4.4 Stores

10-60 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

Service Areas

Mail room. For the variety of seeing tasks encountered in a mail room,30 footcandles of uniformly distributed illumination is recommended.

Corridors and passageways. Any passageways not separated from theworking space by high partitions should have the same general illumina-tion as the rest of the office space. In corridors and passageways havinghigh partitions, lower levels of illumination may be adequate. If thepartitions are of glass so that the lighting equipment is visible from therest of the office, the same restrictions with respect to brightness of theluminaires should be observed as in general office space. Outlets shouldbe placed at locations such as corridor intersections, in front of elevatordoors, and at the top and bottom of stairways. Luminaire spacingshould not exceed about 1^ times the mounting height to achieve areasonable degree of uniformity.

Stairways. Luminaires in stairways should be located so that personsdo not cast shadows of themselves over the stairs, so that stairway treadsare not in shadow, and so that glare at eye level is avoided. In general,an overhead luminaire should be located at each landing. The arrange-ment should be such that adequate illumination will be provided afterallowing for the failure of any one lamp. Recessed luminous elements inthe walls near the floor often are advisable near landings and especiallywhere one or two steps connect different elevations in corridors. Achange in the color of the floor or baseboard at these locations also willassist in calling attention to the change in elevation of the floor level.

Lavatories. In these areas a general lighting system which will providenot less than 10 footcandles is recommended. Mirror lighting is desirablein rest rooms and wash rooms. (See the discussion of bathroom lighting,page 10-43.)

STORE LIGHTINGNo field of lighting presents as many or as diverse problems to the

designer as that of lighting the modern store. No two stores are alike.They range in size from small one-man operated shops to large departmentstores with hundreds of employees. The merchandise displayed and soldin these areas varies in size from needles to automobiles, in texture frompolished metalware to wool blankets, in reflectance from black worstedsto white sheets, and through all the colors of the rainbow. Some kinds ofmerchandise are transparent or translucent, others opaque. Verticalsurfaces are the important ones to be appraised in some cases, in others itis the oblique, rounded, or horizontal surface that the customer inspectswhen buying. It is evident that the store-lighting designer must beversatile and able to apply all the lighting tools and techniques.To make its full contribution to successful, profitable merchandising,

store lighting should be planned not only to provide favorable conditionsfor rapid and accurate evaluation of the inherent qualities of merchandise,but also to attract attention to the store, to dramatize the store and its

INTERIOR LIGHTING 10-61

specific features, and to make most effective all the other appointments ofthe establishment. In large proportion, the latter (architectural form,decoration, materials, fittings, layout) are designed to have the appealingappearance required by modern visual merchandising methods. Whenapproached from this viewpoint, a store becomes a pattern of brightnessand color varjdng in significant steps to attract attention, stimulate in-telligent buying and selling, and create a favorable, lasting impression.

Store lighting should be planned with the following objectives in mind:controlling traffic; influencing circulation, speeding buying decisions andimpulse purchases; increasing sales per customer per square foot per salesperson; and increasing over-all profit.

Representative of the illumination values which have been found effectivein stores are the following, arranged in steps which are significant from thestandpoint of attention value:

Circulation areas 20 footcandlesMerchandising areas 50Show cases, wall cases, counter displays, etc. 100Featured displays in store and in window 200

5001,000

In some low-volume establishments in very light traffic areas somewhatlower values may suffice, whereas competitive conditions and the salespotential in other situations may dictate higher levels than those recom-mended. In any event, flexibility in the facilities provided, especiallyfor accent lighting in store and window, adds greatly to the value of thesystem.

Store Luminaires

Store luminaires have a three-fold function: (1) to shield the customer'seyes from the brightness of lamps; (2) to direct light from a bare lamp fromthe angles where it is not wanted, or where it creates glare, to angleswhere it will contribute to the merchandise brightness and the interiorbrightness pattern; and (3) to enhance the decorative plan and to contributeto the architectural effects.

Functions of Store Lighting

Store lighting should (1) help attract attention to the store and itsmerchandise; (2) produce facilities for good seeing so that shoppers canjudge the qualities of purchasable items accurately and quickly; and (3)create a store interior which is a pleasant and comfortable place in whichto shop and sell.

