying spirit is in the mouth of all the prophets,the one spirit can affect many. This is not merely a use of the term to signify

mood or inclination, as though a feeling arose in both Abimelech and theShechemites. God sends the of harm between the two parties; the harm is tiedto deception, and the result is death to those portrayed as unjust. As in 1 Kings, the affects all at once.16


15 The textual apparatus inBHSsuggests because the function of deceitfulness in thepassage has not been recognized. BDB, 941a,b, likewise notes for in this verse, meaningunsuitable. However, the meaning of is as clear as that of the other three nouns derived from(piel) , to beguile, each of which is used in parallel to : (deceitfulness) in Jer

23:26 and Ps 119:118; (deceit) in Mic 6:12; Pss 120:2; 101:7; and (deceit) in Amos8:5.16 Several scholars who discuss Judges 9 mention 1 Samuel 16 and/or 1 Kings 22, but none

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E. Isaiah 19:13-14

Isaiah 19:13-14 presents a similar picture. Earlier in the oracle it is stated that

Yhwh will incite the Egyptians against one another (a familiar concept fromJudges 9), so that brother will fight against brother, neighbor against neighbor, cityagainst city, and kingdom against kingdom. Egypt will be emptied of its spirit, andYhwh will confuse its counsel ( ). The people will resort to divination(in the biblical authors view, false prophecy), consulting idols, ghosts, and medi-ums (19:2-3). After a vivid portrayal of the consequence to the Egyptian people andto the land itself, the oracle continues, The princes of Zoan have become foolish,the princes of Memphis have been deceived ] , as in 2 Kgs 18:27 and 19:10above]; the chiefs of her tribes have caused Egypt to stumble [lit., led Egypt

astray, :] (v. 13). The very next words provide the explanation for this Yhwhhas mixed within her a spirit of distortion [ ]; they shall cause Egypt tostumble [lit., lead Egypt astray] in all her doings, like the stumbling of a drunkin his vomit (v. 14). The verb , used repeatedly in this text, primarily meansto lead astray. The English phrase chosen here, to cause to stumble, is meantto capture the double meaning of going astray and falling down drunk. This is theresult of Yhwhs intention to lead the people astray, deceiving the princes ofMemphis, so that they should cause Egypt to stumble. Yhwh accomplishes thisthrough a .

The themes of counsel and deception run through the entire oracle. In v. 3,Yhwh will confuse Egypts counsel, and they will inquire ( ) of idols and thelike. Verse 11 states that the princes of Zoan are fools () and that the wisdomof Pharaohs counselors has become stupid (or brutish). In addition to the repeatedreferences to foolishness and stupidity through a variety of colorful terms, the root appears six times in this passage and the root appears three times. Theapparent emphasis is that the wise men of Egypt are already viewed as foolishcounselors. Yhwh sends the spirit of distortion, asking, Where are your wise mennow? Once again, Yhwh sends a spirit to those already deluded.

Egypts spirit leaves, and Yhwh replaces it with a spirit that causes distortionand confusion. It should not be surprising that Yhwh sends a spirit that affects theleaders of Egypt and, through them, the nation; consider the crucial role of Ahabscourt prophets in 1 Kings 22. Here again, part of the effect will be a change inkingship, as Egypt is delivered over to a new harsh ruler (19:4). Verse 17 states thatthe land will become a terror (like David to Saul). As in 1 Kings 22; 1 Samuel 1619;and Judges 9, Yhwh gives a spirit that causes delusion to those who are opposedto Yhwh and to Yhwhs chosen. Once again, the reference is not to a feeling orinclination that arises among the people; Yhwh mixes within Egypt this one spirit,

which affects the many, as in 1 Kings 22 and Judges 9.18


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Each of the preceding five texts tells of a sent by God that brings false-hood. In each case, this deception or delusion leads to death, violence, or terror forthose already deemed to be in the wrong. Several more texts may represent a sec-

ond level of tradition, perhaps reflecting knowledge of the idea of a .

