45072685-Road-traffic-behaviour-and-road-safety

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Transport Research Centre (TRC)

Ministry of Transport,

Public Works and Water Management

Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety

Road Safety Division

Joop H. Kraay & Willem Vlakveld Rotterdam, November 1999

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mnopq

Transport Research Centre (TRC)

Ministry of Transport,

Public Works and Water Management

Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety

Road Safety Division Joop H. Kraay & Willem Vlakveld

Rotterdam, November 1999

Published by:

Ministry of Transport

Transport Research Centre TRC-AVV

PO Box 1031

NL 3000 BA Rotterdam

The Netherlands

Information:

Road Safety Section VMV

Joop H Kraay

Willem Vlakveld

Telephone +31 10 2825692 Fax +31 10 2825646

Content

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1 Introduction 6 1.1 Outline 6 1.2 Definition of problem and general aim 7

2 Model for road traffic behaviour 9 2.1 A model based on unsafe road traffic behaviour 9 2.2 Intentional unsafe behaviour 9 2.3 Errors in traffic 10 2.4 Psychological precursors 13 2.5 System controls 13 2.6 Underlying factors or latent conditions 13 2.7 The ‘accident scenario model’ and road safety policy 13 2.8 The knowledge centre and the road safety policy 14

3 The relationship with other bodies 16 3.1 The role of the knowledge centre in the policy-making process 16 3.2 Other institutions 16 3.3 The changed relationship with the SWOV 17

4 The themes of the knowledge centre 20 4.1 Existing research themes 20 4.1.1 Alcohol and drugs 20 4.1.2 Speed 21 4.1.3 Seat belts 21 4.1.4 Optimisation of traffic surveillance 21 4.1.5 Road safety education 22 4.1.6 Driving instruction 23 4.1.7 Support and evaluation of public information campaigns 24 4.1.8 Legitimation of policy 25 4.2 New themes 25

5 Working method 27 5.1 Organisational form 27 5.2 Working method 27

6 Current research in the area of road traffic behaviour 28 6.1 Studies 28 6.2 Memberships and international joint ventures 29

7 References 31

Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety 3

Foreword

Transport Research Centre TRC-AVV of

Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) Directorate-General for Public Works and Watermanagement Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Watermanagement

* Organisation Rijkswaterstaat is one of the Directorate-Generals of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. It is responsible for four core activities: - to protect The Netherlands from flooding; - to improve the standard of water management; - to develop, maintain and manage the main infrastructure network and to facilitate, manage and control vehicle use; and - to ensure road traffic safety. The central core of Rijkswaterstaat is formed by ten Regional Departments. They are responsible for the provision, maintenance, management and construction of the main infrastructure. They are the link between the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management and the provinces. Rijkswaterstaat relies on a solid foundation of knowledge for the effective execution of its core tasks. Within Rijkswaterstaat, six specialist service departments fulfil the knowledge function for implementation and policy. These department acquire knowledge from external sources and undertake research themselves (albeit on a limited scale). This research is either project-based or strategic (carried out in anticipation of future needs). In the latter case the knowledge in question is not yet available from external sources and has to be developed and kept within the Ministry for strategic reasons. This enables Rijkswaterstaat to act as an expert client in purchasing goods and services and commissioning projects. These specialist service departments are: # The Road and Hydraulic Engineering Service DWW # The Construction Department Bouwdienst # The Survey Department Meetkundige Dienst # The National Institute for Coastal and Maritime Management RIKZ # The Institute for Inland Water Management and Wastewater Treatment RIZA # The Transport Research Centre TRC-AVV. The Transport Research Centre TRC-AVV assists in the implementation of traffic and transport policy. Its activities focus on traffic engineering, road safety, traffic management, goods transport and logistics, public transport, the environment, urban and regional planning, private transport and the collection and processing of related data. The TRC-AVV, as the custodian of transport and traffic knowledge, plays a pivotal role at the interface between policy, technology and science. As the authority in the field of traffic and transport data, the TRC-AVV supplies efficient basic information about the current situation of the traffic and transport system in The Netherlands. As a result of the combination of basic data and scientific knowledge the TRC-AVV enables to provide multilateral and integrated research and advice for policy and implementation purposes. The TRC-AVV’s added value lies in the synergy between knowledge of the current situation and scientific knowledge.


The TRC-AVV develops and manages knowledge through a number of knowledge centres. The “Road Infrastructure” and the “Road Traffic Behaviour” knowledge centres mostly deal with road safety aspects. The TRC-AVV maintains close contacts with relevant research and academic institutions, private sector organisations and other non-governmental organisations. The TRC-AVV represents The Netherlands in international bodies which are involved in the developments and dissemination of knowledge in the field of traffic and transport.


1 Introduction

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1.1 Outline

A number of different knowledge centres operate within the Transport Research Centre AVV. These knowledge centres are somewhat separate from the formal organisation structure of the AVV. Each knowledge centre has its own theme. The task of a knowledge centre with respect to this theme is to manage and expand the existing knowledge and make it available for policy and implementation. Knowledge management must result in a clear view on a certain theme. A knowledge plan has been drawn up for the Road Safety Section VMV. This knowledge plan states the objectives, organisation, knowledge management and operational management of the Road Safety Section VMV. One of the objectives stated in the knowledge plan is the realisation of two knowledge centres: “Sustainable Safety” and “Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety”. This document gives a more detailed elaboration of the “Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre”. This document will start by discussing the importance of knowledge about road traffic behaviour in relation to road safety. The task of using the roads is complex. In every traffic situation every road user must repeatedly observe, predict, evaluate, decide and execute often complex motor skills. The quality of this process depends on many factors. These factors will be charted by means of a model. On the basis of this model indications will also be given of the topics which will and will not be accentuated by the knowledge centre. The "Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre" is not the only knowledge centre within the AVV which is concerned with road traffic behaviour. For example, a Road Traffic Behaviour Knowledge Centre is being set up within the infrastructure and accessibility section (IBA) and road traffic behaviour is an explicit emphasis of the "Exploratory Surveys and Public Support Knowledge Centre" of the environmental characteristics section (VMO). What distinguishes the "Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre" from other knowledge centres within the AVV that are concerned with road traffic behaviour is that knowledge of road traffic behaviour must lead directly to concrete measures which can reduce the number of road accidents. Although the various knowledge centres concerned with road traffic behaviour take different starting points (VMV: safety; IBA: accessibility; VMO: choice behaviour prior to road use), in particular the more fundamental knowledge concerning road traffic behaviour will be the same. The "Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre" will therefore work as much as possible in co-operation with these other knowledge centres. Chapter 2 presents the above-mentioned model of the relationship between behaviour and road safety/road accidents. This model will serve as the basis for charting the terrain in which the "Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety" Knowledge Centre operates. Chapter 3 discusses the relationships maintained by the knowledge centre with policy-making and implementation authorities on the one hand and research centres on the other. Chapter 4 concerns the themes with which the knowledge centre is and will be engaged. Chapter 5 examines the working method of the knowledge centre. A brief summary of the current research is given in Chapter 6. This chapter also lists the national


and international organisations with which the knowledge centre maintains contacts. 1.2 Definition of problem and general aim