Store lighting design is not standardized. Although by chance manystores are lighted similarlycorner drug stores, for example

yet there

is no incentive to attempt any such standardization because store ownersseek to obtain individuality. Store lighting is, to a degree, allied withstage lighting in that both require good showmanship.


Attracting customer attention. Although some owners operate on theassumption that their store is a warehouse of merchandise to which peoplecan come when they wish to purchase needed items, most stores feel theneed for getting and holding customers' attention, and consequentlyemploy such modern promotional methods for drawing shoppers to theirstores as radio, printed advertising, posters and signs, and brightly lightedstores and show windows. The primary function of store lighting for bothowners and shoppers is to draw attention to items of merchandise. Bylighting cases and other displays the merchandise brightness can be in-creased to give the articles display value. (See Fig. 10-39.)

FIG. 10-39. Good store lighting increases merchandise brightness and backgroundcontrasts and thus attracts customer attention to items on display.

Evaluating mechandisc . Store lighting should create a favorable seeingcondition at the point-of-purchase by which a shopper can quickly andaccurately appraise the inherent qualities, color, texture, form, and Avork-manship of merchandise. Lighting for this purpose can be extended alsoto setting up lighting conditions such as those that exist at the seashore,or in a ballroom, so that customers can accurately appraise the merchan-dise as it will be seen at the point of use. (See Fig. 10-40.)The problems of lighting for attractive display, and lighting for correct

appraisal, overlap for many articles that are handled as both display andstock items. Normally such items are displayed in show cases, wall cases,on shelves, and in garment cases, but can -be removed for closer inspectionand purchase. Since the merchandise will be seen in both locations

display and purchase pointit is evident that the lighting for these two


FIG. 10-40. Lighting aids in establishing an atmosphere conducive to accurateappraisal of merchandise with respect to its ultimate appearance in use, indoorsor out.

locations should be so related as to color, level, and quality that it willsuffer no change in appearance when moved from one point to the other.

Lighting for the quick and accurate appraisal of merchandise is offirst importance to shoppers, but is of benefit to the store owner also. Itspeeds the selling function and helps to reduce the number of items re-turned for credit because of their changed appearance when seen underthe lighting at the point of use.

Store appearance. In order that their stores may impress shoppersfavorably and thereby induce them to linger, buy, and return, store ownersstrive to create an atmosphere which is consistent with the kind of mer-chandise sold and acceptable to the store's clientele. For example, thekind of surroundings desired in an infants' wear shop is different from thatneeded in a hardware store.The picture-impression of a store is the summation of all of the visible

elements (arrangement, furniture-, displays, lighting, etc.) but some ele-ments weigh more in this picture-impression than others. It is believedthat the brightness pattern is the dominant element in this picture.(See Fig. 10-41).

Factors That Influence Seeing and Buying

Although shoppers may use all of their senses in appraising merchandise,the sense of seeing is undoubtedly important. The tone of a piano isimportant, but so is the kind of wood in the case and its finish; the frag-rance of perfume seems more alluring when the container is attractive also

;

the materials, workmanship, and styling of shoes, as much as their fit,is reflected in their price; salads are selected by cafeteria patrons bytheir appearance.

Time. The human eye requires time to see. All other factors beingequal, objects illuminated to higher footcandle values with resulting higherbrightnesses can be seen in less time than those of lesser brightness.

Size. Large objects, and large details of pattern and texture, are easierseen than small ones. Appraisal often requires the study of small details of


FIG. 10-41. A lighting installation contributes to the over-all appearance of astore and should be planned with the character of the merchandise and clientele inmind.

workmanship, label copy in small type, or intricate pattern details; higherillumination values have the effect of making them easier to see. This is ofparticular value to older persons and others who have subnormal vision.

Contrast. A high contrast between an object and its background is ofvalue in attracting attention to displays. Dark objects displayed againstlight backgrounds are noticed more quickly than those viewed against


dark ones, and vice versa. A displayman needs a versatile array of lightingequipment (background lights, spotlights, floodlights, color filters, etc.) tocreate these contrasts. Each display should be considered a miniaturestage setting designed to draw attention to a specific area, and to make themerchandise shown there attractive to shoppers. Contrast can be ob-tained by brightness and color differences between objects and theirsurrounds.