II. Related Texts

A. Isaiah 29:9-10

The prophecy to Jerusalem in Isa 29:10 has related implications: For Yhwhhas poured upon you a spirit of deep sleep [ ], and has shut your eyes, the

prophets, and covered your heads, the seers. The sense of here may overlapwith inclination and also reflect familiarity with the tradition of the spirit of false-hood. The spirit is spread over Jerusalem by Yhwh and causes prophets to stop

prophesying. The likelihood of a connection between this and the tradition of adeceiving spirit is increased in light of the context of the reference. The previouschapter describes Jerusalem as already blinded and deceived, and Isa 28:15 says,We have made deception [] our refuge and we have concealed ourselves withfalsehood [ ]. The oracle of Isaiah 29 begins with Yhwhs declared intent toencamp against Jerusalem (vv. 2-3), and it contains repeated statements indicating

that Jerusalem is seen as already in the wrong. These statements lead to the descrip-tion of the intended effect of the : Linger and delay, blind yourselves and beblind! Become drunken, but not with winestagger, but not with drink, (v. 9). And why? Because Yhwhhas poured upon you a spirit of deep sleep, (v. 10).These people, already characterized by deception () and falsehood ( ), withYhwh set against them, are now afflicted with a that causes the same symptomsas drunkenness (delay, blindness, and staggering). In Isa 19:14 as well, Yhwhsends a that causes people to stagger as if drunk. Without placing this text in

the first tier of direct references to a spirit that brings deception, it should be notedthat these intoxication-like symptoms are in the delusion family. These effects ofthe accompany the cessation of prophecy.

B. Job 4:12-21

Job 4:12-21 presents an altogether different picture of a ,. Eliphaz says

a word was brought stealthily to me, my ear caught a whisper of it; amidst unsettlingthoughts from visions at night, when deep sleep [] falls upon people, fear came

over me, and trembling, and made me shudder to the bone [lit., caused dread to all ofmy bones]. A passed me by; the hair of my flesh bristled; it halted, but I did not


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a whisper, and a voice: Can humankind be more righteous than God? Can one bepurer than ones Maker? (4:12-17)19

As different as this text is from those previously discussed, there are impor-tant points of similarity. First, it is noteworthy that the function of the here isto transmit a message. R. N. Whybray points out that the use of the word sug-gests prophecy in particular.20 Also note the rare use of, as in Isa 29:10.With the exception of Prov 19:15, where the word indicates the sluggish sleep

brought on by laziness, always refers to a deep sleep caused by Yhwh. Thephrase reappears in Job 33:15, during the great rant of Elihu, and this time the ref-erence is explicitly to a caused by Yhwh in order to facilitate divinehumancommunication. The same concept can be assumed for Eliphazs speech. It is in themidst of this

, Eliphaz claims, that the

transmits its message.

The tells Eliphaz what he already wants to hear (compare especially therole of the lying spirit to the court prophets in 1 Kings 22). Notably, in the contextof the book, the indictment is not a fair charge against Job. It seems that the wordsof the sent by God in this case are not necessarily false per se, but false in theirapplication to Job. This may be an example of an author playing with the traditionof the spirit of falsehood, using the here as a signal that while the words ringtrue, the message is deceptive. In addition, it is of course ironic that Eliphaz, whois already in the wrong in the context of the story, uses the to argue his case.

This text contains one striking difference from the previous texts. The passes by as it speaks; the perception is visual, auditory, and sensory, asEliphaz claims that his flesh bristled. The causes in him a reaction of hair-raising dread, trembling, and shaking (note the association of the with terror,as in 1 Samuel 16 and Isaiah 19). Moreover, Eliphaz refers to the appearance of theform (the of the ). We know from Micaiahs vision in 1 Kings 22 thatthe has a bodily form in heaven; in the vision of Eliphaz, the is in somesense embodied on earth.21


19 In his next words, the also accuses divine beings of being fallible. According to its ownlogic, the spirit acknowledges that it may be in error. It is hard to know whether this makes the spiritmore or less trustworthy. One might remember here of the words of Epimenides the Cretan, allCretans are liars.

20 But with a furtive character, implied by the terms to steal and to whisper (R. N.Whybray,Job [Readings: A New Biblical Commentary; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998]42).

21 Most discussion of the episode in Job deals with the theological content of the speech of the,., not the speaker. For example, several scholars note that the message is ironically obvious (e.gWhybray,Job, 42; James A. Wharton,Job [Westminster Bible Companion; Louisville: WestminsterJohn Knox, 1999] 29; and C. S. Rodd, The Book of Job [Epworth Commentaries; London: Epworth,1990] 15). As for the itself, however, commentary is scarce. Michael Fishbane ( The Book ofJob and Inner-Biblical Discourse, in The Voice from the Whirlwind: Interpreting the Book of Job

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To be sure, the tradition of the who deceives is expressed with a range oflanguage and nuance. As in 1 Kings 22, this text portrays the as strongly per-sonalized with a single mind, agency, and presence. A may be like a inthis way: some texts portray as personalized and embodied; other textsdescribe voices from heaven; and most leave the form unspecified.22 Within thisvariety, the identification of the divine being stems not from a consistent form butfrom a recognizable function.