Road accidents are a serious social problem. In the Netherlands the total costs associated with road accidents amount to approximately NLG 11.5 billion per year. An important element in the occurrence of road accidents is human behaviour. It is estimated that the cause of 90% of road accidents can be directly traced back to sub-optimal or unsafe actions of road users. This does not, however, mean that the key to improvement should lie exclusively in improving human behaviour on the roads. Very few people intentionally take such great risks on the roads that they incur acute danger. The circumstances are frequently such that they encourage sub-optimal or unsafe behaviour. Moreover, a whole chain of events has often preceded that one fatal action which resulted in the accident. It is also extremely important here to realise that the vast majority of sub-optimal or unsafe actions do not result in an accident. This is either because people correct themselves or are corrected, or because by chance the circumstances are such that the sub-optimal action cannot cause damage. For instance, someone drives onto an intersection without looking to the right, but fortunately at that moment no cars are approaching from the right. In short, if the road safety policy fixates only on measures to prevent the immediate causes of accidents and/or the limitation of damage or injury in the event of accidents, it goes no further than treating symptoms. It is therefore extremely important to move from the immediate cause of accidents to the context within which the accidents could occur. Only in this way can there be a structural approach to reducing road accidents. The underlying causes of road accidents will be further elaborated in Chapter 2. Much has already been achieved in the area of road safety. Despite the increase in traffic, the annual number of deaths on the roads has gradually decreased during recent decades. Nevertheless, there are still about 1,100 deaths and 20,000 hospital admissions every year. For a further reduction of road accidents it is not sufficient to use only measures to increase the safety of vehicles and measures to improve the infrastructure. Road traffic behaviour must also be improved. In this connection, one might think of, among other things, road safety education and public information. Road accidents are still the most common cause of death in young people. Accidents much more frequently involve young drivers than experienced drivers. Another point is that increasing numbers of elderly people are continuing to drive for longer, while it is known that the skills required for driving gradually atrophy with age. There are also still many accidents in which the general mental state of road users is at issue. Examples here are the external action of alcohol, drugs and certain medications, but also the internal effect on the mind of fatigue and stress. In short, in order to achieve a further reduction in road accidents, it is necessary to search not only for means that adapt traffic to human capabilities and incapability’s, but also for means that adapt humans to traffic. In the latter case there is often reference to "influencing behaviour". Road safety policy cannot be developed if human capabilities and limitations are not taken into account in all facets of the policy, including the purely technical matters. The "Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety" Knowledge Centre aims to acquire and compile knowledge and understanding about the immediate and underlying causes of unsafe road traffic behaviour, intentional or otherwise, and the risks that people are prepared to take in traffic. The knowledge centre also aims to collect knowledge concerning the possibilities of positively influencing road traffic behaviour. This knowledge, both in the area of causes and in the area of measures (including knowledge about public


support for certain measures), will be employed to provide practicable advice for policy and implementation. It is desirable that the advice should play a role in the entire policy-making cycle. This means that advice concerning the human factor in traffic should be given throughout the process, from the formulation of policy questions to the evaluation of the implemented policy.


2 Model for road traffic behaviour

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2.1 A model based on unsafe road traffic behaviour

Precisely what 'moves' people in both the literal and the figurative sense is an extremely complex affair. In order to indicate the aspects with which the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre is engaged and the aspects with which it is engaged to a lesser extent or not at all, it is necessary to have a model that shows the relationship between road traffic behaviour and road safety. Such a model is presented in this chapter. A model is always a reduction of reality. A model does, however, make it possible to introduce a structure and to see connections. A road safety model could start out from the tasks that a road user carries out and the mental processes that accompany this. It could also start out from the motives of the road user. Here a different design is chosen. By starting out from sub-optimal or unsafe behaviour and moving from there to the underlying causes, it is possible to include in the model both characteristics of the perceptual/cognitive models with respect to the task of road use and the social/affective models with respect to the motivation of the road user. The decision has been made to use a generic model that has been somewhat adapted to the specific character of road safety. The presented model is based on the "Generic Error-Modelling System" (GEMS) of J.T. Reason (1990) and the accident scenario model developed from this by Wagenaar et al.. The aim of the present road safety policy is by 2010 to have halved the number of road deaths compared with 1986, and to have reduced the number of road injuries by 40%. As stated in Chapter 1, for an effective road safety policy it is important to have knowledge of the underlying causes of road accidents. However, in order to do this in an adequate way, it is necessary to first further investigate the immediate causes. Many things may be said to be the direct cause of an accident. One might think of, for instance: keeping insufficient distance, suddenly crossing the road, driving too fast etc.. The cause of these may lie either in lack of knowledge or in incorrect estimation of risks. In the first case, one generally speaks of errors, and in the second case of intentionally unsafe behaviour. Errors can be either intentional or unintentional and they are connected to disturbances in the cognitive process. Intentional unsafe behaviour relates to unwillingness to behave safely in traffic, and therefore to motivation. The first issue discussed below is intentional unsafe behaviour. 2.2 Intentional unsafe behaviour

There are at least four reasons why people intentionally behave unsafely on the roads: • Intentional unsafe behaviour out of habit or laziness (choosing the easiest

way, it has always turned out alright in the past, etc.) • Violations for the 'kick' (doing dangerous things out of boredom, macho

behaviour, being incited by friends)


• Necessary violations (the traffic regulations are impractical; for instance, there is no-one else on the road but the speed limit is 30 km/h and one wishes to be somewhere on time)

• Emotional violations (someone who is seriously ill has to be taken to hospital as quickly as possible, and one therefore does not observe speed limits; one is so enraged by people committing violations for the 'kick' that one wishes to teach them a lesson)

Intentional unsafe behaviour is connected to incorrect attitudes to concrete road traffic behaviour, a restricted sense of standards, and emotions (e.g. aggression). A road user can thus have his or her own views about road traffic behaviour that are not in line with those of the general policy. For instance, someone might think that one may drive faster than the speed limit if it is not dangerous, or that one does not need to stop at a red light if no other road users are approaching the intersection, or that it is not criminal to drive under the influence of alcohol. These attitudes to road traffic behaviour are closely related to the norms and values that one has in a more general sense. A strong determinant of these is the 'social environment' (sub-group) in which one lives. Whether someone actually violates a traffic regulation in a concrete case depends on the subjectively estimated risk. What is the chance that I will be caught? How dangerous is what I am planning to do? It goes without saying that emotions also have an important role in whether someone does something or not. The usual way to combat intentional unsafe behaviour is by means of campaigns (aimed at improving a certain attitude) and enforcement (police surveillance). It is advisable to assign a more important role to attitudes in road safety education than is currently the case. Driving instruction still scarcely touches on e.g. socio-cultural objectives. Quite a lot is already known about group influences, particularly among young people. It still remains a problem, however, to reach some of those groups. In this area more knowledge is clearly desirable. 2.3 Errors in traffic