Brightness. The end product of illumination and reflectance is bright-ness, which attracts attention and aids in seeing.

Reflectance. The reflectance of a wall, ceiling, or merchandise surfaceindicates the proportion of incident light that will be reflected. Reflec-tance therefore controls brightness. It is important to know the characterof the reflection as well as its value. For example, a white tablecloth, awhite china plate, and a polished silver cream pitcher may have the samereflectance (80 per cent). The cloth, however, reflects its light diffuselyand looks equally bright seen from any angle; the china plate looks whitealso, but its glazed surface adds specular reflections; the polished silvercream pitcher looks dark except for the reflected highlights of light sourcesand bright surrounding.

In order that unwanted and uncontrolled reflections in wall and ceilingareas may be avoided, surfaces that have diffusing, or near-diffusing, char-acteristics are recommended. These characteristics are typical of mat andeggshell finish paints, wallpapers, woods, etc.

The use of color. Accurate merchandise appraisal depends in part uponthe color quality of the lighting. A fluorescent lamp may produce a day-light quality light and an incandescent-filament lamp a reddish yellow light.Each affects the apparent color of merchandise. Lighting that fails toshow merchandise as it will appear under the lighting where it mil be usedoften is responsible for a customer's dissatisfaction and return of the goods.Returns may be as much as one-eighth of gross sales in some stores.

In addition to affecting the apparent color of merchandise, the colorquality of illumination has an important bearing on the atmosphere andthe decoration of a store. The complexions of customers and salespeopleare affected also. This is especially important in fitting rooms for men'sand women's wearing apparel. If the lighting does not complement thecomplexion, it will affect adversely the approval of the fitting. It isrecommended that light of a "warm" color be provided to enhance facialappearance.

Design Factors in Store Lighting

Most stores need a good balance of horizontal and vertical illumination.Luminaires having a light distribution normally used for general lightingpurposes usually will produce not more than half as much illumination onvertical as on horizontal surfaces. (See Fig. 10-42.) While commoninterior lighting layout procedures are designed to provide uniform illumi-nation on a horizontal plane, many objects (wallpaper, draperies, tapestries,


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FIG. 10-42. In many stores, light on vertical surfaces is at least equal in import-ance to that provided on horizontal surfaces.

paintings, clothing, etc.) arc displayed and appraised vertically. Also,shelves at the perimeter of many stores are important display areas. Thesemay be lighted by asymmetric distribution equipment supplementinggeneral lighting. If luminaires that have strong horizontal componentsare selected for general lighting, it should be recognized that they may beuncomfortably bright also. There is less danger of this in small areaswith luminaires high enough above the floor to be out of the customer fieldof view.Luminaire briglttness and contrast with ceiling. Whether lumin; -es are

glaring or not depends upon their brightness relative to that theirsurround. Luminaire brightness may be reduced by shielding or byconcealing the equipment from the normal field of view . (See Fig. 10-43.)

Highlights. Highlights are useful in revealing the form of semispecularobjects such as silks, leathers, glassware, pottery, etc. Highlights created


FIG. 10-43. To minimize glare from luminaires, they should conceal the lampsfrom view. The luminaire brightness should be not much greater than that of itsbackground. High reflectance ceilings and upper wall surfaces and some indirect lightcomponent aid in reducing contrasts.

by concentrated incandescent-filament sources are essential for displays ofdiamonds, jewelry, etc. Large-area, low-brightness highlights are moresuitable for automobiles, furniture, and similar objects. (See Fig. 10-44.)

Sliadoivs. Downlighting creates shadows that are sharp and dramatic.Indirect lighting and large-area diffusing sources produce soft shadows thattend to flatten the appearance of rounded objects and conceal surfacetextures. Shadows help to reveal the form of objects and texture of ma-terials. (See Fig. 10-45.) They should not be so dense that they concealmerchandise on shelves or in cases. Sharp shadows on customers' andclerks' faces usualby are not flattering.Maintenance. Proper maintenance of a lighting system pays dividends.