C. Hosea 4:12; 5:4; 9:7; and 12:2

The Book of Hosea contains an interesting assortment of references to a .Hosea 4:12 says of Israel, a spirit of fornication [ ] has led them astray]. Although] here clearly has the potential to be interpreted in the senseof inclination, the use of the verb in the hiphil (here ] shows the samefunction that it did in Isa 19:14 (there plural, ). In Isaiah 19, Yhwh mixedwithin Egypt a spirit of distortion ( ), and the chiefs of her tribes led herastray .()

In Hosea 4 the people are turning to the wrong source for divination (i.e.,false prophecy), as in Isaiah 19, and it is a that misleads them. It was seenin many of the previously discussed passages that Yhwh sends a deceiving spiritto those who are viewed as already in the wrong. The cause is specified here. In

Hos 5:4 it is stated that the people cannot return to their God because the spirit offornication is (still) within them. As in several of the other passages, the peoplecannot have both this and the presence of God at the same time. This indicatesthat the term here may well refer to something more than a feeling or inclina-tion. The peoples wrongdoing is made explicit also in 5:5, where Israels stum-

bling is attributed to pride. All of this is prefaced in 4:6 by the assertion, becauseyou have rejected knowledge, I will reject you as my priest. You have forgotten theteaching of your God; I also will forget your children. As in 1 Kings 22 andIsaiah 19, the spirit is sent to people who have already chosen falsehood.


address the identity of the figure, and Rodd (Book of Job, 15) asserts that it is beside the point toinquire whether the mysterious visitant is an angel. . . . The essential point is that what Eliphazmeets is a messenger from God with a revelation for him. Whybray translates here as wind,compares Ezekiels stormy wind (Ezek 1:4) and Elijahs still small voice (1 Kgs 19:12), and con-cludes that the author was probably not concerned to produce a coherent picture (Job, 43). Inter-estingly, David Wolfers (Deep Things out of Darkness: The Book of Job. Essays and a New EnglishTranslation [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995] 380-81) calls the vision a fraudulent device, com-paring it to Jer 24:25-27, in which some claim I had a dream, I had a dream! Ironically, althoughmost commentators do not try to identify the , there is more detail in the description of this divinebeing than in the majority of texts.

22 For full discussion, see Esther J. Hamori, When Gods Were Men: The Embodied God in

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The text of Hos 4:125:4 taken alone might still be interpreted as referring toan inclination to fornication; however, the possibility that Hosea is referring specif-ically to a deceiving spirit seems greater in light of the following two passages. The

phrase in 9:7, traditionally translated the inspired man is mad ( ),is not a reference to a spirit of falsehood, but the connection between prophecy,madness, and is strongly reminiscent of the experience of Saul under the influ-ence of the :. Hoseas final suggestive mention of the spirit comes in 12:1-2Ephraim surrounds me with lying [ ], the house of Israel with deceit .[]. . . Ephraim tends the wind [] and pursues the east wind. This is clearly a ref-erence to wind, not a literal mention of a divine being; but Hoseas fourth associ-ation of with lying and deceit cannot be overlooked.23 These three referencestaken together imply that Hosea, whether intending these references as allusions

or as wordplay based on knowledge of the tradition, does know the tradition ofthe who misleads.

III. Conclusions

The first tier of the texts discussed may be taken as direct references to thetradition of a spirit of falsehood (1 Kgs 22:19-23; 1 Sam 16:14-23; 18:10-12;19:9-10; Judg 9:23-24; 2 Kgs 19:7; Isa 19:13-14). The other texts may reflect a playon words or knowledge of the tradition (Isa 29:9-10; Job 4:12-21; Hos 4:125:4,

especially in light of Hos 9:7 and 12:2).A few other texts ring of the familiar tradition but are rather more ambiguous.

In Micah 2, the people are already planning iniquity and ceasing to speak (,associated with prophecy). Micah 2:11 says, If a man were going after wind []and falsehood [ ], lying ], and speaking (again] ) to the people aboutwine and liquor, he would be a spokesman for the people. As the passage contin-ues, Micah 3 is focused on the role of the prophets. Yhwh tells the prophets whoare leading the people astray ( in the hiphil, as in Isaiah 19 and Hosea 4) thatthey will no longer be able to prophesy, whereas Micah has the of Yhwh. Psalm104:4 may also reflect a nod to the tradition of a living who is a part of divinesociety, with use of (here literally, winds) in parallel with ,[Yhwhs] messengers.


