4.1. SURVEY AND DOCUMENTATION Survey...

4.1. SURVEY AND DOCUMENTATION

Survey report

The present study conducted in seven northern districts of Kerala. The survey

revealed that, the local peoples are using several plants for curing skin diseases.

Medicinal plants and their uses reported by the informants in the studied area were

tabulated. In the present study information gathered from 62 informants. Among them

42 (38 male and 4 female individuals, aged between 28 and 82years) are the ‘key

informants’ who gave the information exclusively about the treatment of skin diseases.

The information gathered from tribal physicians and non-tribal physicians ( Plate.2 ).

The present survey indicates ethno medicinal information of 113 plant taxa

belonging to 45 families consisting of 103 genera. Few of the herbal healers considered

their herbal knowledge as traditional secrets and did not easily part with it. Intimate

contacts were established with them. The traditional healers were not pressurized to

reveal their knowledge and were convinced that the information would be exclusively

for academic purpose. The first hand information collected from them by repeated

visits included treatment for 16 different types of human skin infections viz. Anti –

inflammatory, Insect bite, Wound healing, Foot crack, Psoriasis, Impetigo, Athelets

foot disease, Tinea infection, Burns, Chickenpox, Ringworm, Boils, Sores, Dandruff,

Eczema, Leucoderma, and Scabies. Traditional practitioners usually prefer external and

internal applications or oral administration of the herbal preparation since the treatment

of various types of skin ailments depending on the type and severity of the infection.

The drug formulations are usually paste of the drug parts with water, coconut oil,

Calcium Hydroxide, Curd, Vinegar, Cow urine or the extraction of oil from the drug

parts; juice extract from fresh juicy parts. Application of exudates of raw materials like

latex; decoctions and infusions of drug parts with water; roasted and powdered raw

plant material; Ash of the burnt drug part are also recommended by the physicians. The

external application of the drug is used for all types of skin ailments. Most of the

traditional healers recommended oral administration of ayurvedic decoction to purify

the blood.

Treatments are done with either single plant formulation, combinations of

several plants or even with many parts of the same plant. Out of 113, 17 formulations

involved multiple drugs obtained from two or more different plant species. According

to the herbal healers, the combinations of different plant species increases the activity

of medicine and ‘ill effect’ of any plant (if any) will be ‘neutralized’ by the other.

Rapid cure and enhancement of immunity power in the patients is the aim of

combinations. Similar concept is reported in the Indian Traditional Systems of

medicine like Ayurveda and Siddha Some of the formulations involve non-plant

materials such as Calcium Hydroxide (lime water), Copper sulphate. In some other

cases the boiling process and storage of prepared drug is done in the copper vessel and

applied topically to treat eczema, skin allergies, scabies and all types of skin diseases.

Storage of water in bright copper vessels (Taamrapaatra) was practiced by ancient

Hindus due to its believed antiseptic qualities. Cow's milk is recommended for ulcers;

butter and butter milk in all types of sores; ghee in blisters, irritability of the skin.

The study reveals that among 113 plants recorded, most of the plants used for

the treatment are collected from wild (Table 4 .1).

Habit-wise analysis of the plants indicates that herbs are highly used followed

by trees, shrubs, and climbers (Plate.3 ). In most of the cases leaves are frequently used

plant part for the drug preparations (48%) (Plate. 3 ). Of all the drug preparations, paste

is the most preferred method followed by fresh juice extraction (Fig. 4 ).

From the study, 14 Fabaceae members are used for the skin disease (Plate.

5) in the selected study area followed by Lamiaceae (9 members) and Euphorbiaceae

(7 members ).

Table.4.1. Identfication of plants from the Informations collected from the Traditional healers.

No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR

NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

1Beloperone plumbaginifolia L.

Shrub Vishapacha Acanthaceae Leaf Insect bite,BoilsGrind the leaf and used as poultice

2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f. Herb

Murikootti Acanthaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the fresh juice of leaf

3Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida

Herb Vayalchulli AcanthaceaeWhole plant

Anti-inflammatory,Eczema

Decoction of plant taken orally

4Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet.

Herb Aadalodakam Acanthaceae LeafRing worm infection,

Wound healing

Application of leaf paste, along with tender leaf Bridelia scandes, whole plant of Centella aesiatica ,Leaves of Hygrophylla schulli.

5Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz.

Herb Odichukuthi Acanthaceae RootAthelets foot disease,Impetigo

Grind the root and made in to a past, mix with curd, then apply

6Achyranthes aspera L. Herb

Cherukadaladi AmaranthaceaeWhole plant

Wound healing, Boils Apply the fresh juice of plant

7Amaranthus spinosus L.

Herb Mullen cheera AmaranthaceaeWhole plant

Athelets foot diseasePut the parts of the plant in boiled water and insert the foot, kept for 2 hours

8Amaranthus viridis L.

Herb Kuppa cheera Amaranthaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Leaf paste taken orally


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

9Anacardium occidentale L.

Tree Kasu-mavu Anacardiaceae Seed oil Foot crack,CornThe oil from nut applied on the crack

10Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f.

Tree Cheru Anacardiaceae Fruit Foot crackThe endosperm from seed applied on the crack

11Centella asiatica (L.) Urban

HerbKudangal,

ErangaApiaceae

Whole plant

Boils,dandruff,Ring worm

apply the fresh juice

12Anethum graveolens L.

Herb Kattu sathakuppa Apiaceae Seeds Boils.Leucoderma apply the seed oil

13Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz

Shrub Sarpagandhi ApocynaceaeLeaf, stem,

Rhizome

Boils,Impetigo, Psoriasis

Boiled stem and leaves made in to a paste and applied on affected area, decoction of rhizome taken orally

14Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb) R.Br.

Tree Danthappala Apocynaceae LeafPsoriasis, eczema,

Ringworm infectionLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area

15Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.

Shrub Veliparathy Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema,ImpetigoLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,

16Calotropis gigantea(L.) R. Br.

Shrub Erikku Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema,dandruffAqueous paste of leaf powder is applied externally on the lesions

17Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f.

Herb Naruneendi Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema Leaf paste used as poultice


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

18 Cocos nucifera L. Tree Thengu ArecaceaeEndocarp -tender coconut

Impetigo

coconut shell charcoal and boiled with coconut oil , apply in the affected area 2.Grind the endosperm and apply

19 Areca catechu L. Tree Kamuku Arecaceae Leaf juice Tinea infectionApply the leaf juice along with garlic paste and Resinous exudations from Caryota urens.

20Aristolochia indica L.

Climber Garudakkodi Aristolochiaceae LeafImpetigo,septic due to

allergies,Scabies

Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area 2.Apply the fresh juice of the plant

21Ageratum conyzoides L.

Shrub Appa Asteraceae Leaf Ringworm infection

leaf grind with coconut shell charcoal and boiled with coconut oil ,apply in the affected area

22Ayapana triplinervius Vahl.

Shrub Ayapana Asteraceae Leaf Wound healing Leaf paste used as poultice

23Eclipta prostrata(L.) L. Herb

Kayyunni AsteraceaeWhole plant

Dandruff,wound healing

apply the plant juice

24Elephantopus scaber L. Herb

Anachuvadi Asteraceae RootWounds,Ring worm

infectonRoot paste is applied externally on wounds

25Sphaeranthus indicus L. Herb

Adakkamaniyan Asteraceae Leaf,stemFor all types of skin

diseasesApplication of leaf paste and stem paste


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

26 Vernonia cinerea L. Herb Poovamkurunnila AsteraceaeWhole plant

Eczema,Ring worm infection

Grind the whole plant and made in to a paste and apply

27 Bixa orellana L. Tree Kuppamanjal Bixaceae Fruit Boils Apply the fruit juice

28Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson

Climber Eakanayakam Celastraceae Root PsoriasisGrind the root and made in to a paste and apply in affected area

29 Commelina erecta L.Herb

Thezhuthanam pullu

CommalinaceaeWhole plant

ScabiesApplication of leaf paste and stem paste

30Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Shrub

Pullanji Combretaceae Leaf Eczema,Wound healingDecoction of leaf effective for bathing

31Terminalia chebula Retz.

Tree Kadukka Combretaceae Fruit EczemaGrind the Fruit and made in to a decoction. Apply in affected area.

32Luffa acutangula (L.)Roxb.

climber Peechinga Cucurbitaceae Fruit All skin diseasesRub the fruit juice in affected area

33Shorea roxburghii G.Don

Tree Salavriksham Dipterocarpaceae

Resinous exudation from the

bark

ScabiesDissolve the exudation in vinegar

34 Acalypha indica L. Herb Kuppameni Euphorbiaceae Leaf ScabiesGrind the leaf with curcuma rhizome and apply


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

35Bischofia javanica Blume. Tree

Thomathari Euphorbiaceae Leaf Boils,Eczema,UlcersLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area

36Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. Shrub

Kanjikottam EuphorbiaceaeTender leaves

Scabies, Eczema Application of leaf paste

37Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.)Voigt

Shrub Pooli Euphorbiaceae Leaf Ringworm infection

Grind the leaf along with Curcuma longa rhizome. Then apply in the affected area.2.grind the leaf and tender shoot and made in to a paste and apply

38 Jetropha multifida L. Shrub Aramedakam Euphorbiaceae Leaf Boils, scabiesLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.

39Tragia involucrata L.

Herb Kodithoova EuphorbiaceaeWhole plant

DandruffApply the fresh juice of the plant in head.

40Phyllanthus emblica L.

Herb Nelli EuphorbiaceaeWhole plant

DandruffApply the fresh juice of the plant in head.

41Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth.

Tree Vaka FabaceaeBark

powderFor skin diseases Used for bathing

42Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub

Tree Plasu Fabaceae BarkFor alltypes of skin

diseases

Burn the bark without charring and apply the ash in affected area.


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

43 Cassia fistula L. Tree Kanikonna FabaceaeLeaf, bark,

Eczema,Ringworm infection

Boil the leaf and bark in water and wash the affected area

44Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. Herb

Karkokilari Fabaceae Seeds Leucoderma Grind the seeds in Cow urine

45Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.

Climber Thodenvalli Fabaceae LeafScabies,Anti-

inflammatory,ImpetigoLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area

46Desmodium motorium (Houtt.)Merr.,

Herb Thozhukanni Fabaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the leaf paste

47Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC

Herb Nilampulladi FabaceaeWhole plant

ScabiesLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,

48Erythrina stricta Roxb.

Tree Murikku Fabaceae Leaf EczemaGrind the leaf and used as poultice

49Indigofera tinctoria L.

Shrub Neela amari Fabaceae Leaf DandruffLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,

50 Mimosa pudica L. Herb Thottavadi FabaceaeWhole plant

Eczema, Cracks on footLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,

51Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Tree Ungu FabaceaeBark,seed

sPsoriasis, Eczema,

Ringworm infection

Decoction of bark effective for bathing 2.bark boiled with coconut oil and apply


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

52Senna alata(L.)Roxb.