The amount of light absorbed in dust and dirt on transmitting and re-flecting surfaces may equal that which reaches the merchandise. Regularmaintenance is made inexpensive when lighting equipment is easy to cleanand lamp changes are easy to make. Group replacement of all lamps atsome predetermined point in their life may be the most satisfactory pro-cedure. (See pages 6-2 and 10-20.)

General Lighting of Stores

Genera 'ighting is necessary in every store. For certain kinds of storesand typ A merchandise, uniform general lighting providing the recom-mended : i'v. /el of illumination is by itself satisfactory. Food markets,variety sto.es, and others that display items primarily on open, closelyspaced tables and counters are in this category. (See Fig. 10-46.) Usually,few display cases are used and perimeter shelves are considered principallyas stock rather than display areas.

1068 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

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FIG. 10-44. Highlights assist in displaying specular and semi-specular surfacesand refractive materials to best advantage. Point sources are required to make gemsand glassware sparkle. Large areas of brightness add the sheen to glossy surfacedmerchandise.

Interior-Display Lighting for Stores

Stock merchandise located and arranged for display is a large and im-portant portion of display in the average store.The ratio of illumination on the merchandise in its display position to

that at its final appraisal point should be planned for maximum displayvalue and minimum appearance change. Usually, if the ratio of illumina-tion inside the case to that outside is approximately 2 to 1, the merchandisewill have adequate display value without suffering in appearance when re-moved for appraisal. An illumination level inside glass-enclosed casestwice that incident on glass sides and top compensates for surface reflectionsthat reduce the visibility of the merchandise. In order that customers maysee through these surface reflections, the brightness inside must be higherthan that of the surface reflections. Internal illumination is particularlynecessary in glass-enclosed wall cases because, unless luminaires are locatedclose to perimeter walls or supplementary units are provided, the generalillumination level usually is lower at the room perimeter than at the center.


FIG. 10-45. Shadows produced by carefully controlled beams of light can createdramatic effects, bring out flowing lines, and reveal the texture of mat-surfacedmaterials.

Mirror^s. Since shoppers commonly use mirrors to appraise articles ofclothing in which they are interested, accent lighting at mirrors is im-portant. The place where the shopper stands or sits, rather than the mir-ror, should be illuminated. A mirror may he used as a reflector to lightthe lower part of the figure. Three things are important: the face shouldbe illuminated with diffused light of a color that flatters the complexion;the sales item should be adequately lighted over its entire surface; thequality of light should be planned to display best the type of materialsmost often sold in the area.

Vertical displays. Clothing, floor and wall coverings, and tapestries anddraperies often are hung vertically for display and appraisal. Uniformillumination from top to bottom is desirable. (See Fig. 10-42.)Column displays. The utilization of columns (especially the large col-

umns found in many old buildings) as display centers not only helps toconceal the columns but adds appreciably to the display footage. (SeeFig. 10-47a.) Such display destroys over-all supervisory visibility also,and therefore may not be acceptable in all cases. Troughs, built-in lumi-nous elements, and remote spotlights are effective.


FIG. 10-46. In stores that display items on open, closely-spaced tables generallighting often is used alone.

FIG. 10-47. a. Column displays, b. Display niches, c. Canopied displays.


Niches. In departments where stock is concealed and merchandise issmall in size, display niches can be effective. These niches usually arelighted by built-in equipment. (See Fig. 10-47b.)Canopies. A canopy is an effective *

device for attracting attention to adisplay grouping or for emphasis of ,_-certain merchandise. (See Fig. 10 -

47c.) It also may divert attentionfrom a bad ceiling conditon. Cano-pies form useful ledges behind whichtubular indirect lighting may be con-cealed. Further, they can serve to .lower portions of ceilings to con-ceal more efficient (shorter projectiondistance) downlighting.

Platform and dais displays. Thepreferred mood to be created by anopen platform or dais display is free-dom and spaciousness. (See Fig. 10 -48.) Light from a remote location,e.g., a near-by column or the ceiling,is desirable. The light may be trainedand controlled by means of spot re-flectors, reflector lamps, or floodlights.

Counter displays. Overcounterlighting may provide background ac-cent, silhouetting, or direct illumi-nation, depending on the merchan- FIG. 10-4S. Platform and dais dis-dise and effect desired. Plays often are lighted by remotely lo-

cated projectors.