23 Most commentators on Hosea do not mention the (e.g., Marvin A. Sweeney, The TwelveProphets [Berit Olam; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2000]; Bruce C. Birch,Hosea, Joel, andAmos [Westminster Bible Companion; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997]). A. A. Macintosh(A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Hosea [ICC; Edinburgh: Clark, 1997] 152) remarks on4:12 that the word rahi in such a phrase denotes movement of the mind and compares 1 Kgs22:23, but translates this as lying impulse. He also notes Isa 19:14, but translates perverse atti-tude and includes the fit of jealousy of Num 5:14, which reflects a different sense of the word .

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The in 1 Kings 22 volunteers to take on a specific function, and, werethere only this text, we might conclude that it is an isolated oddity. There are, how-ever, many more texts that portray a with the same function. Among the eight

texts discussed above, certain patterns are evident.The is connected to falsehood in all eight texts. Ahabs prophets are

deceived; Saul is rendered delusional; Abimelech and the Shechemites act deceit-fully; Sennacherib is deceived through a rumor; the Egyptians judgment is distorted

their princes are deceived and their counselors become stupid; prophets willbecome unable to prophesy, having concealed themselves with deception; Eliphazsmisperception is confirmed by the spirit; and Israel is led astray.

Seven of the eight spirits of falsehood are explicitly sent by God. The spiritin 1 Kings 22 was commissioned by Yhwh and seen in a prophetic vision; it is theharmful spirit from Yhwh who comes upon Saul in 1 Samuel; God sends the spirit

between the two guilty parties in Judges 9; Yhwh puts the spirit into Sennacherib;Eliphaz sees the spirit in a vision, in his deep sleep (, virtually always given

by Yhwh), saying that a word (, associated with prophecy) came to him; the is mixed into Egypt by Yhwh in Isaiah 19; it is poured out over Jerusalem by Yhwhin Isaiah 29. The is clearly under Gods authority in these seven texts. Theexception is Hosea, where God explains that the is the direct result of Israelsrejection of knowledge.

The spirit of falsehood affects people viewed as being already in the wrongin all eight texts. Ahabs prophets are already giving false prophecy; Saul is kingbut not the chosen one, and the spirit of Yhwh has left him; Abimelech and theShechemites are blatantly wicked and have set Abimelech up as ruler throughfraudulent means; Sennacherib is making war against Israel and claiming arro-gantly that Hezekiah could not rely on his deceitful God; Eliphaz hears what healready believes and in the context of the book is inaccurate and arrogant; inIsaiah 19 all Egypt is already emptied of spirit and prone to foolish counsel; inIsaiah 29 all Jerusalem is already in a refuge of lies; and in Hosea Israel had

already rejected God. All eight actions of the reveal previously existing spir-itual conditions; God turns evil over to evil, reveals blindness (Isa 29:9-10), idol-atry (Hosea), and false prophecy. Sometimes the emphasis seems to be onrevealing existing falseness, as in 1 Kings 22. At other times, although there is alsoa previously existing condition, the emphasis comes across as a standard confusethe enemy battle plan, as in the defeat of Sennacherib through a rumor, or thedeposing of Abimelech and the defeat of the Shechemites through instigatingtreachery.

Other direct effects of the are shared among many texts as well. The

is connected not only to falseness but to false prophecy particularly in five of theeight texts. Ahabs prophets speak lies, and Sauls ecstatic prophecy is described


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and the causes inability to prophesy in Isa 29:10. In three texts the alsocauses terror. Saul is terrified; Eliphaz is petrified, judging from his many refer-ences to hair-raising dread, trembling, and shaking; and Egypt suffers terror in

Isaiah 19. Interestingly, the often affects a group of people: the prophets,Jerusalem, Egypt as a whole and the princes of Memphis in particular, Israel, or theShechemites. In four of the five texts where the spirit affects an individual, how-ever, it is a national leader: Ahab, Saul, Abimelech, and Sennacherib. In five of theeight texts, another effect of the is an end to what is perceived as wrong ruler-ship. Ahab, Abimelech, and Sennacherib are killed; Saul is driven insane; andEgypts wickedness seems to be healed in Isaiah 19 (v. 22 refers to striking buthealing). This phenomenon is best explained by Wittgensteins theory of familyresemblance, that is, that there is a small group of characteristics from which each

of the texts draws.24There is, then, a more widespread biblical tradition for a spirit of falsehood

than has been previously recognized. Micaiahs vision of the spirit in the divinecouncil was not an isolated image. The eight examples delineated here range fromJudges, Samuel, and Kings through Isaiah and Hosea to Job. The picture through-out is consistent with the divine court context of 1 Kings 22, in which Yhwh usesthe as a subversive messenger to bring destructive justice through deception tothose who are already in the wrong.