Shrub Anathavara Fabaceae Leaf Boils,Scabies Apply the leaf paste

53 Senna tora L. Herb Thakara Fabaceae Leaf Athelets foot diseaseBoil the leaf in water and wash the affected area

54Tamarindus indicus L.

Tree Puli Fabaceae Leaflets Scabies

Prepare thaila from the leaf juice along with fruits of Phyllanthes emblica and Terminalia chebula.

55Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Ktze.

Herb Thricheda Lamiaceae Leaf ImpetigoBoil the leaf in water and wash the affected area

56Callicarpa tomentosa (L) Murr.

Tree Cheruthekku Lamiaceae LeafScabies,Ringworm

infectionApply the tender Leaf juice

57Clerodendrum infortunatum L.

Shrub Peringalam Lamiaceae LeafScabies ,Other Skin

diseasesLeaf paste used as poultice

58Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link

Herb Thumba LamiaceaeWhole plant

Wound healing Apply the fresh juice

59Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Herb Thulasi Lamiaceae Leaf Insect bite,BoilsGrind the plant along with curcuma rhizome

60Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.

Herb Panikoorkka Lamiaceae Leaf Wound healing Rub the leaf in the wounds.


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

61

Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. var.tomentosus(Benth ex Emey.)Codd

Herb Iruveli Lamiaceae LeafWound

healing,Ringworm infection

Rub the leaf in the wounds.

62Premna serratifolia L.

Shrub Munja Lamiaceae Leaf Wound healing

Boil the leaf in water and wash the affected area 2.Leaf paste mix with paste of Terminalia chebula L.

63 Vitex negundo L. Shrub Karinochi Lamiaceae LeafBoils,Anti-

inflammatory,Wound heling

Leaf paste used as poultice

64Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

Herb Kattarvazha Liliacea Leaf Paronychia,Burns Leaf paste used as poultice

65 Allium cepa L. Herb Chuvannulli Liliacea Bulb PsoriasisMake thaila with onion and apply

66Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth exRoem.&Schult.

Herb Eeyachembu Lobeliaceae Root WoundsThe root paste is applied externally to cureold wound

67Lawsonia inermis Lam.

Shrub Mayilanji Lythraceae Leaf Athelets foot disease Leaf paste used as poultice

68 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Tree Chadachi Malvaceae Leaf Dandruff Apply the fresh juice of leaf


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

69Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.

Shrub Chembarathi MalvaceaeLeaf and Flower

Eczema,dandruffLeaf juice and flower boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,

70Pavonia odorata Willd.

Herb Eruveli Malvaceae Root Athelets foot disease

Grind the root along with curcuma longa rhizome, Mimosa pudica leaves .Then apply in the affected area

71Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. Tree

Poovarasu Malvaceae Leaf Scabies,ImpetigoDecoction of leaf effective for bathing

72Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn

Tree Veppu Meliaceae LeafBoils,Rashes due to

chicken pox,Ringworm infecton

Decoction of leaf effective for bathing

73Naragamia alata Wight & Arn

Herb Nilanarakam MeliaceaeWhole plant

Insect biteGrind the plant along with curcuma rhizome

74Cyclea peltata(Lam.) Hook.f &Thoms.

Climber Padathali MenispermaceaeWhole plant

Eczema Application of leaf paste

75Tinospora cordifolia (willd.)Miers

Climber Chittamruthu Menispermaceae Leaf Boils,scabies1.Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area, 2.application of leaf paste

76Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn

Tree Muringa Moringaceae Stem bark Against inflamationsGrind the stem bark along with curcuma rhizome and apply in affected area

77 Ficus racemosa L. Tree Athi Moraceae Fruit Leucoderma

Crush the dried fruit and dissolve one teaspoon in 20 ml. Water and kept it in 6 hrs. And then apply in affected area


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

78 Ficus benghalensis L. Tree Peral MoraceaeLeaf and

BarkEczema, All skin

diseases

The four plant together known as Nalpamara.The decoction used for bathing

79 Ficus microcarpa F. Tree Ithy MoraceaeLeaf and

Bark

80 Ficus religiosa L.Tree

Arayal MoraceaeLeaf and

Bark

81Myristica fragrans Houttt.

Tree Jathikka MyristicaceaeTender

leafImpetigo Apply the leaf paste

82Jasminum grandiflorum L. Climber

Pichakam Oleaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Application of leaf paste

83Biophytum sensitivum (L.)DC. Herb

Mukkutti OxalidaeWhole plant

Wound healing Apply the fresh juice

84Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.

Herb Kadukurohini Plantaginaceae Seed ScabiesGrind the seeds and apply in the affected portion.

85 Piper betle L. Climber Vettila Piperaceae Leaf Dandruff Apply the fresh juice of leaf

86 Piper nigrum L. Climber Kodi Piperaceae Leaf PsoriasisDecoction of leaf effective for bathing


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

87Cynadon dactylon (L.)Pers,

Herb Karuka PoaceaeWhole plant

EczemaApplication of leaf paste along with paste of rhizome of Curcuma longa

88Polygonum plebeium R. Br.

Herb Chorakam Polygonaceae Leaf All skin diseasesThe decoction of leaves used for effective bathing.

89 Ixora coccinea L. Shrub Thechi Rubiaceae Flower Eczema Grind the flower and apply

90Oldenlandia umbellata L.

Herb Parpidakapullu RubiaceaeWhole plant

Leucoderma,Impetigo Leaf paste used as poultice

91 Rubia cordifolia L. Climber Manjishta Rubiaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Application of leaf paste

92Spermacoce latifolia Aubl.

Herb RubiaceaeWhole plant

Impetigo Leaf paste used as poultice

93Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.

Shrub Panal Rutaceae Root PsoriasisApply the root paste in affected area

94Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.

Tree Narakam Rutaceae Fruit Tinea infectionFruit juice mix with sodium borate'

95Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.

Climber Thuduthuduppa Rutaceae Leaf For all skin diseases

Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil along with Hibiscus -rosa sinensis leaf and apply in affected area,


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

96Ventilago madraspatana Gaerh.,Fruct

Climber Vembata Rhamnaceae BarkScabies, Tinea

infectionApply the fresh juice of bark

97Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.

ClimberThudali Rhamnaceae Leaf Impetigo

Grind the leaf along with the bark and leaf of Phyllanthus emblica. Then apply in the affected area.

98Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.)Willd.

Shrub Kotta Rhamnaceae Leaf Eczema

Grind the leaf along with Phyllanthus emlica leaf and bark made in to a paste and apply in the affected part

99 Santalam album L. Tree Chandanam Santalaceae Wood For fairness Grind the stem and apply

100Bacopa monnieri (L) Pennell

Herb Brahmi ScrophulariceaeWhole plant

EczemaGrind the Whole plant and apply in the paste form

101 Scoparia dulsis L. Herb Kallurukki Scrophulariceae RootItching and

inflammation3 gm. Root gring and taken orally

102 Physalis angulata L. Herb Njottanjodian SolanaceaeWhole plant

PsoriasisLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.

103Datura stramonium L.

Shrub Ummam Solanaceae Leaf,fruit DandruffLeaf juice and fruit juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.

104 Smilax china L. Climber Cheenapavu Solanaceae Rhizome Wound healingGrind the rhizome and apply in the paste form


NAMEFAMILY

PARTS USED

PURPOSE MODE OF USE

105

Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)Moore ssp.laurina(Retz.)Nooteb.

Tree Pachotti Symplocaceae Stem barkFor fairness,

Discolouration

The bark is made in to a paste and mix with sandal paste and turmeric powder .

106Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch

Tree Aavil UlmaceaeTender

leafEczema ,impetigo

Grind the young leaves and add ghee ,and apply

107Dendrocnide sinuate (Blume) Chew

Shrub Anavanangi Urticaceae Leaf DandruffLeaf juice mixed with Santalam album L. wood paste boiled with coconut oil and apply.

108Cissus quadrangularis L.

Climber Chengalamparanda VitaceaeLeaf and

stemRingworm infection Grind the useful part and apply

109 Curcuma longa L. Herb Manjal Zingiberaceae Rhizome Ringworm infectionGrind the rhizome with root paste of Mangifera indica L. and apply

110Kaempferia galangal L.

Herb Kacholam Zingiberaceae Rhizome Leucoderma,CornsGrind the rhizome and mix with calcium hydroxide and apply

111Zingiber zerumbet (L) J.E Smith

Herb Malayingi Zingiberaceae Rhizome LeucodermaGrind the rhizome and add one teaspoon honey and then apply

112 Marsilea minuta Herb Cheriye ela Marsileaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the leaf paste

113Lygodium flexuosumL.

Herb Poli Schizaceae Leaf Anti-inflamatory Apply the leaf paste

4.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DATA

The collected data are represented systematically in the tabular form. The

information such as botanical name, family, part used, and use value are provided for

each species (Table2). Informants consensus factor (Table. 4.3), fidelity level

(Tables.4.4 ), Correlation between fidelity level and citation of the plants are tabulated

in (Table 4.5) separately.

4.2.1. Use Value

Use value’ is the positive correlation between the importance value of a plant

(measured by the number of informants for a particular plant) and the number of uses

cited by the informants. The use value (UV), a quantitative method that demonstrates

the relative importance of a species known locally. It was calculated according to the

following formula:

UV=ΣUi/n

Where ‘Ui’ is the number of uses to treat the different types of skin diseases

mentioned by each informant for a given species; ‘n’ is the total number of informants.

Table.4.2.Use Value of Plants used in the treatment of Skin diseases.

Species FamilyParts used

Ui n UVRecommended use from this

study

1Beloperone plumbaginifolia L.

Acanthaceae L 2 4 0.5Insect bite,

Boils

2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f.

Acanthaceae L 1 5 0.2 Wound healing

3

Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida

Acanthaceae W 2 4 0.5Anti-

inflammatory, Eczema

4Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet.

Acanthaceae L 2 3 0.67Wound

healing, Ring worm infection

5Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz

Acanthaceae R 2 4 0.5Athelets foot

disease , Impetigo



study

6Achyranthes aspera L.

Amaranthaceae W 2 3 0.67Wound

healing,Boils

7Amaranthus spinosus L.

Amaranthaceae W 1 2 0.5Athelets foot

disease

8Amaranthus viridis L.

Amaranthaceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection

9Anacardium occidentale L.

Anacardiaceae S 2 4 0.5Foot

crack,Corn

10Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f.,

Anacardiaceae F 1 2 0.5 Foot crack

11Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.,

Apiaceae W 3 5 0.6

Boils, Dandruff, Ringworm infection

12Anethum graveolens L.,

Apiaceae S 2 3 0.67Boils,

Leucoderma


ApocynaceaeL ,S,

R3 4 0.75

Boils, Psoriasis, Impetigo

14Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb) R.Br.