Unintentional unsafe actions are related to problems of the perceptual/cognitive system and the motor system. Unsafe actions are the result of errors in performing intentional actions. The errors can occur in observation, planning the action, cognitive processing of the plan (especially storing and retrieving from the memory), and execution of the plan. Errors in the planning may be "knowledge-based mistakes" or "rule-based mistakes"; errors of memory are termed "lapses", and errors of execution are termed "slips". Slips, lapses, rule-based mistakes and knowledge-based mistakes are related to the mental level at which a road user is operating. In the literature three mental levels are distinguished: the skill-based level, the rule-based level and the knowledge-based level. One is operating at the skill-based level when one proceeds immediately from observation to action, without really thinking. These are the actions that a road user executes more or less on automatic pilot. Attention is only occasionally required to check whether the actions are still going according to plan. The above-mentioned slips and lapses take place at the skill-based level. They are the consequence of incorrectly directed attention (one is thinking about other things and does not check in time whether everything is still going according to plan) or of lack of attention (one is feeling drowsy). There are many different kinds of skill-based errors. Without explaining them further here, there are: the capture error, the description error, the omission following interruption error, reduced intentionality, mode error, repetitions and reversals. Skill-based errors


will always be made. They cannot be prevented by training. Whenever something becomes routine, they always appear. The errors can be counteracted by improvement of the man-machine interface (the dashboard and the operating instruments) and recognition characteristics in the infrastructure. It is also important that the driving task should be arranged in such a way that there is space between the error that has been made and the accident, so that corrections are possible. Skill-based errors are, after, all, never the intention, and if one sees that something is going wrong, one will correct oneself. A road user is operating at the rule-based level when he encounters situations that he recognises. If I am in this situation, then I must first do this, then that etc.. It is getting foggy, for instance, so I increase the distance from the car in front and start to drive more slowly. At the rule-based level one does not fully analyse the problem. One immediately recognises the situation by means of certain "triggers" and then applies a set of rules. Rule-based errors occur because one has estimated the situation incorrectly or because one has an incorrect set of rules (the action scripts). As with the skill-based errors, the literature distinguishes many forms of rule-based errors. Rule-based errors can be prevented through experience, training and clear signals in the environment (the infrastructure). A road user is operating at the knowledge-based level when he encounters problems that he has never encountered before. The knowledge-based level may also be termed 'higher order cognitive skills'. If one is driving in an anticipatory manner (thinking ahead), these skills have an important role. If one encounters an unfamiliar problem, one will first try to reduce it to a familiar problem. Young inexperienced drivers relatively often encounter problems for which they do not yet have full action scripts. They are therefore forced to act at the knowledge-based level more often than experienced drivers, with all the consequences of this. Because of the amount of working memory that the knowledge-based level uses, people do not like to operate at this level. With novice drivers the primary functions still demand so much energy that there is almost no space to think ahead. Knowledge-based errors occur because of lack of mental capacity, preoccupation with solving problems, and incorrect heuristics (thinking strategies). Attempts must be made by means of the infrastructure, the organisation of the traffic and the quality of the man-machine interface to ensure that road users have to operate as little as possible at the knowledge-based level. On the next page the Generic Error-Modelling System (GEMS) of J.T. Reason (1990) that has been briefly discussed here is shown in diagrammatic form.


NO

NO

YES

NO

NONE FOUND

Ok?

Ok?

YES

GOAL STATE

Attentional checks on progress of action

RULE-BASED LEVEL (RB mistakes)

Problem

IS PROBLEM

SOLVED?

Consider local

state information

IS THE PATTERN

FAMILIAR?

Apply stored rule IF (situation)

THEN (action).

Find higher level

analogy

Revert to mental model of the

problem space. Analyse more

abstract relations between structure

and function. Subsequent attempts

Infer diagnosis and formulate corrective

actions. Apply actions. Observe results, ...etc.

KNOWLEDGE- BASED LEVEL (KB Mistakes)

YES

Routine actions in a familiar environment

SKILL-BASED LEVEL (Slips and lapses)


2.4 Psychological precursors

Two steps have now been taken from the immediate cause of a road accident (e.g. not keeping distance, cutting in etc.) towards the underlying causes. First, a distinction has been made between intentional unsafe behaviour and unintentional human errors. An indication has also been given of the mental processes which immediately precede the actions. These are the skill-, rule- and knowledge-based levels and the factors which influence the effectiveness of those mental levels (the different kinds of slips, lapses etc.). The literature speaks of the psychological precursors of certain behaviour. How these psychological precursors function naturally also depends on one's general mental and physical condition. A negative influence may, for instance, be exerted by matters such as stress and fatigue, depression and other moods. The effects of various substances on the mind also, of course, play an important part in this respect. Here one might think of alcohol, drugs and certain medications. 2.5 System controls

Before taking the next step towards the underlying causes of road accidents, a step forward will first be taken. As noted earlier, fortunately by no means every unsafe action, intentional or otherwise, results in an accident. If there is no tree or no oncoming vehicle, despite the unsafe action the accident will not happen. It is also possible that unsafe actions will be corrected in time. One slams on the brake or just manages to swerve out of danger. If an accident can no longer be avoided, there are also facilities which limit the damage or injury. Here one might think of seat belts, airbags, crushable zones, crash barriers etc.. 2.6 Underlying factors or latent conditions

After looking forward briefly in the last section, it is now time once again to go further back towards the underlying causes. The environment has a great influence on one's mental state and the errors that one then makes at the three distinguishable levels (skill-, rule- and knowledge-based) and on the risks that one is prepared to take. This environment exists in both the physical sense and the organisational sense. The conditions in the environment can be such that they encourage drivers to make errors and/or take risks. What determines the choice to travel in a certain manner? What determines the choice to take a certain route? What is the influence of environmental characteristics on road traffic behaviour? Aspects of vehicle use and of the infrastructure largely determine the ultimate road traffic behaviour. The policy on vehicle use determines the intensity and composition of traffic. In addition to the weather, which can be forecast but not influenced, the intensity and composition of the traffic have important consequences for road traffic behaviour. This applies equally for the quality of the infrastructure. What kind of behaviour does the road elicit in road users? 2.7 The ‘accident scenario model’ and road safety policy

The theory presented in sections 2.2 to 2.6 can now be represented in the following diagram:


Latent causes

Psychological precursors Consequences Accidents

Unsafe actions

Passive safety facilities Active safety facilities

Road safety policy has traditionally focused mainly on the right-hand side of the diagram. Here one might think of the vehicle policy and certain facilities in the infrastructure, such as crash barriers. This therefore mainly involves limiting the severity of accidents and giving the opportunity to correct unsafe actions. Policy that focuses on the direct prevention of unsafe actions themselves relates to the formulation of traffic regulations and their enforcement. With respect to combating psychological precursors which can result in unsafe behaviour, one might mainly think of road safety education, attitude change by means of public information campaigns. With policy, there has in recent years been increasing interest in tackling the latent causes. Here one might think of 'sustainable safety', but also of the policy on vehicle use and its consequences for road safety. 2.8 The knowledge centre and the road safety policy