According to the tradition shared in these texts, Yhwh seems to use the spirit

of falsehood in place of the divine spirit when the messages being given are false.Yhwh speaks the truth through the divine spirit and brings deception or delusionthrough the use of a spirit of falsehood. 1 Kings 22 and 1 Samuel 1619 demon-strate that the two spirits cannot occupy the same place at the same time; 1 Samueladditionally emphasizes that the spirits function in a parallel manner. A note-worthy difference is that that spirit of Yhwh is recognized by its recipients, who

proclaim that it has come upon them, and they proceed to announce or act upon themessage they have received. A deceiving spirit, however, acts surreptitiously, aswould suit Yhwhs purpose in sending it (since overt deception is unlikely to beeffective). In addition, the spirit mode of divine communication would seem fit-ting in these texts, given the repeated connection to prophecy, even when false.

The form of the spirit is not clear. The comparison to angels can be illumi-nating here: they are indistinguishable from one another in the heavens, but takevarious forms that suit their functions when communicating with humans. An angelmay appear as a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night to lead theIsraelites through the desert; it may appear in anthropomorphic form in order tohave a conversation with Manoah; it may speak as a voice from the heavens aboveto point out a ram in the thicket for Abraham to sacrifice (perhaps literally, from a


24 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (3rd ed.; trans. G. E. M. Anscombe;

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helpful birds-eye view). Similarly, the form of a spirit of falsehoodintangible,able effectively to transmit a message unbeknownst to its recipientreflects itsfunction. The absence of face-to-face interaction in most texts is fitting for the pur-

pose of deception.The issue of a divine beings embodied or disembodied nature is distinct from

the issue of its personal nature. Given the Hebrew terminology () with itsoverlapping meanings of spirit, wind, and breath, we should expect spirits to be dis-embodied, and the two texts that describe spirits in physical terms (1 Kings 22 andJob 4) are striking in this regard. This is quite separate from the question of whethera is personalthat is, whether it may have some agency or personal pres-ence in the way that a does. (It is actually a minority of texts thatdescribe anthropomorphic beings, and the majority of narratives are ambiguous

regarding angelic form.) The covert, disembodied nature of the in most textsshould not be assumed to indicate an impersonal force. Although has usually

been interpreted as an impersonal power, this would in fact be quite odd in ancientNear Eastern terms. It is possible that the inclination to interpret as an imper-sonal power stems partly from the fact that the spirit of Yhwh is thoroughly iden-tified with the deity in a way that angels are not, and that the existence of otherspirits with agency and personal presence might therefore seem more problematicfor monotheism than the existence of divine beings less closely associated withGod.

Not surprisingly, there is not a systematic presentation of these spirits in thebiblical texts. In addition to the flexible form of the spirits, it is possible that wesee both direct identification with God in some texts ( [1 Samuel 16and 18] and [1 Samuel 19]) and a separate divine being in other texts.A spirit of falsehood may be envisioned in a variety of ways. What is evident, how-ever, is that even where there is variety of language (a spirit of deception or dis-tortion, and the like) and conception (explicitly personal or ambiguous), thefunction and result are consistent: Yhwh sends a spirit that brings deception tothose already in the wrong, and this deception produces destructive justice.

The tradition of a spirit of falsehood as an active part of the population of theheavens has not been recognized outside of 1 Kings 22 because of the ambiguousterminology: has been assumed to mean inclination or feeling in thesetexts, as it does in many others. However, one of the primary modes of communi-cation that Yhwh uses when delivering messages is the divine -. With this precedent, we should not be surprised at a recurring tradition of Yhwh sending another with a related function. The use of a for the purpose of communicationwith humans can be understood to originate in the same domain of divine beingsas the use of a . This expression of divine message delivery stands fully withinthe scope of familiar biblical modes of divinehuman communication. Accordingto this recurring tradition, the of falsehood sent by Yhwh is recognizable by its


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