Apocynaceae L 3 10 0.3

Psoriasis, eczema,

Ringworm infection

15 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae E 1 2 0.5 Impetigo

16 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae L 1 2 0.5 Tinea infection


Apocynaceae L 2 3 0.67Eczema, Impetigo

18Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f

Apocynaceae L 2 5 0.4Eczema, Dandruff

19Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.

Apocynaceae L 2 4 0.5 Eczema,Boils

20Aristolochia indica L.

Aristolochaceae L 3 2 1.5

Impetigo, Septic due to

allergies, Scabies,



study

21Ageratum conyzoides L.

Asteraceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection

22Ayapana triplinervius Vahl.

Asteraceae L 1 5 0.2 Wound healing

23Eclipta prostrata(L.)L.

Asteraceae W 2 5 0.4Dandruff,

Wound healing

24Elephantopus scaber L.

Asteraceae R 2 6 0.33Wounds,

Ringworm infection

25Sphaeranthus indicus L.

Asteraceae L,S 1 5 0.2For all types

of skin diseases

26Vernonia cinerea L.

Asteraceae W 2 3 0.67Eczema, Ring

worm infection

27 Bixa orellana L. Bixaceae F 1 2 0.5 Boils


Celastraceae R 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis

29Commelina erecta L.

Commalinaceae W 1 3 0.33 Scabies

30Calycopteris floribunda Lam.

Combretaceae L 2 5 0.4Eczema,Woun

d healing

31Terminalia chebula Retz.

Combretaceae F 1 2 0.5 Eczema

32Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.

Cucurbitaceae F 1 3 0.33All skin diseases

33Shorea roxburghii G.Don

Dipterocarpa-ceae

B 1 2 0.5 Scabies

34 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae L 1 2 0.5 Scabies

35Bischofia javanica Blume.

Euphorbiaceae TL 3 3 1Boils,Eczema,

Ulcers

36Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume.

Euphorbiaceae TL 2 8 0.25Scabies, Eczema

37Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt.

Euphorbiaceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection

38Jetropha multifida L.

Euphorbiaceae L 2 6 0.33 Boils, Impetigo



study

39Tragia involucrata L.

Euphorbiaceae W 1 5 0.2 Dandruff

40Phyllanthus emblica L.

Euphorbiaceae W 1 4 0.25 Dandruff

41Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth.

Fabaceae B 1 2 0.5For skin diseases

42 Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub

Fabaceae B 1 9 0.11For alltypes of skin diseases

43 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae L,B 2 8 0.25Eczema,Ring

worm infection,

44Cullen corylifolium (L.)Medik.,

Fabaceae S 1 3 0.33 Leucoderma

45Derris scandens (Roxb.)Benth.

Fabaceae L 3 2 1.5Impetigo,Anti-inflammatory,S

cabies

46Desmodium motorium(Houtt.) Merr.

Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Wound healing

47Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC

Fabaceae W 1 3 0.33 Scabies

48Erythrina stricta Roxb.

Fabaceae L 1 5 0.2 Eczema

49Indigofera tinctoria L.

Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Dandruff

50 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae W 2 5 0.4Eczema,

Cracks on foot

51Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Fabaceae B,S 3 6 0.5

Psoriasis, Eczema,

Ringworm infection

52 Senna alata Fabaceae B 1 10 0.2 Boils ,Scabies

53 Senna tora L. Fabaceae L 1 6 0.17Athelets foot

disease

54Tamarindus indicus L.

Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Scabies



study

55Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Ktze.

Lamiaceae L 1 3 0.33 Impetigo

56Callicarpa tomentosa (L) Murr

Lamiaceae L 2 6 0.33Ringworm infection, Scabies


Lamiaceae L 2 3 0.67Scabies, and other Skin diseases

58Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link

Lamiaceae W 1 2 0.5 Wound healing

59Plectranthus Amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.

Lamiaceae L 1 3 0.33 Wound healing

60

Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. var. tomentosus (Benth. ex. Emey.) Codd

Lamiaceae L 2 4 0.5

Wound healing,

Ringworm infection

61Premna serratifolia L.

Lamiaceae L 1 2 0.5 Wounds

62Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Lamiaceae L 2 4 0.5Insect

bite,Boils

63 Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae L 3 3 1Wound healing

, Boils, Antiinflamatory

64Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

Liliacea L 2 10 0.2Paronychia,

Burns

65 Allium cepa L. Liliacea Bb 1 6 0.17 Psoriasis

66

Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Roem.&Schult.

Lobeliaceae R 1 3 0.33 Wounds

67Lawsonia inermis Lam.

Lythraceae L 1 8 0.13Athelets foot

disease

68Grewia tiliifolia Vahl.

Malvaceae L 1 1 1 Dandruff

69Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.

Malvaceae L,F 2 9 0.22Eczema,dandruff



study

70Pavonia odorata Willd.

Malvaceae R 1 2 0.5Athelets foot

disease

71Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland

Malvaceae L 2 3 0.67Scabies,impeti

go

72Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn

Meliaceae L 3 9 0.33

Boils, Rashes during chicken

pox, Ringworm infection

73Naragamia alata Wight & Arn

Meliaceae W 1 2 0.5 Insect bite

74Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f &Thoms.

Menisperma-ceae

W 1 3 0.33 Eczema

75

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. F. & Thoms

Menisperma-ceae

L 2 6 0.33 Boils,scabies

76Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.

Moringaceae B 1 10 0.1Against

inflamations

77Ficus racemosa L.

Moraceae F 1 2 0.5 Leucoderma

78Ficus benghalesis L.

Moraceae L,B

1 9 0.11All skin diseases79

Ficus microcarpa L.

Moraceae L,B

80 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae L,B

81Myristica fragrans Houttt.

MyristicaceaeTL,A

4 3 1.33

Scabies,Impetigo,Anti-

inflammatory,Eczema

82Jasminum grandiflorum L.

Oleaceae L 1 6 0.17Ringworm infection

83Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC.

Oxalidae W 1 5 0.2 Wound healing



study

84 Piper betle L. Piperaceae L 1 3 0.33 Dandruff

85 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae L 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis

86Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth

Plantaginaceae S 1 2 0.5 Scabies

87Cynadon dactylon (L.)Pers

Poaceae W 1 4 0.25 Eczema

88Polygonum plebeium3R. Br.,

Polygonaceae L 1 3 0.33All skin diseases

89 Ixora cocinea L., Rubiaceae F 1 8 0.13 Eczema

90Oldenlandia umbellata L.

Rubiaceae W 2 4 0.5Leucoderma,I

mpetigo

91Rubia cordifolia L.

Rubiaceae L 1 8 0.13Ringworm infection

92Spermacoce latifolia Aubl.

Rubiaceae W 1 3 0.33 Impetigo

93Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.)DC.

Rutaceae R 1 3 0.33 Psoriasis

94Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.

Rutaceae F 1 4 0.25Tinea

infection

95Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.

Rutaceae L 1 2 0.5For all skin

diseases


Rhamnaceae B 2 3 0.67Tinea

infection,Scabies

97Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.

Rhamnaceae L 1 2 0.5 Impetigo


Rhamnaceae L 1 3 0.33 Eczema

99 Santalam album L. Santalaceae W 1 8 0.13For fairness



study

100Bacopa monnieri (L)Pennell

Scrophularia-ceae

W 1 3 0.33 Eczema

101 Scoparia dulsis L. Scorphulariceae R 2 4 0.5Itching and

inflammation

102Physalis angulata L.

Solanaceae W 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis

103Datura stramonium L.

Solanaceae L,F 1 8 0.13 Dandruff

104 Smilax china L. Solanaceae R 1 4 0.25 Wound healing

105Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)Moore

Symplocaceae B 1 2 0.5 For fairness,

106Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch

Ulmaceae TL 2 3 0.67Eczema,Impetigo

107Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew

Urticaceae L 1 2 0.5 Dandruff

108Cissus quadrangularis L.

Vitaceae L,S 1 4 0.25Ringworm infection

109 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Rh 1 8 0.13Ringworm infection

110Kaempferia galangal L.

Zingiberaceae Rh 2 4 0.5Leucoderma,

Corns

111Zingiber zerumbet (L) J.E Smith

Zingiberaceae Rh 1 3 0.33 Leucoderma,

112 Marsilea minuta Marsileaceae L 1 2 0.5 Wound healing

113Lygodium flexuosum L.

Lygodiaceae L 1 3 0.33Anti-

inflammatory

Ui- Total number of uses mentioned by the informants for a given species , n-

total number of informants for a given species, W-Whole plant , R-Root, L-Leaves, Tl

-Tender leaves, S-Stem, B-Bark, Fl-Flower, Fr-Fruit, Rh-Rhizome, La-Latex, T-Tree

UV is calculated for all the species and the single use by the single informant is

not considered for the analysis. Higher use value (UV) indicates the importance of that

particular plant in the study area. In this study, the Use Value obtained above 0.5 were

considered as more useful for the skin diseases than the other plants. As indicated in

Table-2, The plant species, Derris scandens, Aristolochia indica scored a high UV

(1.50each), followed by Myristica fragrance (1.33each), then Vitex negundo and

Bischofia javanica (1 each ) respectively. Plant with high UV is the indication of its

importance in the herbal medicine practice. Out of 113 species, 55 species were showed

more Use value. (0.5 and above). These selected 55 plants (Plate 7-12 ) are listed

below in the showin the ethano pharmacological importance of that species (Table 4.3).

4.2.2.1.Pharmacological Importance of plants having high Use Value

Ethanopharmacological importance of all documented plants are listed in

Table.4.3.

Table.4.3.Table showing the ethanopharmacological importance of plants having high Use Value

Sl.No.

Plant NamesAnti-

microbial activity

Anti-oxidant activity

Anti-inflammatory

activity

Anti-cancerous activity

Anti-allergicactivity

Referances

1 Beloperone plumbaginifolia L. √ √ √ Rajasekharn(2012)

2Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida,

√ √ √Vijaya Chauhan Lobo (2010) , Dayanand (2012)

3Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet,

√ √ √ √ George (1947)

4Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz, J.

√ √ √ √ Suman Bukke (2011)

5 Achyranthes aspera L., √ √ √ √ √ Datir et al. (2009) , Saba Hasan (2014)

6 Amaranthus spinosus L., √ √ Rajendra Kawade et al. (2010)

7 Amaranthus viridis L. √ √ √ √Samuel Joshua et al., (2010) Sravan Prasad Macharla (2011),Muhammad et al.,(2010)

8 Anacardium occidentale L., √ √ Vijayakumar Arul doss (2011)

9 Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f., Aseer Manilal (2014)

10Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.,

√ √ √ √ Kashmira J. Gohil et al.,( 2010)

11 Anethum graveolens L., √ √ Ali Esmail Al-Snafi (2014)


√ √ √ √Okwu(2004), Stary( 1998), Salah (1995), Del-Rio (1997).

Sl.No.