On the basis of the diagram presented in the last section, the area for which the knowledge centre wishes to be the knowledge manager can be indicated in more detail. For the knowledge centre two components of the diagram are of central importance: the psychological precursors and the unsafe actions. The former relate to the quality of the road user, and the latter relate to the quality of the organisation of the traffic and its enforcement. With respect to the quality of the road user, one might think of his knowledge, insight, skills and attitudes. The instruments for these are road safety education, training, selection and public information. On the basis of the presented theory about the occurrence of sub-optimal and unsafe behaviour in traffic, it is possible to establish what can be learned and what cannot. In the area of selection one might think of the (driving) tests and medical examinations. Attitudes are occupying an increasingly important position. How can the attitude of the road user be influenced by public information campaigns? The quality of the road user is also determined by his mental and physical state. Knowledge about this that is collected and made available to both policy and implementation concerns not only the problem of driving under the influence of alcohol and the growing problem of driving under the influence of drugs, but also matters such as fatigue and stress. With respect to the direct prevention of unsafe actions, the other component of the diagram that is of central importance, the knowledge centre is mainly concerned with optimisation of the enforcement policy. Knowledge about behaviour also makes it possible to establish what unsafe behaviour can be reduced by police surveillance and what cannot.


Because a strong behavioural component is also attached to the latent causes, the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre wishes in the future to focus more on the behavioural side of 'Sustainable Safety' and the behavioural aspect with regard to the road safety of the policy on vehicle use.


3 The relationship with other bodies

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3.1 The role of the knowledge centre in the policy-making process

A knowledge centre has the task of managing, expanding and making available existing knowledge about a certain theme, in this case road traffic behaviour and road safety, for policy and implementation. The primary task is therefore to manage knowledge in the area of road traffic behaviour and road safety for the benefit of policy and implementation. The Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre can be imagined as a spider in its web, maintaining contacts on the one hand with policy and implementation and on the other with institutions which conduct fundamental and applied research. The knowledge centre assists with formulating policy questions in such a way that research actually generates knowledge which allows effective policy to be made. The knowledge centre also ensures that implementation authorities have access to instruments that can be used in the implementation and enforcement of formulated policy. To this end, the knowledge centre will have to make available existing knowledge in the Netherlands and elsewhere for policy and implementation, and will have to be able to conduct independent desk studies and literature studies and direct and supervise contracted-out research projects in such a way that they generate answers which can be used for policy and implementation. In addition, the knowledge centre has the task of 'overviewing' the theme. Where are there gaps and where, in view of future developments, can problems arise? The direct relationship which the AVV-VMV has had for many years with policy-makers, and the many studies in the area of road traffic behaviour which have been conducted under supervision of the VMV mean that the knowledge centre has accumulated a stock of knowledge concerning road traffic behaviour in relation to policy. This makes it possible for the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre to provide, in addition to this research, advice about the direction that should be taken by research into road traffic behaviour. Here one might think of estimation of the cost-effectiveness of certain measures, their enforceability, the expected public support and the possibilities and impossibilities of influencing behaviour. There is often a wide gap between research and policy. Many recommendations that are made by researchers on the basis of their research results cannot be directly converted into policy. This is partly because the jargon and frame of reference of policy-makers and researchers are different and partly because researchers do not know what policy-makers can and cannot do. Conversely, it can sometimes happen that policy-makers do not know what is and is not possible with research. An important task of the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre is precisely to bridge this gap. 3.2 Other institutions

This report has been produced on the basis of opinions of the AVV-VMV, the Foundation for Scientific Research into Road Safety (SWOV), the Centre for Environmental and Traffic Psychology (COV), Traffic Test and the Netherlands and TNO Human Factors Research Institute, Department of Skilled Behaviour. It has also been checked against the views of the behavioural experts in the


other Knowledge Centres concerned with road traffic behaviour within the AVV, and against the policy (in this case DGP-VV). Knowledge about road traffic behaviour is not only developed within the AVV. The above institutions, among others, are also active in this area. The knowledge centre is primarily involved with translation of knowledge into government policy and the implementation of this. Knowledge is not a goal in itself. The question is how this knowledge can be used in helping to realise government objectives as effectively as possible. In a certain sense the knowledge centre is the intermediary between the institutions listed above and policy and implementation. This certainly does not mean that the knowledge centre is a passive go-between. It is engaged in translating policy into knowledge and vice versa. Knowledge will also be developed by means of independent desk studies conducted within the knowledge centre. The concern in every case is not only the immediate (psychological) causes of certain road traffic behaviour, but also the underlying factors which influence the immediate causes. With respect to the latter, one might think of norms and values (e.g. with regard to driving under the influence of alcohol) and the social factors which encourage certain behaviour. A crucial factor here is the sense of safety: both the subjective sense of safety of active road users and the importance attached to road safety within society. With the former aspect, one might think of the difference between the subjective danger and the actual danger, and the weighing of interests between road safety and other matters (e.g. wishing to arrive somewhere quickly, style of driving etc.). With the latter aspect (the value attached to road safety within society), the concept of public support plays an important role. As noted earlier, the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre focuses mainly on improving the quality of the road user (e.g. through road safety education and driving instruction), "software-style" influencing of road traffic behaviour (through e.g. 'incentives' and effective police surveillance) and changing perceptions within society (through e.g. public information campaigns). Important criteria for all measures are cost-effectiveness and practical feasibility. 3.3 The changed relationship with the SWOV

The Foundation for Scientific Research into Road Safety (SWOV) occupies a special position in the area of road traffic behaviour. The new autonomous position of the SWOV has resulted in a change in the relationship with the AVV and in consequence with the knowledge centre. The AVV is no longer directly between the policy-makers and the SWOV. Indirectly this is still the case, because the AVV is a member of the SWOV Programme Board. For the coming period the SWOV will focus particularly on anticipatory and strategic research. This is state-of-affairs research (where are there gaps in the behavioural research concerning the traffic tasks that people fulfil?) and fundamental research (developing theory in the area of road traffic behaviour). By contrast, the knowledge centre is more engaged with making existing knowledge accessible and available for policy-makers and conducting (or commissioning) applied research and evaluation studies with respect to concrete policy measures. More especially, over the next few years the SWOV will be engaged with the following fundamental research questions: what knowledge and skills must people have in order to optimally execute their traffic task? What can be learned and what cannot? How should the selection take place (with driving tests) and should separate requirements be imposed on certain groups regarding the beginning and end of their driving career (young people, elderly