Directional signs. Since the colors of illumination that may be appliedin most displays are limited, color stimulation often is used in directionalsigns as well as in wall decoration, upholstery, etc. Many opportunitiesexist for carrying advertising or directional messages on walls, canopies,column displays, etc. (See Fig. 10-49.)

Window Lighting for StoresShow windows fronting on a high-density pedestrian traffic-way are one

effective medium for informing the public of items for sale and of invitingthem into a store. They are the physical bond between the street andpedestrian-way and the store interior, and they can be made a stage onwhich a merchant's goods are dramatized. (See Fig. 10-50.) Show-window lighting should be versatile, often almost as flexible as stage light-ing, and it should supply brightness, which attracts attention and minimizesveiling glare. Many modern windows are decorated as a foreground for aview of the store interior. This is called open-front design.

1072 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

FIG. 10-49. Directional, departmental, and advertising signs.

General lighting. High-level general illumination usually is the firstrequirement in show windows. However, in large prestige-type storesdramatic accents sometimes are considered more important. Often awindow is illuminated to compete at night with other neighborhood light-ing, or to display merchandise successfully under adverse daytime condi-tions created by window-glass reflections of sky brightness or otherdaylighted areas.

Accent lighting. Emphasis or accent lighting is provided by individualspotlights which sometimes are used with dramatic effect, even withoutgeneral diffuse lighting.

Supplementary lighting. In certain types of windows, footlights aredesirable because of the difficulty of projecting light to the face or themerchandise (which the pedestrian sees) from luminaires located directlyabove. Footlights are effective also when a geometrical disposition of theglass to eliminate reflections caused by daylight-created brightness isdesirable, and overhead lighting is difficult to use effectively without creat-ing reflected glare.

Because a show window has the prominence of a stage and compares withit as a center of attraction, lighting equipment should be located carefullyso as not to create glare. A luminaire should not attract attention toitself. The common concealment techniques (valances, flush and recessedmounting, and louvers) provide satisfactory results when planned for allangles of viewing. Normally, there is no need to protect from glare at theback of the window.Open fronts. With open-front windows in particular, and with other

types also, the window orientation with respect to sunlight and skylight is


FIG. 10-50. Closed- and open-back store windows and a typical open-front store.


being given increased study. From a practical standpoint, it is impossibleat present to build up the illumination level in a window sufficient to over-come completely the veiling glare produced by bright sky reflections, sunlitlight-colored buildings, and other adverse conditions. Studies have indi-cated that when the average reflected brightness is twice the brightnessbehind the window glass, the reflection is at the threshhold of producingdeleterious veiling glare. Many architectural methods have been devel-oped for the practical solution of this problem. These include slopingwindows, which reflect lower brightness areas such as those of which thebrightness can be controlled by awnings, marquees, or canopies. (SeeFig. 10-51.)

FIG. 10-51. By proper orientation and shading of glass surfaces, the brightnessof reflected images in the pedestrian field of view may be reduced below that whichinterferes with viewing the window display.

SCHOOL LIGHTINGThe trend in education toward greater dependence on visual techniques

emphasizes the importance of lighting in schools. Illumination aids mate-rially in the accomplishment of the visual tasks encountered by studentsand teachers and, in so doing, is beneficial in preserving good vision, aidingimpaired vision, minimizing visual strain and fatigue, and increasing theover-all efficiency of the educational process.

Also, it is recognized that the provision of a model environment forhealth and happy living and work at the formative stage in a child's de-velopment is one of the contributions which classroom experiences canmake to his general education. By using the techniques available today,light sources, equipment, materials, and proper natural and electric il-lumination in combination with high-reflectance room and furniture finishescan provide attractively colorful and cheerful, yet comfortable and efficient,seeing conditions for students and teachers.

Despite the existence of these techniques and the availability of theequipment and materials required to put them into practice, many schoolsmake poor use of natural illumination and have no provision for electriclighting.

School routine has much to do with this indifference toward lighting.Ordinarily, the hours that a classroom is used each day are few, and inten-tionally most school buildings are constructed, located, and oriented tomake available as much daylight as possible. However, it is only within

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4.4 Stores

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