Plant NamesAnti-

microbial activity


Anti-inflammatory

activity



Referances

13 Cocos nucifera L. √ √Chadeganipour , Haims (2001), Ikhide et al., (2013)

14 Areca catechu L. √ √ √Azzez et al (2007), Amol . Bhandare(2010)


√ √ √ Bhaskar and Balakrishnan (2009)


√ √ √Mohamed Farook (2011), Amirghofran et al., (2000), Ravishankara et al.,(2004) Mary et al .,(1987)

17 Ageratum conyzoides L., √ √Durodola, 1977,Jagetia et al., 2003 ,Ming, (1999).

18 Vernonia cinerea (L.)Less √ √ √ Dipali Shelar et al., (2014)

19 Aristolochia indica L. √ √ √ √ Prachi et al., ,(2007),

21 Bixa orellana L. √ √ √ Akshatha Venugopalan

22 Terminalia chebula Retz. √ √ √ Prakash chandra gupta (2012)

23 Shorea roxburghii G.Don √ Tanaka et al., (2000)

24 Acalypha indica L., √ √ √ Jagatheeswari et al.,(2013)

25 Bischofia javanica Blume, √ √ √ √ √

Lingadurai Sutharson e tal,2009), Dunstan Christina Andersson et al, (1997)Von Reis (1982)

26Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt,

√ √Yerima(2009)Tabuti (2007)

Sl.No.

Plant NamesAnti-

microbial activity


Anti-inflammatory

activity



Referances

27 Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth. √ √ √ √ Karuppannan kokila et al., (2013)

28 Derris scandens (Roxb.)Benth √ √ √Komal Kumar et al., (2012), Ganapathy (2006)

29 Pongamia pinnata (L.)Pierre √ √ √ Arote(2010)


√ √Srinivasan et al., (2009), Padmaa et al.,2008)

31 Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link √ √ √ √ Prajapati et al., (2010)

32 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. √ √ √ √ Prakash and Neelu Gupta(2005)

33Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.)Schweinf.ex, spreng. var.tomentosus

√ √ √Muthukumarana, R et al., (2014), Ramzi et al., (2010)

34 Pavonia odorata Willd., √ √ Seems Nakhare and Garg (1992)

35Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.

√ √ Archana Moon et al., (2010)

36 Naragamia alata Wight & Arn. √ √ Jacob Sonu (2012)

37 Myristica fragrans Houttt. √ √ √Mardiaty iryani binti Abdullah(2009),Akinboro et al.,(2010)

38 Ficus auriculata L. √ Mohamed Z. M. Salem et al.,( 2013)

39 Piper nigram L. √ √ √Pradhan et al.,(1999), Sreenivasan(2007)

40 Oldenlantia umbellata L. √ √ Sethuramani(2014)

41 Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam., √ √Fawzia Bibi Narod et al (2004),Iwasaki et al.,( 2010),

Sl.No.

Plant NamesAnti-

microbial activity


Anti-inflammatory

activity



Referances


√ √ √ √ Subhalakshmi Basu (2005)

43 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. √ Shoeb et al (2005)

44 Physalis angulata L. √ √ √ √Bastos et a,l. 2008.201 Mahalekshmi et al., (2014)


√ √Siddhendu Bhattacharjee et al .,(2013),Mohammed Usman(2012)

4 Scoparia dulsis L. √ √ √ Krishna Murti et al., (2012)

47Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)

√Khan et al., (2001) ChristudasSunil,(2012)

48 Grewia tilifolia Vahl √ Sheela Rani (2011)

49 Dendrocnide sinuate (Blume) √ √ √ Tanti et al.,(2010)

50Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch

√ √ √ √ √ Jyoti Sharma and Virendra Singh(2012)


√ √ √ √ Bhaskar das et al. (2014)

52 Premna serratifolia L.

53 Vitex negundo L. √ √ √ √Telang, (1999), Vishal and Gupta, (2005), Soriful et al ., (2013)

54 Kaempferia galangaL. √ √ √

55 Marsilea sp. √ √ √ John de britto et al., (2013)

4.2.2. The informant consensus factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to identify the

ethnopharmacological importance of the collected plant species. ICF values will

be low (near 0), if plants are chosen randomly or if informants do not exchange

information about their use. A low value indicates that the informants disagree on

the taxa to be used in the treatment within a category of illness. Values will be

high (near or more than1), if there is a well defined selection criterion in the

community and/or if information is exchanged between informants or high value

(close to 1.0) indicates that relatively few taxa are used by a large proportion of

the informants. The ICF is calculated by the following formula..

ICF=Nur-Nt/Nur-1.

Where ‘Nur’ is the Number of use citations in each category ofskin disease and

‘Nt’ is the number of species used.

The plants having ICF value more than 1 is selected for the detailed

study .The treatment for different types of skin diseases by the herbal healers are

classified in to 16 categories and the ICF values for each category are given

(Table .4). ICF values obtained for the reported categories indicated the degree of

shared knowledge for the treatment of each category of ailment. The highest ICF

scored for Impetigo (ICF=0.58). 14 plants are used to treat this ailment and were

cited by the 32 practitioners. Most of the practitioners quoted leaves of

Aristolochia indica, Derris scandens, and Myristica fragransto treat the disease.

Boils scored the second highest value of ICF (0.36). It is a very common type of

skin infection in the study area. 13 plants with 20 citations are recorded to treat

the ailment .Leaves of Vitex negundo, Bischofia javanica and Centella asiatica

are extensively used to treat the infection. Psoriasis recorded the third highest

value (ICF=0.25). 7 plants with 9 citations are recorded to treat the ailment,

followed by Eczema recorded with ICF 0.2. Comparatively low scores are for

insect bite, Foot crack, Athelets foot disease, Tinea infection, Leucoderma,

Ringworm infection, wound healing, anti-inflammatory activity, Rashes of

Chicken pox, Scabies, Burns. They scored ‘zero’ or less than zero as the

informants did not share their knowledge to treat these ailments. ICF value is a

proportion between the uses of different plants by various herbal healers for a

particular disease category suggesting the level of sharing the knowledge about

the use of medicinal plants amongst the healers. High ICF value indicates the use

of same plants by many healers. Whereas negative value means use of different

plants by many healers and ICF value would be ‘zero’ when different plants are

employed by few herbal healers.

Table- 4.4.: Informants consensus factor for different skin diseases

Sl.No.

CategoryUse

citation(Nur)

Number of Plant

taxa used (Nt)

Nur-Nt Nur-1 ICF

1 Anti-inflammatory 5 6 -1 4 -0.25

2 Insect bite 3 3 0 2 0

3 Boils 20 13 7 19 0.36

4Ring worm infection

10 15 -5 9 -0.55

5 Wound healing 13 16 -3 12 -0.25

6 Foot crack 3 3 0 2 0

7 Dandruff 8 10 -2 7 -0.28

8 Leucoderma 5 6 -1 4 -0.25

9 Psoriasis 9 7 2 8 0.25

10 Impetigo 32 14 18 31 0.58

11 Eczema 26 21 5 25 0.2

12Athelets foot disease

5 5 0 4 0

13 Scabies 14 17 -3 13 -0.23

14 Tinea infection 4 4 0 3 0

15 Burns 2 2 0 1 0

16Rashes of Chickenpox

2 3 -1 1 -1

4.2.3.Fidelitylevel (FL)

The fidelity level is useful for identifying the inhabitants ‘most preferred,

species in use for treating certain ailments. FL values vary from 1.0% to 100%.

Generally, a FL of 100% for a specific plant indicates that all of the use-reports

mentioned the same method for using the plant for treatment. The fidelity level

(FL), the percentage of informants claiming the use of a certain plants for the

same major purpose, was calculated according to the following formula.

FL (%)=Np÷N×100

‘Np’ is the number of informants who independently suggested the use of

a plant species for a particular skin disease (Usemention); ‘N’ is the total number

of informants who mentioned the same plant for any skin diseases

Table 4.5.: Fidelity level of the plants used for treating diseases higher ICF value

Sl.No.

Plant NamesDisease with highest ICF

valueNp N Np/N FL%


Eczema 1 2 0.5 50

2 Achyranthes aspera L. Boils 2 3 0.66 66

3Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.

Boils 3 3 1 100

4 Anethum graveolens L. Boils 1 2 0.5 50


Psoriasis 4 4 1 100


Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50

7 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. Psoriasis, 5 5 1 100

8 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. Eczema, 2 2 1 100

9 Cocos nucifera L. Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50


Eczema 3 3 1 100

11Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f

Eczema 2 2 1 100

Sl.No.


valueNp N Np/N FL%


Boils 2 3 0.66 66

13 Vernonia cinerea L. Eczema 1 2 0.5 50

14 Aristolochia indica L. Impetigo 5 5 1 100

15 Bixa orellana L. Boils 1 1 1 100

16 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Eczema 3 3 1 100

17 Terminalia chebula Retz. Eczema 3 4 0.75 75

18 Bischofia javanica Blume. Boils 6 6 1 100

19 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. Eczema 5 5 1 100

20 Jetropha multifida L. Boils 3 3 1 100

21 Cassia alata L. Boils 2 2 1 100

22 Cassia fistula L. Eczema 3 4 0.75 75

23 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth Impetigo 5 5 1 100

24 Erythrina variegate L. Eczema 4 4 1 100

25 Mimosa pudica L. Eczema 2 3 0.66 66

26 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Psoriasis 4 4 1 100

27 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Eczema 1 2 0.5 50


Psoriasis 2 2 1 100

29 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Boils 2 3 0.67 67

30 Allium cepa L. Psoriasis 4 4 1 100

31 Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. Eczema 2 2 1 100


impetigo 2 3 0.67 6

33Cyclea peltata(Lam.)Hook.f &Thoms.

Eczema 3 4 0.75 75


Boils 1 2 0.5 50

35Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn.

Boils 3 4 0.75 75

36 Myristica fragrans Houttt. Impetigo 4 4 1 100

37 Piper nigram L. Psoriasis 1 2 0.5 50

Sl.No.


valueNp N Np/N FL%

38 Cynadon dactylon (L.) Pers Eczema 2 3 0.66 66

39 Ixora coccinea L. Eczema 3 3 1 100

40 Oldenlantia umbellate L. Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50

41Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.

Psoriasis 2 3 0.66 66

42 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Impetigo 2 2 1 100


Eczema 1 2 0.5 50

44 Physalis angulata L. Psoriasis 2 2 1 100

45 Bacopa monnieri (L) Pennell Eczema 1 2 0.5 50

46Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch

Eczema 2 3 0.66 66

47 Vitex negundo L. Boils 4 4 1 100

Table 4.6.: Fidelity Level Analysis Plants Used For Treating Diseases With Lower ICF Value

Sl.No.

Scientific nameDisease with Lower ICF

valueNp N Np/N FL%

1 Beloperone plumbaginifolia L. Insect bite 1 2 0.5 50

2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f.

Wound healing

2 3 0.67 67


Anti-inflammatory

4 5 0.8 80

4Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz, J.