people)? What attitudes play a part in unsafe behaviour? How can complex motor skills best be learned and how can the environment (the infrastructure) influence the driving task in such a way that the chance of unsafe behaviour is minimised? Better insight into these issues can be used in, for instance, formulating education programmes, training courses, evaluation systems for fitness to drive, driving tests, public information programmes, police surveillance strategies and the design and layout of roads. This SWOV theme focuses not only on the human capacities to learn complex tasks and the willingness and ability of road users to behave safely, but also on the interaction between the two. In this way the theme covers a great deal of the relevant psychology. Insights drawn from theories about skill acquisition will be translated into the learning of traffic skills. The context is thus applied operations theory. In studies focusing on willingness to behave safely, attention will mainly be given to deeper motives for behaviour. The purpose of this is to obtain a theoretical foundation for the discrepancy between actual behaviour and intended behaviour. In this sense the theory of reasoned action will have to be expanded with insights drawn from modern theories of emotion. Insights drawn from social marketing will also be used to gain knowledge about the advantages and disadvantages of the top-down and bottom-up development of policy and the influence of these on the involvement of road users. The factors which influence the violation of traffic regulations will be derived from the broader framework of acceptance of regulations and norm and value systems. The studies will indeed (partly) have an applied character, but the ultimate aim is to obtain knowledge that can be more broadly generalised. This SWOV theme concerning road traffic behaviour will apply the following principles for making choices within this broad theme. • The research area focuses on human capabilities and the consequences for

measures. The research will not focus on the measures themselves. • The research leads to generalisable knowledge. Research which only aims at

studying a very concrete problem in a highly limited application only fits into the theme if it contributes to the development of more generally applicable knowledge.

However, attempts will be made to co-ordinate fundamental studies within this theme with the more practical application and/or checking. This leads to the following standpoints. • Particular attention will be given to ensuring that the results of fundamental

research can be translated into more practically oriented research. • Practically oriented research profits from the fundamental research (for

example: what variables should be applied in evaluation research, what components should be included in a training programme).

• The fundamental research receives feedback from the applied research, and expectations and hypotheses are adjusted accordingly.

The following results may be expected from the SWOV research. • Outcomes of the state-of-affairs research. • Description of essential aspects of skill development in traffic tasks

(theoretical). • Do's and don'ts with respect to instruction, infrastructure design, driving

task support etc.. • Instruments to measure and monitor valid skill and/or knowledge level and

progress in these.


• Instrument to support the (self-)evaluation of the consequences of loss of function for fitness to drive.

The following results may be expected with respect to model development and evaluation research in the area of police surveillance. • Improved efficiency of police surveillance. • Road safety training and norm behaviour. • Insight into the values of zero-tolerance on the roads. The following results may be expected concerning the promotion of the policy aimed at road safety. • An instrument to measure public support. • Methods to increase public support. • Insight into public support as a predictor of ultimate acceptance of

measures. Although the AVV is officially no longer an intermediary between policy-makers and the SWOV, it is quite conceivable that the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre may be asked to further elaborate the studies conducted by the SWOV into policy measures, and that the expertise of the knowledge centre may be used via the Programme Board in formulating the research programmes to be executed by the SWOV. It is also extremely important that despite the clear differences in the working terrain’s of the Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre and the SWOV, there should be co-ordination between the two bodies. A meeting will therefore be held three times a year between the SWOV and the knowledge centre. The above-mentioned institutions which develop knowledge in the area of road traffic behaviour will also be involved in these discussions.


4 The themes of the knowledge centre

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4.1 Existing research themes

Knowledge centres must further professionalise the work of the AVV. The VMV has also been extensively engaged with road traffic behaviour and road safety in the past. The research themes studied by the VMV were: the reduction of driving under the influence of alcohol, the enforcement of speed limits and the wearing of seat belts. These are the 'spearheads' of the road safety policy. It is expected that if these are tackled efficiently and effectively there will be a substantial improvement in road safety. The VMV has also had research carried out for the DGP-VV concerning issues such as: optimisation of traffic surveillance, quality and quantity of road safety education in regular schools, support and evaluation of public information campaigns in the area of road safety and increasing public support. The Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre will also continue to manage knowledge about all the above subjects in the future. These subjects partly overlap with those of the SWOV. In contrast to the SWOV research programme, however, the knowledge centre concentrates only on applied research or the evaluation of concrete measures. It goes without saying that the knowledge developed by the SWOV will be applied to these subjects. The common feature of the subjects is that they influence road traffic behaviour. A more detailed elaboration of the subjects is presented below. 4.1.1 Alcohol and drugs Many (fatal) injuries are still caused by driving under the influence of alcohol. An efficient approach to the problem of alcohol can still result in considerable gains in the area of road safety. Effective police surveillance has already substantially reduced this problem, but in recent years there has not been much more progress. A new approach could consist of optimisation of police surveillance. Another way could be to introduce a more integrated or interdisciplinary approach based on a total overview of possibilities for influencing behaviour. In addition, it is important to use more target group segmentation and to develop appropriate measures for each target group. Measures must be weighed against each other, including an estimate of which combination of measures may be expected to have the greatest effect. An example of policy innovation for which a proposal has already been developed concerns alcohol consumption in bars and restaurants, a combination of police surveillance and measures aimed at the sector itself (accountability and self-regulation) and alternative transport. Other proposals are yet to be developed. Driving under the influence of drugs is an increasingly common occurrence. In contrast to alcohol, there is no elaborated traffic policy with respect to drugs. Drugs are prohibited and this also entails that one may not drive under their influence. Despite this prohibition, as noted, road use and drug use are being more frequently combined. Quite a lot is known about the effect of the various kinds of drugs on the body and the mind, but knowledge about their influence on driving ability is still limited. However, some facts in this area are known about cannabis and at present a study is being conducted on the influence of