Athelets foot disease

4 4 1 100

5 Amaranthus spinosus L.Athelets foot disease

1 2 0.5 50

6 Amaranthus viridis L.Ringworm infection

2 2 1 100

7 Anacardium occidentale L. Foot crack 1 2 0.5 50

8 Anacardium occidentale L. corn 3 4 0.75 75

9 Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f. Foot crack 2 2 1 100

10Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.

Dandruff 1 2 0.5 50

Sl.No.


valueNp N Np/N FL%

11 Anethum graveolens L. Leucoderma 2 3 0.67 67

12 Areca catechu L.Tinea infection

3 4 0.75 75

13 Eclipta prostrate (L.) L. Dandruff 2 2 1 100

14 Elephantopus scaber L.Ringworm infection

2 3 0.67 67

15 Commelina erecta L. Scabies 3 3 1 100

16 Calycopteris floribunda Lam.Wound healing

3 4 0.75 75

17 Acalypha indica L. Scabies 1 2 0.5 50

18 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume, Scabies 1 1 1 100

19Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt.

Ringworm infection

2 2 1 100

20 Phyllanthus emblica L. Dandruff 1 2 0.5 50

21 Cassia alata L. Scabies 4 4 1 100

22 Cassia fistula L.Ring worm infection,

1 2 0.5 50

23 Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. Leucoderma 2 3 0.67 67

24 Desmodium triflora (L.) DC Scabies 1 2 0.5 50

25 Pongamia pinnata (L.) PierreRingworm infection

1 2 0.5 50

26Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.

Wound healing

1 2 0.5 50

27 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Burns 3 3 1 100

28Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth exRoem.&Schult.,

Wounds 1 1 1 100

29 Pavonia odorata Willd.,Athelets foot disease

2 3 0.67 67


Scabies 2 2 1 100


scabies 3 3 1 100

32Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn.

chicken pox 2 3 0.67 67

33 Naragamia alata Wight & Arn. Insect bite 4 4 1 100

Sl.No.


valueNp N Np/N FL%

34Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.,

Anti-inflammtory

1 2 0.5 50

35 Jasminum grandiflorum L.Ringworm infection

4 4 1 100

36 Piper betle L. Dandruff 2 3 0.67 67

37 Rubia cordifolia L.Ringworm infection

2 4 0.5 50

38 Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.,Tinea infection

2 3 0.67 67

39 Smilax china L.Wound healing

1 2 0.5 50


Scabies 1 2 0.5 50

By analyzing the disease categories to highlight the most important plant

species in each category of skin disease in terms of fidelity level. It is calculated

for the plants which are used to treat most frequently reported ailment categories

for both higher ICF values (ICF=0.2and above) and lower ICF values (ICF=0.00),

as both have scored a highest fidelity value (50% or above). The plants cited only

once by a single informant are not considered for the Fidelity level analysis. In the

higher ICF category 6 plants for boils, 5 plants for Impetigo, 6 plants for

Psoriasis, and 2 plants for Eczema scored100% fidelity level. On the other hand

only 5 plants for Scabies, 3 plants for Ringworm infection scored 100% fidelity

level in case of lower ICF category (Tables 4.6 and 4.7 ).

4.2.3.1. Correlation between fidelity level and Use mention (Np) of the plants

Comparative analysis of the data is an important criterion for evaluating

the medicinal value of a particular plant. A correlation between FL and Np

revealed that, plants with highest FL may score low Np and such plants are of less

significance . Whereas, plants which score high FL and high Np for a particular

disease are worth taking up for further phyto chemical analysis. (Table 4.7).

Table-4.7. Correlation between fidelity level (FL) and Use mention(Np) of the plants.

A)plants with high fidelity level and low use mention for a particular disease

Sl.no Plant Names Np FL% Disease

1 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart. 3 100 Boils

2 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. 2 100 Eczema,

3 Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. 3 100 Eczema

4 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f 2 100 Eczema

5 Bixa orellana L. 1 100 Boils

6 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. 3 100 Eczema

7 Jetropha multifida L. 3 100 Boils

8 Cassia alata L. 2 100 Boils

9 Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson 2 100 Psoriasis

10 Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. 2 100 Eczema

11 Ixora coccinea L., 3 100 Eczema

12 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. 2 100 Impetigo

13 Physalis angulata L. 2 100 Psoriasis

14 Terminalia chebula Retz. 3 75 Eczema

15 Cassia fistula L. 3 75 Eczema

16 Cyclea peltata(Lam.)Hook.f &Thoms. 3 75 Eczema

17 Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn. 3 75 Boils

B)plants with high fidelity level and high use mention for a particular disease

Sl. no Plant Names Np FL% Disease

1 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 4 100 Psoriasis

2 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. 5 100 Psoriasis,

3 Aristolochia indica L. 5 100 Impetigo

4 Bischofia javanica Blume. 6 100 Boils

5 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. 5 100 Eczema

6 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth 5 100 Impetigo

7 Erythrina variegate L. 4 100 Eczema

8 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 4 100 Psoriasis

9 Allium cepa L. 4 100 Psoriasis

10 Myristica fragrans Houttt. 4 100 Impetigo

11 Vitex negundo L. 4 100 Boils

Different parts of medicinal plants were used as medicine by the local

traditional healers to treat skin diseases. Among the different plant parts, the

leaves were most frequently used for the treatment of diseases. External

applications were more preferred and used than the internal consumption of the

preparations for the treatment of skin related diseases . It was observed that, most

of the remedies consisted of single plant part and more than one method of

preparation. The study represents a contribution to the existing knowledge of folk

remedies that are in current practice for the treatment of skin diseases amongst the

rural population because of their inaccessibility to modern health care centers.

However, this mode of application of plants to cure aliments is safe with no side

effects, if taken as per the directions of the Nattuvaidya. It is hoped that, this

information will be a useful lead for phytochemists and pharmacologists. Once the

efficacy of these herbal drugs in treating skin diseases is scientifically established,

popularization of these remedies can be recommended to the healthcare provides

for wider application among the rural mass The survey indicated that, the study

area has plenty of medicinal plants to treat a wide spectrum of skin diseases.

As a result of survey report , review of literature and quantitative analysis

of data ,five traditionally important plants which score high FL and high Np for a

particular disease (Impetigo and Boils) are selected for further scientific validation

.

4.3. VALIDATION

4.3.1. PLANTS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF IMPETIGO

4.3.1.1.Genus Aristolochia . Family Aristolocaceae

4.3.1.1.A. Description

Aristolochia indica L.,

This endangered medicinal plant, locally known as Isharamulla

(Malayalam) is a shrub with long twinning stem. Twining perennial herbs;

branchlets slender. Leaves simple, alternate, 3.5-8 x 2-3.5 cm, ovate-lanceolate or

ovate-oblong, base truncate, apex acute to acuminate, glabrous; 3-5-nerved at

base; petiole to 2.5 cm long. Flowers in few-flowered axillary racemes; pedicels

7 mm long, elongate in fruits. Bracts c. 1.5 mm long, lanceolate. Perianth tube

dull brown, 1-1.5 cm long, bulbous base 3-5 mm across, green; limb 2-2.5 cm

long, linear-oblong, rounded at apex, greyish-green. Stamens 6. Ovary c. 2 mm

long; stigmas 6, fleshy. Capsule 1.5-3 x 1.5-2 cm, globose-pyriform, 6-ridged,

dehiscing from the base, after dehiscence parachute-like; seeds 4-6 mm across,

broadly deltoid, flat, winged (plate.13.1)

Flowering and fruiting season - July –March

Distribution

In India, it is distributed especially in tropical and sub-tropical regions of

India from Bengal, Chittagong, Bihar, Orissa, Gaya hills and all districts of South

India.

Common names

Eng : Indian birthwort

Hindi : Isarmul

Sanskrit : Iswari, Gandhanakuli

Mal : Eshwaramulla,Ishwaramulli

Tam : Isvaramulisedi

Kan : Sannajali-hullu,Iswar

Parts selected for the study

Leaves are used for detailed study

4.3.1.1.B. Pharmacognostic studies

4.3.1.1. B.1.Macroscopic characteristics

Leaves simple, alternate, ovate-oblong to lanceolate, entire, glabrous,

truncatae to subcordateat base, acuminate at apex. Dried leaf posses a pungent

smell without any charazcteristic taste.

4.3.1.1.B. 2. Histological studies

Microscopic studies of petiole

The T.S is slightly oval in shape with a small wide, concave depression or

flat at the adaxial side with two lateral upward projections. Lower side of the

petiole is convex or -+with two small projections forming a shallow notch in the

centre. There are three large and two small bundles arranged in the form of a

crescent. Each bundle shows radially arranged xylem vessels towards the adaxial

side and phloem towards the abaxial side. A single layer of chlorenchymatous

cells partially encircles or borders the bundles towards the lower side. Epidermis

single layered and is followed by 4-5 layers of collenchymatous hypodermis.

Lateral projections are composed of collenchymatous cells. The ground tissue is

parenchymatous arranged loosely with intercellular spaces(plate.13.2)

Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina

T.S of leaf shows a dorsiventral nature with distinct lower and upper

surface. Upper and lower side of the midrib is convex with single layered

epidermis and collenchymatous hypodermis. In the upperside collenchymatous

hypodermis forms a patch just below the epidermis. The extension of palisade

cells enters in to the midrib up to collenchymatous patch. Centre of the midrib is

encircled by a large bundle with many xylem vessels arranged in scattered

manner. Just below the xylem occurs the phloem patch. A few thin walled

pericycle fibers are seen outside the phloem. A small patch of wide

sclerenchymatous cells present above the vascular bundle. Ground tissue is

parenchymatous with intercellular spaces(Plate.13.2)

T.S of lamina shows a single layer of comparatively large epidermal cells

with thick cuticle. Upper epidermis is followed by a single layer of compactly

arranged palisade cells. Spongy parenchyma is 4-5 layered and loosely arranged.

Spongy cells are oval and tangentially arranged. Lower epidermis is single layered

and possess uniseriate multicellular trichome with hook shaped tips. Lower

epidermis possess anomocytic stomata(Plate.13.2)

Histochemical studies

Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as

lignified cells in petiole.In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem

fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.

In petiole starch grains are present in the cells that forms a border around

the bundle.While in leaf starch grains are seen in mesophyll region.Tannin cells

are very few in petiole,but it is comparatively more in leaf (Plate.13.2)

4.3.1.1.B. 3. Powder characteristics

Powder study shows fragments of upper epidermis with cells having

straight walls, fragments of lower epidermis with anomocytic stomata and wavy

walled epidermal cells, surface view of lower epidermal cells with trichome base

fragments, spiral trachieds, spongy parenchyma, longitudinal view of fibers,

fragments of spiral vessels, spiral and reticulate vessels, Cluster crystals of

calcium oxalate, surface view of epidermal cells of petiole, epidermal cells with

characteristic trichome, groups of sclerieds (Plate.13.3)

4.3.1.1. C. Phytochemical studies

4.3.1.1. C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening

The preliminary phytochemical test of the ethanol extracts of leaf

showed the presence of cardiac glycosides, alkaloids (Wagners test), steroids,

saponins and tannins. It was performed by the standard methods. Anthraquinone

Glycosides, flavanoids are totally absent in the test solution. (Table 4.8)

Table.4.8. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of Aristolochia indica L.,

Chemical compounds

Reagent

Aristolochia indica L.

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Alkaloids

Hagers Reagent + + +

Dragendroffs Reagent + + +

Mayers Reagent + + +

Wagners Reagent + + +

Carbohydrates andGlycosides

Fellings Reagent + + +

Benedicts Reagent + + +

SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +Salkowski Reagent + + +

Saponin Foamtest + + +

Phenolics andTannin

Fecl3 Sol. + + +Lead acetate + + +

AnthraquinoneGlycoside Borntragers Reagent - - -

FlavonoidsLead Acetate - - -Extract+NH3 - - -

Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -

Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard - - -( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.

4.3.1.1. C.2. HPTLC Studies

HPTLC identity test

a) Extraction of drug

Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.

The extract after complete siphoning of the respective solvent in to round bottom

flask (RBF) is distilled over water bath (1000 C ) to remove the solvent and final

traces of solvent removed under vaccum in a rotavapor .Weights of extract is

noted.

b) TLC profiling

Test solution

Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10

ml.

Solvent system

Toluene: Ethyl acetate : Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)

Procedure

Applied 3 μl of test solution on a precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E.

Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm. Developed the plate in the solvent system

in a twin trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm.

Visualization

Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and record the

Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.9, Plate No.14). HPTLC

profile of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also after

derivatisation.

Table 4.9. TLC Details of Test Solution of Aristolochia indica L.

Detection/visualisation

Under UV 254 nm Under UV 366 nm After Derivatised

Track 1,2&3

Rf valueColour of the

bandRf value

Colour of the band

Rf valueColour of the

band0.09 Greenish black 0.09 Red .09 Brown0.16 Greenish black 0.16 Red .14 Violet

0.29 Greenish black 0.20 Pale green .22 Violet

0.56 Greenish black 0.36 Red .49 Violet

.66 Greenish black .30 Red Violet

.55 Red

.62 Red

.65 Pale blue

.78 Ash colour

4.3.1.1.D. Biological activities

4.3.1.1.D.1. Anti -microbial studies of fresh juice of Aristolochia indica L

Anti-bacterial studies

In the present study, the aquous extract of leaf showed maximum

inhibitory activity against test organisms in different degrees except against

Pseudomonas aeruginosa ( MTCC 741) (Plate no.15) given in Table 4.10.

Table.4.10. Anti bacterial property of Fresh juice of Aristolochia indica L. leaf

Test MicroorganismZone of inhibition in mm

25 µl 50 µl 75 µl 100 µlGentamicin

50 µlStaphylococcus aureus(MTCC 3160)

10 13 15 17 30

Bacillus subtilis ( MTCC 441)

10 15 17 20 31

Escherichia coli(MTCC 401)

nil 4 8 10 25

Klebsiella pneumoniae( MTCC 3384)

nil nil 5 8 25

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 741)

nil nil nil nil 26

4.3.1.2. Genus -Derris : Family- Fabaceae


Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.

The plant is a large woody climbing shrubs; branchlets brown, lenticellate.

Leaflets 5-11, 2-5x1-2.5 cm, elliptic, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, apex obtuse,

acute sometimes emarginated, base rounded to cuneate, sub coriaceous, lateral

nerves 7-9 in pairs, slender. Racemes axillary, 8-25 cm long, with flowers

clustered on brown-pubescent rachis. flowers 7-9 mmlong,pedicelsc.4mm long,

slender. Calyx 2.5-3mm long,shortly adpressed tomentose,lobes obscure.Petals

pink or white; standard 7-8 mm long;ovate-orbicular. Stamens 10, alternate ones

short. Pods .5-6.5x1-1.4 cm, oblong, narrowly winged on the upper suture,

minutely adpressed tomentose, seeds 2-4 ca.8 mm long, reniform, compressed

dark brown(plate no.16.1)

Distribution

It is found to occur in the forests of Assam, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and

southern India.

Common names

Eng : Jewel vine, Hog creeper

Hindi : Gonj

Mal : Thodan valli

Tam : Koti-p-punki

Kan : Hallebilu


Leaves of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth is selected for the study.


4.3.1.2. B.1. Macroscopic characteristics

Leaflets 5-11, 2-5 x 1-2.5 cm, elliptic, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, base

rounded to cuneate, apex obtuse, acute, sometimes emarginate, subcoriaceous;

lateral nerves 7-9 pairs, slender. Dried leaf shows prominent mid rib with bark

brown in the abaxial side and light brown in the adaxial side without any

characteristic taste or smell.

4.3.1.2. B.2. Histological studies


T.S of petiole is rounded in shape with wavy margin and possesses many

multicellular tricomes. Epidemis is single layered with thick cuticle. Epidermis is

followed by a broad chlorenchymatous cortex composed of thick walled round or

polygonal cells with small intercellular spaces. Centre is occupied by a single

vascular bundle. Xylem vessels are seen in radial rows and are arranged in the

shape of deep U. Inner and outer phloem present. Outer phloem consist of solitary

or small groups of fibres. Most of the chlorenchyma cell contains prismatic

crystalas of calcium oxalate (plate no.16.2)


Detailed T.S of leaf shows a single layer of upper and lower epidermis

with a thin layer of cuticle .Cells of the upper epidermis are large oval or round in

C.S and devoid of stomata . Cells of the lower epidermis are comparatively small

in size with a few unicellular finger like trichomes and a number of anisocytic

stomata. In the midrib portion just below the upper epidermis 1-2 layers of

collenchymatous cells are seen in between palisade cells which extends in to the

midrib. In the lower region collenchymatous cells are seen in single layer just

inner to the lower epidermis crescent shaped vascular bundle is embedded in the

parenchymatous tissue . Vascular bundle consist of single row of xylem vessels

arranged in radial rows towards the lower side. Medullary rays are uniseriate. The

vascular bundle covered by 3-4 layers of sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. Many

of the parenchyma cells of the midrib contains large prismatic crystals of calcium

oxalate .

In the lamina portion palisade cells are in two layers and are followed by

4-5 layers of spongy mesophyll. At intervals vascular strands are present with

sclerenchyatous covering which extends upto the upper epidermis towards the

upper side (plate no. (plate no.16.2)).


In histochemical studies lignified cells are represented as a continuous

band of Phloem fibers and xylem vessels in petiole.In leaf lignin is present in

the xylem vessels and phloem fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.

In petiole a few starch grains are present in the ground parenchyma cells of

midrib and petiole . (plate no.16.2))..

4.3.1.2.B.3. Powder characteristics

Powder microscopy shows fragments of upper and lower epidermis in

surface view. Fragments of upper epidermis seen associated with underlying

palisade cells; Lower epidermis possess anisocytic stomata; Groups of crystals

fibres associated with xylem elements; cross sectional view of fragments of

epidermis with palisade cells; entire and fragments of trichomes, fragments of

scleried, prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate seen scattered throughout the

section. Powder shows fragments of upper and lower epidermis in surface view.

Fragments of upper epidermis is seen associated with underlying palisade cells.

Lower epidermis possess anisocytic stomata


lignified cells in petiole. In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem


In leaf starch grains are seen in mesophyllregion.Tannin cells are very few

in petiole,but it is comparatively more in leaf (plate no.16.3).

4.3.1.2.C. Phytochemical Studies

4.3.1.2.C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening

Ethanol extract of Derris scandens leaf showed the presence of

carbohydrates, steroids, tannins,terpinoids, anthraquinoes, flavonoides. Alkaloids

are totally absent in the extract. (Table.4.11)

Table.4.11. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth

Chemical compounds

Reagent

Ethanolic extract of Derris scandens Benth


Alkaloids

Hagers Reagent _ _ _

Dragendroffs Reagent

_ _ _

Mayers Reagent _ _ _

Wagners Reagent _ _ _

Carbohydrates and Glycosides



SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +

Salkowski Reagent + + +

Saponin Foamtest _ _ _

Phenolics and

Tannin

Fecl3 Sol. + + +

Lead acetate + + +

Anthraquinone

GlycosideBorntragers Reagent

+ + +

FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +

Extract+NH3 + + +

Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -

Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH + + +

Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +

( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.

4.3.1.2.C.2. HPTLC Studies

i) Ethanol extract of leaf of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.,

Extraction


Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10 ml.

Standard solution

Dissolved 1 mg of standard umbelliferone in Ethanol.in a 10-ml

volumetric flask and make up the volume.

Solvent system

Toluene: Ethyl acetate: Formic acid ( 7 : 3 : 0.2) were selected as best

solvent system among different combinations.

Procedure

Applied 3 μl of test solution and 1 μl of standard solution separately on a

precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E. Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm.

Developed in automatic developing chamber using solvent system in a twin

trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm with relative humidity 49.4%.

Scanning were done at 366 nm.

Visualization

Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and recorded

the Rfvalue and colour of the resolved bands (Plate 17 ).

Evaluation

A band (Rf 0.45) corresponding to umbelliferone is visible at 366 nm in

both the standard and test solution tracks.( Table.4. 12)

Table.4. 12. TLC Details of Test Solution of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth

leaf.

At 254 nm At 366 nm

Rf value Colour of the bandRf

valueColour of the band

0.2 Greenish black 0.22 Red



0.50 Greenish black 0.45 Blue





Calibration curve

Apply 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 μl of the standard solution (corresponding to 0.1,

0.2, 0.3, 0. 4 and 0.5 μg of umbelliferone per spot) on the TLC plate. Developed

the plate in the solvent system in a twin trough chamber to distance of 8 cm. Dried

it and scannned densitometrically at 366 nm. Recorded the respective peak areas

and prepare a calibration curve by plotting peak area vs concentration of

umbelliferone applied.

Estimation of umbelliferone in the drug

Applied 3 μl each of the test and standard solutions on the TLC plate.

Develoed the plate in the solvent system to obtain the chromatogram and

determine the area of the peak corresponding to that of umbelliferone in the test

solution as described above for the calibration curve. Calculated the amount of

umbelliferone present in the sample from calibration curve of umbelliferone

applied.

The estimation is carried out in triplicate. The percentage of umbelliferone

ranges from 0.041 to 0.045 in the samples analyzed.