MDMA (ecstasy) on driving behaviour. It can also happen that drugs are used in combination with alcohol. The suspicion is that precisely the combination with alcohol, even if only a small quantity, has disastrous effects on driving ability. Another problem with drug use and driving is their detection. Most kinds of drugs stay much longer in blood, sweat or urine than alcohol. Thus the presence of cannabis may be established, but it may actually have been consumed 3 weeks previously. In short, in the area of driving under the influence of drugs the necessary research will first have to be conducted before specific policy recommendations can be given. 4.1.2 Speed Important effects of police surveillance on speed have also been measured, but these have only been found in the areas where good methods have been used. With respect to speed, it is important to investigate what balance is needed between intensification of police surveillance and the use of effective techniques on the one hand and infrastructural measures, telematics (e.g. cruise control) etc. on the other. 4.1.3 Seat belts Improving the wearing of seat belts is a spearhead that has been neglected for a long time. Police surveillance of seat belt wearing is very rarely carried out, although the threat of this is a basic precondition. The introduction of the airbag seems to have further reduced public attention to seat belts. An investigation should be made of what other instruments can be used to break through the present behaviour and to make the wearing of seat belts an automatic habit. 4.1.4 Optimisation of traffic surveillance Optimisation of traffic surveillance can also produce large gains in road safety. There still seem to be many possibilities available for increasing both the effectiveness and the efficiency of surveillance. In the last ten to fifteen years a great deal of practical research has been carried out, particularly concerning the spearheads of the road safety policy, into the optimal organisation of (targeted) traffic surveillance activities. Here one might think of: what conditions must systematic police activities fulfil in order to produce maximum returns, what undesirable behaviours of road users should be accentuated etc.? The problem long ago ceased to be a lack of knowledge about the ideal approach, and the problems now are much more at the organisational/process level: how can I ensure that sufficient police capacity can be made available, given the multitude of tasks to which the police must give their attention, how do I concretise a project-based approach in which the other important actors (such as public information consultants, highways authorities) also give their input at the right times, how can I acquire the necessary (financial) resources, etc.? The emphasis of research in the coming years will therefore not be placed on the development of new surveillance strategies. Rather, much more emphasis will be placed on ordering and systematising the available substantive knowledge and making accessible to implementation authorities (for instance, via the Sustainable Safety Information Point) the experiential knowledge in the area of organising surveillance projects. The approach is presented as improved and strengthened police surveillance supported by communication. In the north of the Netherlands, starting in Friesland, agreements have been made for a major expansion of police surveillance on speed, alcohol, seat belts and other forms of unsafe behaviour. The intensification offers new possibilities for success. Attempts are being made by means of communication to impress even more on the public the


seriousness with which the problems are being tackled. The AVV argues in this area for an integration of knowledge acquisition with other surveillance projects in the Netherlands. This approach will have to be supported with expertise about good methods and will have to be evaluated with results in the short and long term. The results in the short term are intended to give rapid feedback. For the longer term a more scientifically grounded analysis is possible and a more far-reaching study should be conducted, correcting for influences other than police surveillance. The special features of the experiment in Friesland are the integrated approach in police surveillance of the most common behavioural problems, the deployment of large numbers of police, the agreements that have been made about that deployment, the co-operation between the institutions that are needed to guarantee the approach, the regular measurement of effects and the external support with expertise. There is also a need to initiate further research in the area of automation of the surveillance task. The rapidly developing information technology offers in the medium term many possibilities on this point. The automated road section control system for detecting speed limit violators on the A2, which is now operational, is a good example of the possibilities in this area. Finally, in the next few years efforts will be made to further concretise the instrument of educational measures (EM) as an option in the administrative justice prosecution procedure. 4.1.5 Road safety education The road traffic behaviour of children is influenced by the school, the parents and the peers with whom children associate. At every age people have a different role in traffic. For instance, the child playing in the residential area, the child who walks to and from school, with or without adult accompaniment, the child who cycles to and from school, the young person on his moped or motorcycle, the first driving experiences in cars and/or on motorcycles, the daily use of the car to and from work, and at a later age perhaps the use of the 'moped-mobile' or 'scooter-mobile' etc.. The government sees it as its obligation to at any rate prepare schoolchildren for their role in traffic by means of road safety education. The question here remains, of course, whether that education is actually sufficient in quantity and quality for the role that young people fulfil on the roads. There is, for example, very little knowledge about the effect of road safety education. Formally, arrangements have been made for road safety education in the core objectives of both primary and secondary education. With respect to primary education, it is known (Cito-level 1996) that the theoretical knowledge of primary school children remains far behind what experts consider to be necessary for their role in traffic. Less is known about the situation in secondary education. A recent study by the SWOV shows that on average 1.5 hours per year in the basic curriculum of secondary education is devoted to road safety. The time that is devoted, however, says nothing about the actual situation concerning theoretical knowledge and practical skills in the area of road safety. It is also not known whether the way in which the road safety education is presented is sufficiently relevant and interesting for young people. Another point of concern is bringing into practice of road safety education. In 1996 the frameworks for an implementation organisation for road safety education in primary and secondary education were formulated in a study conducted by the SWOV. The basic principle of this was implementation that is independently concretised and supported by the education field itself, with assistance from the support


organisations defined within that field (educational guidance services, national pedagogy centres, SLO etc.). A problem is the different ways in which that implementation organisation concretises this task. The various regions give different road safety education. The amount of attention given to road safety education depends greatly on the promotional efforts of the various regional bodies for road safety, the ROVs. There is great diversity and a lack of clarity concerning the level of the substantive quality and completeness. There is also tension between the central government, as the body which provides the policy frameworks and facilitation, and the regional actors, which implement the road safety (and road safety education) policy. With respect to secondary education, there is the additional problem that road safety education is fragmented over a number of more closely defined subjects, creating the danger that precisely road safety is given less attention within those subjects. A preliminary study that focuses on compiling a high-quality educational programme for primary education has already been started. This programme is based both on content and educational objectives and on support for the organisation within the school. The development of this product has value in itself in the debate about the optimisation of road safety education. An evaluation design is also being formulated. After this preliminary research a decision will be taken about implementation of the experiment and evaluation. For young children, the parents are very important. The example function given by parents is, for instance, a strong determinant of the road traffic behaviour displayed by children. Road safety education by parents is in terms of policy still a virtually unexplored area, and it is now clear that road safety education must start as early as possible. Determination of content and organisation of road safety education by parents before and during the school period is therefore extremely important. The aim of the research questions with respect to road safety education by parents is to gain an answer to the following questions: what are parents already doing in the area of road safety education, how important is road safety for them and how do they see their own efforts and what support do they need? At issue here is the relatively fundamental question of the division of roles among parents, schools and the government. Finally, little is known as yet about the influence of peers on road traffic behaviour. Young people especially have a great need to belong to something and to conform to certain group codes. With these group codes, resistance to the norms and values of older people is fairly general. This also applies in the area of road safety. For instance, it is often thought to be 'cool' to ride a moped faster than is permitted and not to wear a crash helmet. It is urgently advisable that more insight should be gained about the possibilities of influencing the attitudes and norms and values of young people especially. The research efforts of the AVV over the next few years will focus on generating recommendations for solutions to the said problems. 4.1.6 Driving instruction Driving instruction in its present form leads insufficiently to safe road use by novice drivers. This is a reason to continue looking for instruments to improve or monitor the behaviour of the novice group. At the moment, therefore, the knowledge centre is developing learning objectives intended to broaden and deepen the present driving instruction. Driving instruction forms an important basis for future driving behaviour. Novice drivers show a clearly greater risk of road accidents. This greater risk ensues from a combination of inexperience and unsafe behaviour, mainly among young people. Experts agree on the principle that gradual introduction to traffic of especially motorised road users (including moped riders) will lead to