4.3.1.2. D. Biological activities

4.3.1.2.D.1.Anti-microbial property of Derris scandens Benth

In the present study the ethanolic extract of leaf showed inhibitory activity

against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that gram

positive strains Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis are highly susceptible

to ethanolic extract of leaf of D. scandens in well diffusion method. The gram

negative strains, Klebsiella pneumoniae shows moderate activity. The strains

Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli are resistant to ethanolic extract of

leaf of D. scandens. Compared to gentamicin it is showing moderated activity

(Table.4.13)(plate.18)

Table.4.13.Anti bacterial property of leaf Ethanol extract of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.leaf

Test 30mgMicroorganism

Zone of inhibition in mm

10 mg(µl)

20mg(µl)

30 mg (µl)

40 mg(µl)

Gentamicin 50 µl

Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 3160

10 13 17 20 30

Bacillus subtilis|MTCC 441

2 4 8 12 31

Escherichia coliMTCC 401

nil nil nil nil 25

Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 3384

nil nil 3 4 25

Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741

nil nil nil nil 26

4.3.1.3.Genus Myristica ; Family Myristicaceae

4.3.1.3. A. Description

Myristica fragrans Houtt .

Myristica fragrans Houtt., commonly known as Jaiphal and Javitri in

India, belongs to the family Myristicaceae. It produces two spices, nutmeg and

mace. Nutmeg is the seed kernel inside the fruit and mace is the fleshy red, net

like skin covering (aril) on the kernel. It is a spreading aromatic evergreen tree

usually growing to 5 to 13 metres high, occasionally 20 metres. Leaves simple,

alternate, estipulate; petiole 9-15 mm long, slender, grooved above, glabrous;

lamina 9-18 x 2.5-6 cm, elliptic, elliptic-lanceolate, elliptic-oblanceolate or

elliptic-obovate, base acute or attenuate, margin entire, glabrous, shiny above and

glaucous beneath, coriaceous; lateral nerves 10-14 pairs, pinnate, prominent,

intercostae reticulate. Flowers unisexual, yellow; male flowers: 3-5 in axillary

cymes, urceolate; pedicels drooping; bracts deciduous; bracteoles persistent;

peranth 3-lobed, tawny villous; stamens 9-12, connate in to a central stipitate

coloum; female flowers: urceolate, larger than the male, few in axillary cymes;

pedicels drooping; bracts deciduous; bracteoles persistent; perianth 3-lobed, tawny

villous; ovary superior, ovoid, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; stigmas connate, 2-lobed. Fruit

a capsule, yellow to 5 cm long; aril red, lacinate; seed brown, shiny seed (nutmeg)

surrounded by a red aril (mace). Seeds (nutmegs) are broadly ovoid (2 to 3 cm

long), firm, fleshy, whitish and traversed by red-brown veins. When fresh, the aril

(mace) is bright scarlet becoming more horny, brittle and a yellowish-brown

colour when dried (Purseglove, 1968). The trees do not give flowers until around

9 years old, but once start flowering they continue to do so for further 75 years.

The trees bear 2 to 3 crops a year. The seeds (nutmegs) need 3 to 6 weeks to dry

before they are ready for use (Plate. 19.1)

Flowering and fruiting season - Dec-August

Distribution

It is indigenous to the Moluccas and Banda islands in the south pacific

although it is seldom found truly wild. It is now cultivated in tropical regions,

especially in Indonesia, Grenadain the West indies, India and Srilanka.

Common names

Eng : Nutmeg tree, Mace tree

Hindi : Jayphal

Sanskrit : Jatiphalah,Jati

Mal : Jattikka

Tam : Jatimaram

Kan : Jajik


The tender leaves of Myristica fragrans Houtt. is selected for the study .


4.3.1.3.B.1. Macroscopic characteristics

Myristica fragrans Houtt.has pointed dark green leaves (5x15 cm,2x7

cm)are arranged alternately along the branches and are born on petiole about 1

c.m long. Upper leaf surface is shiny and lower portionnerved. Dried leaf turns

brown and posses an aromatic oily smell and characteristic taste.



The T.S of petiole is more or less round with a concavity in the adaxial

side. In the centre large 3 large bundles are seen. Epidermis is single layered

with a wide parenchymatous ground tissue with centrally arranged vascular

bundle. Towards the adaxial side parenchymatous cells of the ground tissue is in

barrel or rectangular shaped. It is arranged in a linear manner. Large oil cells are

seen embedded in the ground tissue towards the periphery. Vascular bundle

shows a few xylem vessels towards the adaxial side and phloem towards the

abaxial side. A few starch grains containing cells seen scattered in the ground

tissue (Plate 19.2)


Leaf shows a dorsiventral nature with distinct upper and lower side.

Midrib of the leaf is convex on both sides. Epidermis is single layered with one or

two cells of collenchymatous hypodermis. In the adaxial side hypodermis is

followed by 2-3 layers of palisade like chlorenchymatous cells which is the

extension of palisade cells of the lamina. Oil cells are scattered in the ground

tissue. In the centre a large number of vascular bundles are arranged in the

horizontal band. T.S of lamina is also exhibit dorsiventral nature with distinct

upper epidermis and lower epidermis. Upper epidermis is followed by 2-3 layers

of short radially elongated palisade cells and a wide zone of spongy mesophyll

cells composed of tangentially elongated large cells with wide intercellular space

towards the lower side and 2-3 layers of polygonal cells in the middle. Large oil

cavities are present in the mesophyll. Lower epidermis possess sunken

anomocytic stomata and peltate trichomes (Plate 19.2)





A few starch grains are seen in the parenchyma cells of petiole and

midrib.Oil cavities are present in the lamina (Plate 19.2)

4.3.1.3.B.3..Powder characteristics

Powder study shows fragments of upper epidermis with beaded and wavy

walls, fragments of lower epidermis with sunken stomata and peltate hairs and

scattered small groups of sclerieds, oil cavity, fragments of thick walled epidermal

cells of petiole in surface views with stomata, oil cells with oil globules (Plate

19.3).

4.3.1.3.C. Phytochemical analysis

4.3.1.3.C.1.Preliminary phytochemical screening

Ethanol extract of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf showed the presence of

carbohydrates, steroids, tannins,terpinoids and flavonoides. (Table 4.14)

Table.4.14. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts

Chemical compounds

ReagentMyristica fragrans

Sample.1 Sample.2 Sample.3

Alkaloids

Hagers Reagent - - -

Dragendroffs Reagent - - -

Mayers Reagent - - -

Wagners Reagent - - -






Saponin Foamtest - - -

Phenolics andTannin

Fecl3 Sol. + + +

Lead acetate + + +

AnthraquinoneGlycoside

Borntragers Reagent- - -

FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +

Extract+NH3 + + +


Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -



4.3.1.3.C.2. HPTLC identity test

Extraction



Solvent system

Toluene :Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)

Procedure




Visualization


Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.15 Plate 20). HPTLC profile

of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also aftr

derivatisation. (Plate.21)

Table.4. 15. TLC Details of Test Solution of Myristica fragrans Houtt.

At 254 nm At 366 nm Derivatised

Rf

valueColour of the

bandRf

valueColour of the

bandRf value

Colour of the band

0.17 Dark Green 0.17 Red .09 Violetl0.22 Dark Green 0.22 Red .14 Violet

0.27 Dark Green 0.27 Red .27 Violet

0.30 Dark Green 0.30 Red .57 Violet.72 Dark Green .64 Red .79 Violet

83 Dark Green .70 Red

.74 Red

.78 Red

.82 Red

4.3.1.3.C.3. GC/MS analysis of essential oil of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf.

Hydrodistillation of leaf yield 0.05% of essential oil. GC/MS analysis is

performed on GC instrument : 6850 network gc system, agilent technologies. MS

: 5975c vlmsd with triple axis detector, agilent technologies (column : HP 5 MS

Nominal length: 30.0 m Nominal diameter: 250.00 μm, nominal film thick0 ness:

0.25 μm)and temperature programmed as 600-1500 at 20 C rise/mins. And 150-

2500 at 5 rise per minute. The carrier gas is He at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min and the

split mode at a ratio of 1:20.The injection port is set at 2200 C. Quadrupole MS

operating parameters were at interface temperature 2400 C ;electron impact

ionization at 70 eV with scan mass range of 50-500 m/z at a sampling rate of

1.0.scn/s.

About 41 compounds were identified in leaf oil, of which α-pinene

predominates in the oil with 13.78%. 4-terpeneon (6.81%), Terpenolen (5.22),

Elemicin (4.54%) were the other major compounds present in the oil analysed.

Minor compounds included β-myrcene, α- phellandrene, δ-3-carene, α-terpinene,

α- terpinolene, α-terpineol, t-2-menthen-1-ol and myristicin. Madhavan et al.

(1991) also reported similar composition of leaf oil of M. fragrans. (Plate.22).

The percentage, composition of essential oil in Myristica fragrans Houtt is given

in Table 4.16.

Table.4.16. Percentage, Composition of Essential Oil from Myristica fragrans:

Retention Time

(minutes)n-alkane index Compounds

Abundance (%)

5.87 902 α - Thujene 1.087

6.10 948 α-Pinene 13.78

6.53 943 Camphene 0.885

8.04 958 β-Myrcene 3.03

8.52 969 α- Phyllandrene 2.76

8.78 948 3 Carene 4.52

9.03 919 4-Carene 2.75

9.32 104 p-Cymere 0.774

10.41 976 β-Cis-ocimene 2.82

10.92 998 - Terpinen 3.97

12.35 1052 Terpenolen 5.22

12.98 1082 Linalool 2.23

13.95 11094-Isopropyl-1-methyl-2-

cyclohhexeneol0.36

17.27 1137 4-Terpeneon 6.81

17.94 1143 α-Terpeneol 2.15

23.42 1277 Bornyl acetate 0.28

23.56 1327 Saffron 0.604

27.25 1344 α-Cubebene 0.701

28.88 1221 Copane 2.98

29.66 1339 β-cubebene 0.002

29.81 1398 β-Elemen 0.031

30.78 1361 Methyl eugenol 0.023

31.39 1494 Caryophylene 0.977

35.04 1471 β-Cuebene 1.496

35.93 1465 -Elemen 0.796

36.21 1440 α-Muurolene 0.275

36.31 1379 Methyl isoeugenol 0.041

36.93 1435 - Muurolene 0.012

36.59 1440 Cardinene 0.014

36.78 1500 β-Bisbolene 0.051

37.72 1516 Myristicin 3.917

Retention Time

(minutes)n-alkane index Compounds

Abundance (%)

38.03 14404-Isopropyl-1,6-dimethyl-

1,2,3,4,4a,7-hexahydronaphthalene

0.025

40.01 1550 Elemicin 4.54

40.57 1536 Sapputhenol 0.021

40.90 1530 Globulol 0.032

41.32 1530 Ledol 0.009

41.80 1614 Champacol 0.012

42.28 1581 Methoxy eugenol 0.045

43.58 1626 -eudesmol 0.032

44.17 1580 Tau-cardenol 0.281

44.43 1580 Delt-cardenol 0.022

44.55 1593 β-eudesmol 0.024

44.69 1598 α- eudesmol 0.013

44.87 1580 α- cardenol 0.238

45.02 1568 Iso-elemiane 0.468

45.52 1664 Bulnesol 0.015

55.17 1968 Hexadecanoic acid 0.098

56.22 1978 Manoyl oxide 0.041

56.73 1789 Caurene 0.011

58.32 2045 Phytol 0.067

58.83 2175 Oleic acid 0.065


4.3.1.3.D.1. Anti-microbial property of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf

In the present study, the aquous extract of tender leaf showed inhibitory

activity against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that

gram positive strains staphylococcus aureus is highly susceptible. Bacillus subtilis

shows less activity compared to staphylococcus aureus. The gram negative

strains Escherichia coli, gram positive strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa shows

moderate activity. Klebsiella pneumoniae is resistant to aquous extract of leaf of

Myristica fragrans.(Plate.23)

Table.4.17.Anti bacterial property of Fresh juice of Myristica fragrans Houtt. leaf

Test Microorganism


25 µl 50µl 75 µl 100 µlGentamicin

50 µl

Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 3160

2 4 7 9 30

Bacillus subtilis MTCC 441

nil 6 8 12 31

Escherichia coli MTCC 401

nil nil 6 8 25

Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384

nil nil nil nil 25


nil nil 2 4 26

4.3.2. PLANTS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF BOILS

4.3.2 1. Bischofia javanica Blume Family : Euphorbiaceae


Bischofia javanica Blume

Bischofia javanica blume is a large deciduous tree with tall cylindrical

trunk and a girth of 1.5-2.5m usually with a spreading crown. It is commonly

known as Bishop wood found in the sub-Himalayan forests from Kumaun

eastwards throughout eastern India. Only two species are found Bischofia

javanica Blume and B. Polycarpa. B. javanica is grown as an ornamental tree.