gains in road safety. Attempts to extend the experience period of novice drivers under restrictive or protective conditions, via constructions such as a provisional driving licence and driving under supervision, have already been investigated. Research results from other countries show a positive effect: reduction by about 30% in accidents involving injury in the investigated group. Up to now the use of such solutions has been rejected in the Netherlands on practical grounds. At the end of 1996 the Parliament reopened the discussion about possible introduction of a provisional driving licence on the ground of the high risks of young novice drivers. The research in the next few years will therefore have to focus especially on practically feasible solutions for the problem of the young novice drivers. Here one might think of restrictions for novice drivers (lower alcohol limit, not driving at night, not driving without supervision etc.), followed by a second driving test after five years. One might also think of reimbursement of the premium by insurance companies after one has driven for the first two years without making a claim. In the Netherlands advanced driving courses are increasingly being offered. The SWOV conducted an inventory study of these a few years ago. It was concluded that the quality of these courses could be described as reasonable to good. Studies on the effect of such courses in other countries, however, show that they have no effect. Perhaps these courses would have more effect if they became a part of phased driving instruction. Research seems desirable into this. There should also be investigation of the possibilities of modern teaching resources such as computers and simulators. A mix must be sought of optimal learning processes (using operations theory), taking account both of what motivates young people and of what they can be offered via institutional frameworks such as education and driving instruction. 4.1.7 Support and evaluation of public information campaigns Evaluation of public information campaigns about road safety has shown that their effects are small. Within the field of public information bodies there seems to be a growing need to have campaigns supported by scientific research, in order to further optimise and evaluate the campaigns. In part the lack of clear effects can be explained by the nature of the campaigns when their aim is to set an agenda. But public information has actually proved its worth in combination with other measures, in particular police surveillance. This involved public information about the surveillance and the need for it. There is, however, reason to further analyse the power of public information. A recent evaluation study indicates effects, because the public information evidently took advantage of a gap in the knowledge (head rests). One can also undoubtedly learn from experiences with innovations in public information and other areas. A problem in the Netherlands is the lack of a structural organisation of evaluation research in this area, which hinders the learning capacity. The term 'public information' covers a wide range of meanings in practice. The criteria which activities in this area must fulfil in practice vary according to the intended subject, target and target group. Research activities in this area will therefore be strongly linked to concrete problem fields (for example, aggression and unsafe behaviour in traffic, combinations of drugs/alcohol and road use) or other kinds of measures, especially enforcement. The main aim is to identify the determinants of the undesirable behaviour. There is thus reason to carry out further research into the most effective deployment of public information, its unique contribution and its added value in combination with other measures.


4.1.8 Legitimation of policy Measures that are intended to influence behaviour are found in practice to sometimes be well accepted and sometimes not so well accepted. Road users, professional or otherwise, fully endorse the need for public support for measures. Administrators and politicians also think that public support is important. This entire complex field has still scarcely been explored in the area of road safety, which means that in this terrain it is mainly a matter of feeling our way. Explanation, justification, grounding and reasoning can help in acquiring public support. But if measures clash with the interests and the perception of road users, this will not be enough. The distant strategic interests of the government often clash with the here-and-now interests of the road user. Public support is often used in the context of a top-down approach: the measure is devised by experts and policy-makers, but still has to be sold. Involvement of road users and of the social influence environment during policy development can result in earlier acceptance. But the questions here are: when is it important and when less important, what policy creates public support and is not first dependent on it? Phased plans for increasing public support have been produced within public administration and social marketing. In recent years a great deal of practical experience has been obtained of local involvement and forms of consultation. Recommendations and guidelines, and also the exchange of practical experiences are desirable in order to give the policy-making organisation a clearer direction and to prevent constant re-invention of the wheel on this point. A product of this kind will have to focus more on concrete problems of road safety. To this end, an analysis must be carried out of what the perceptions and the norms and values of road users are with respect to a concrete problem. Sharp target group segmentation is a necessary condition in this. Analysis of the social influence environment makes clear what the road user can be offered, what new possibilities for behaviour and lifestyle are developing, what forms of control and rewards are possible. A few cases can be selected in order to apply the knowledge from these disciplines. A second important area of application is the acquisition of support among actors which have the competence to decide on measures or exert influence on that decision-making. Here again investigation can be made on the basis of cases concerning how public support is important, how it arises and how this acquisition of public support can be influenced. 4.2 New themes

The themes discussed in the last section do not entirely cover the subjects that emerged in the model discussed in Chapter 1. Much is already known about the causes of road accidents and what factors play a part in them (e.g. alcohol). New insights into the causes of sub-optimal and unsafe behaviour, as mentioned in Chapter 2, make it possible to conduct an even more precise analysis. What proportion of accidents can be attributed to e.g. unintentional human errors and what proportion to risks taken deliberately? What psychological precursors at the skill-, rule- and knowledge-based level have played a part in the unintentional human errors and with what latent conditions were they connected? More insight into this issue makes it possible to select those themes which may be expected to obtain the greatest gains for road safety in a cost-effective manner. This research could be conducted by


means of a thorough investigation of the underlying causes of a small number of accidents immediately after they have happened. With respect to the general factors that influence driving ability, it is striking that a great deal of research has been conducted into the external factors, such as alcohol, medications and drugs, but hardly any into the internal factors, such as fatigue and stress. Fatigue in particular seems to be an important factor in road accidents. Recent American research has shown that fatigue plays almost as great a part as alcohol. It is important that the international studies in this area should be closely followed. However, the effects of different kinds of drugs on driving ability are still far from clear, and so too is what can be done to counter them in an effective manner. At the moment further research is being conducted in this area, under supervision of the knowledge centre. With respect to specific target groups, there must be a rather more explicit focus not only on young drivers, but also on the role of elderly people on the roads. Society is 'greying', and increasing numbers of elderly people are continuing to use the roads up to a late age. It is generally known that in addition to problems with sight and hearing, there is reduction of the reaction speed in elderly people, and they have more difficulty in executing complex actions. Moreover, the capacity to adjust to changed circumstances declines. Research must investigate whether the means provided to keep elderly people mobile for longer ('moped-mobile', 'scooter-mobile') might not cause extra danger, because besides physical deficiencies, which are more or less counterbalanced by the said vehicles, deficiencies of a more mental nature may become apparent, so that using the roads may still become dangerous. With respect to emotions and road traffic behaviour, great interest has recently arisen in the theme of aggression on the roads. A literature study conducted by the SWOV has given some indications as to what aggression on the roads may entail and what forms of aggressive behaviour may be distinguished. There is as yet, however, very little knowledge about the resources that can be used to combat aggressive road traffic behaviour.


5 Working method

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5.1 Organisational form

The Road Traffic Behaviour and Road Safety Knowledge Centre may be described as a self-directing team whose binding factor is the theme, in this case road traffic behaviour and road safety. Employees of the VMV section are not explicitly assigned to a certain knowledge centre. If one of these VMV employees takes part in a project within the terrain of the knowledge centre, he or she is a member of the knowledge centre. Experience of the work and expertise will, however, mean that the one employee will in practice be a much closer member of the knowledge centre than the other. Every employee who takes part in a project within the area of the knowledge centre is expected to be aware of the latest activities of the knowledge centre and of its aims and principles. The responsibility for the functioning of the knowledge centre is in principle shared by every member. The organisational tasks for the functioning of the knowledge centre are therefore not assigned in advance. The knowledge centre does, however, have a president. This is the programme manager of the VMV section who has road traffic behaviour in his portfolio. 5.2 Working method

In order to make optimum use for projects of the knowledge obtained by the knowledge centre and in order, conversely, to supply the knowledge centre with knowledge in the area of road traffic behaviour and road safety, regular consultations are required. In these consultations agreements are made to carry out projects, to organise colloquia, to actively disseminate acquired knowledge via congresses, courses and specialist literature etc.. The purpose of the consultations is to structure and optimise the process of knowledge development, knowledge management and knowledge dissemination.


6 Current research in the area of road traffic behaviour

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6.1 Studies

• Road safety education in regular schools The core objectives contain a formal description of what knowledge and skills pupils should be taught in the area of road safety education in both primary and secondary schools. With respect to primary education, it is known that the children's knowledge is below what is considered necessary for the role fulfilled by children in traffic. The situation with respect to road safety education in secondary schools is virtually unknown. For the first time a study is currently being conducted into the road safety education offered in the basic curriculum of secondary education.

• Development of learning target documents for 'driving test B' The proportion of drivers involved in accidents who belong to the category of newly qualified drivers is very high. The younger the driver, the higher the proportion of involvement in accidents. One method of tackling this problem is to broaden and deepen the driving test. To this end, leaning targets and educational recommendations are being formulated, which will apply to the entire driving instruction sector.

• Effect evaluation of behavioural effects resulting from the 'educational measure for alcohol' EMA The law makes it possible to oblige drivers who have driven under the influence of alcohol to take a course. The drivers have to pay for this course themselves. The course teaches them how to separate alcohol consumption from road use. The aim of the research is to investigate whether this separation does actually take place.

• Evaluation project on young drivers In the northern provinces of the Netherlands, young drivers who have recently qualified can take a follow-up course on a voluntary basis. This course is particularly intended to prevent the drivers from picking up unsafe driving habits. The aim of the research is to investigate whether this course does actually contribute to safer driving behaviour.

• Experimental research into the effects of MDMA on driving behaviour MDMA is better known as ecstasy, the prohibited 'party' drug that creates euphoria and heightened sensuality. This research investigates what precisely the effect of ecstasy is on driving behaviour. Experimental subjects who are under the influence of ecstasy will be tested with respect to their driving behaviour on a simulator, and with respect to their perceptual, cognitive and motor skills on location (at house parties).

• (Final) evaluation of 'DI agreement' In 1994 the IPO (interprovincial consultations), VNG (Association of Netherlands Municipalities) and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management reached an agreement concerning the decentralisation of the road safety policy. An interim evaluation was made in 1997. In 1999 a final analysis will be formulated by means of a self-evaluation.

• View on Road Safety/Road Provider To what extent is the operation of market forces possible with respect to the road safety policy? One of the options is to make the highways authority directly responsible for the road safety policy on its roads. This is known as "guarantor road traffic". This project will further investigate the feasibility of this.


• Periodic Regional Research on Road Safety (PROV)

Every two years about 8,000 road users are asked about their road traffic behaviour, their motives for it, and their opinion about (possible) new road safety measures. This is a self-report. Regional differences are distilled from the data and national trends are established.

• Evaluation of defensive driving course given by Overijssel Regional Road Safety Authority (ROVO) The defensive driving course was developed in the United States. The course has been translated and supplemented with some practical exercises. The course is given in co-operation with the ROVO. The aim of the course is that drivers should build-in such wide safety margins that they are able to take anticipatory action in unexpected traffic situations in good time. The research will investigate whether it is possible to establish lasting behavioural changes in the drivers who have taken the course.

• Road safety audit This involves the development of a quality assurance system with the intention of ensuring that road safety is systematically included as early as the road design phase.

• Evaluation of moped certificate For several years moped riders have had to take a theory test before being permitted to ride their moped on the roads. The aim of the research is to investigate whether what is learned is actually applied in practice. In addition, an investigation will be made of whether the theory test should not perhaps be supplemented with a practical test.

• "Sustainable safety" and behavioural effects This study makes a detailed investigation of the effect on behaviour of roads with a 'sustainable safe' layout. This involves both static behaviour observation with regard to the homogeneity of the behaviour that is elicited by the road environment, and searching behaviour and mental load. The studies will be carried out both in practice and on the simulator.

• Drinking and driving habits Every two years a questionnaire is distributed concerning drinking and driving behaviour. This is a self-report.

• FOCUS This project involves disseminating via the internet knowledge about traffic, transport, road safety and the environment which may be of use to urban traffic administrators.

• KEVER KEVER is an acronym derived from 'road safety knowledge transfer'. The aim of this long-term project is the exchange of knowledge among professionals engaged in promoting the implementation of road safety policy. For this KEVER wishes to make use of the internet. At the moment a KEVER website is being developed.

6.2 Memberships and international joint ventures

• AEPSAT (This is an international association of traffic psychologists) • ICTTP (International Conference on Traffic and Transport Psychology) • VOLPE (USA) (VOLPE may be seen as the United States' equivalent of the

AVV. A joint venture agreement has been entered into with VOLPE concerning the role of fatigue in road accidents and the use of simulators in driving instruction)

• CSIR-SA • OECD • ECMT • MOU’s with Poland, Hungary, Romenia, Czech Republic


• Traffic psychonomics A separate document has been published about the international joint ventures in the area of road safety (INTERNATIONALE SAMENWERKING VERKEERSVEILIGHEID AVV-VMV [INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION ON ROAD SAFETY AVV-VMV], Joop H. Kraay, August 1999). The basic principle of knowledge management in the international context is that it should benefit the Dutch road safety policy. Within the European Union the 5th framework programme plays an important part with respect to increasing knowledge.


7 References

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• Onderzoeksthema's SWOV NP. Een eerste proeve; tweede versie. (Research themes of the SWOV NP. A first sample; second version). Leidschendam, 18 January 1999.

• Bijdrage van de SWOV aan het Onderzoeksjaarplan Verkeersveiligheid 1998 (Contribution of the SWOV to the Annual Road Safety Research Plan 1998). Ir. F.C.M. Wegman (ed.). Report R-98-4. Leidschendam, 1998.

• Onderzoeksprogramma Verkeersveiligheid 1998 (Road Safety Research Plan 1998). Drs. J.H. Kraay. AVV, Rotterdam, July 1998.

• Onderzoeksvoorstellen Veiligheid en Voertuig OJP 1999. Onderdeel Klant DGP-VV (Research Proposals on Safety and Vehicle Annual Research Plan 1999. Client Section DGP-VV). AVV, Rotterdam, 26 November 1998.

• Controlling the controllable, the management of safety (third edition). J. Groenewegen. DWSO Press, Leiden 1998.

• Human Error. J. Reason. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990.


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