Deciduous trees, up to 30 m high; bark brown, thin, scaly; exudation red,

watery; branches spreading. Leaves 3-foliate, alternate, 5.5-18 x 3-9 cm, elliptic,

elliptic-ovate, ovate, obovate or orbicular, base acute or round, apex acuminate,

margin serrate, glabrous, membranous; stipules lateral, cauducous; rachis 7-20 cm

long, stout, grooved above, glabrous; petiolule of lateral leaflets 3-20 mm long, of

terminal leaflet 15-40 mm long, slender, glabrous; lateral nerves 6-9 pairs,

slender, prominent, intercostae reticulate, faint. Flowers unisexual, green, in

axillary and lateral pedunculed paniculate racemes. Male flowers: 2-3 mm across;

pedicels very short, slender; tepals 5, obovate, concave, imbricate, concealing the

anthers; stamens 5, filaments short; anthers globular; pistillode short, broad.

Female flowers: 2-35 mm across; pedicels longer than in the male, stout,

elongating in fruit; tepals 5, linear lanceolate; ovary superior, globose, 3-celled,

exserted, ovules 2, in each cell; style 3, linear; stigmatic through out on the inner

face. Fruit a berry, globose 7 mm across, reddish-brown; seeds 3, trigonus (plate

no.24.1)

Flowering and fruiting season - April to May

Distribution

It is common but usually found scattered in primary and old secondary dry

and deciduous forest or monsoon forest but also in evergreen forest, wamp and

teak forest, sometimes in more open places like savanna tracts. It is more frequent

on river banks, hady ravine and prefers deep loose soils such as sandy, rocky or

loamy soils with sufficient water content.

Common names

Eng : Bishop weed

Hindi : Bhillar,Paniala

Mal : Thomathari

Tam : Malachithiyan,Nannal,Thondi

Kan : Jajikayi


Leaves are used for detailed study



The leaves of the plants are green in colour with length of 4-8 inches. The

leaves are alternate, 3-foliate (sometimes 5-foliate on luxuriant young shoots)

common petiole 3-8 inch long. The leaflets are 3-6 inch by 1.53 inch, elliptic or

ovate-oblong, acuminate, usually crenate, glabrous, terminal leaflet is much

longer. The shape is elliptical, venation is pinnate. Leaf margin is found to be

serrulate and arrangement is alternate. Odour and taste are not characteristic.


Microscopic studies of Rachis

The TS.of rachis shows schield shape with wavy ring of vascular bundle in

the centre having infoldings towards the adaxial side and a wavy strip of small

vascular bundle towards the comparatively large bundle on the centre. The adaxial

side of the petiole is flat and abaxial side is deeply convex. Epidermis is double

layered with thick cuticle. This is followed by a wide zone of collenchymatous

hypodermis. Ground tissue is parenchymatous with intercellular spaces. Cells are

oval to polygonal. Some of the cells contain tannin deposition and prismatic

crystals. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed. Each vascular

bundle consists of radially arranged xylem vessels towards the centre and phloem

towards periphery. Tannin depositions are more in phloem region and xylem

vessels when compared to ground parenchyma. A narrow strip of pericyclic fibers

are present external to the phloem in each vascular bundle (Plate.24.2).


Ts of petiole shows schield shape similar to rachis. A wavy ring of

vascular bundle is present in the centre having infolding towards the adaxial side

and a wavy strip of small vascular bundle towards the comparatively large bundle

on the centre. The adaxial side of the petiole is flat and abaxial side is deeply

convex. Epidermis is double layered with thick cuticle. This is followed by a wide

zone of collenchymatous hypodermis. Ground tissue is parenchymatous with

intercellular spaces. Cells are oval to polygonal. Some of the cells contain tannin

deposition and prismatic crystals. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and

closed. Each vascular bundle consists of radially arranged xylem vessels towards

the centre and phloem towards periphery. Tannin depositions are more in phloem

region and xylem vessels when compared to ground parenchyma. A narrow strip

of pericyclic fibers are present external to the phloem in each vascular bundle

(Plate.24.2).


T.S of lamina shows dorsiventral nature. Midrib is convex on abaxial and

adaxial side. A small patch of collenchymas is present just inner to the epidermis

on both side. Centre of the midrib is occupied by a discontinuous ring of vascular

bundle with radial groups of xylem towards the centre and phloem towards

periphery. Pericyclic fibres are present outer to phloem. Rosette crystals of

calcium oxalate is present in the parenchyma cells of ground tissue. Pallisade cells

are extended in to the midrib up to the collenchymas patch. Tannin cells are also

seen in the midrib portion. In the lamina portion upper epidermis is double

layered. One layered palisade tissue, where reset of the lamina portion is occupied

by oval shaped spongy parenchyma. Large tangentially elongated schizogenous

cavity lined by 2-3 rows of epithelial cells. Large rosette crystals and tannin cells

are embedded in the mesophyll region. Lower epidermis possesses a large number

of anisocytic stomata (Plate 24.2).



lignified cells in rachis and petiole. In leaf lignin cells are represented as a

continuous band of pericyclic fibers. Oil globules are present in the

trichome.Starch grains are present outer to the vascular bundle.(Plate 24.2).

Powder characteristics

Powder shows fragments of tannin deposition, longitudinal view of

pericyclic fibers, fragments of lower epidermis with stomata, rosette crystals

xylem with spiral thickening, longitudinal view of pitted tracheids, fragments of

upper epidermis (Plate 24.3).

4.3.2.1.C. Phytochemical studies


In the present analysis positive result were obtained to alksloids,

Glycosides, steroids, Phenolics, tannins, flavonoids triterpenes, and Coumarins

and all the class of compounds posses antibacterial activity (Table 4.18).

Table.4.18 .Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts

Chemical compounds

ReagentBischofia javanica


Alkaloids

Hagers Reagent + + +






Benedicts Reagent+ + +



Saponin Foamtest + + +

Phenolics andTannin




FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +Extract+NH3 + + +


Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -



HPTLC identity test

Extraction



Solvent system

Toluene : Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)

Procedure




Visualization


Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.19, Plate 3.2). HPTLC profile

of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also aftr

derivatisation (plate.25).

Table. 4.19. TLC Details of Test Solution


Rf

valueColour of the

bandRf

valueColour of the

bandRf value

Colour of the band

0.07 Greenish black 0.06 Red 0.08 Blue

0.20 Greenish black 0.09 Red 0.17 Violet

0.29 Greenish black 0.19 Red 0.27 Ash

0.50 Greenish black 0.23 Red 0.30 Blue

0.63 Greenish black 0.30 Red 0.53 Violet

0.79 Greenish black 0.50 Red 0.62

Greenish black 0.63 Red 0.77

Greenish black 0.70 Red 0.83

0.74 Ash colour


4.1.1.1.D.1. Anti -microbial studies



positive strains staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and gram negative strains

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, ,Pseudomonas aeruginosa is highly

susceptible to ethanolic extract of leaf of Bischofia javanica.(Plate.26) is given in

Table 4.20.

Table.4.20.Anti bacterial property of leaf ethanol extract of Bischofia javanica Blume

Test Microorganism


(10mg)20 µl

(20mg)40µl

(30mg)60 µl

()80 µlGentamicin

50 µl

Staphylococcus aureusMTCC 3160 10 12 15 18 30

Bacillus subtilisMTCC 441 nil 4 10 12 31

Escherichia coliMTCC 401 6 8 10 14 25

Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384 6 10 13 17 26


610 12 13 26

4.3.2.2. Vitex negundo L. Family : Lamiaceae


Vitex negundo L.

The plant is commonly known as Nirkundi or Nallanocci. It is an aromatic

large shrub or small tree about 3m in height with quadrangular branches and

almost found throughout India, ascending to 1500m in the outer Himalaya, fairly

common in waste lands, on road side, the banks or streams or in moist places near

deciduous forests. : Shrubs or small trees; purple pubescent all over, aromatic.

Leaves 3-5-foliolate; leaflets 6-13 x 2-5 cm, narrowly oblong or elliptic to

lanceolate, base acute, apex acuminate. Panicles terminal, 10-25 cm long. Calyx

5-toothed obconic, c. 3 mm long, teeth triangular. Corolla deep purple to violet,

ca. 7 mm across, hypocrateriform; tube 3-5 mm long, puberulent without, upper

lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed with the middle lobe larger, obovate, undulate-

margined, other lobes shorter, subequal, obtuse. Stamens 4, filaments purple.

Ovary c. 1 mm long; style purple; stigma 2-fid. Drupe 3-5 mm across, globose,

purple or black. (Plate 27.1)

Flowering and fruiting season - Feb-July

Distribution: Indo-Malesia.Moist deciduous forests, also in plains

Common names

Eng : five leaved chaste tree

Hindi : Bhillar,Paniala

Sanskrit : Nirgundi

Mal : Karinochi

Tam : Malachithiyan,Nannal,Thondi

Parts selected for the study: Leaves are used for the study

4.3.2.2. B. Pharmacognostic studies


Leaves opposite, digitately 3-5 foliolate with leaflets lanceolate, glabrous

above, grey pubescnet beneath, acute or rounded at base, acuminate at apex with

characteristic odour and slightly bitter taste

4.3.2.2.B. 2. Histological studies

Microscopic studies of Rachis

T.S of rachis is circular in outline. The epidermis is covered with plenty of

trichomes .The hypodermis is collenchymatous. The hypodermis at its upperside

slightly protrudes inwardly. Xylem and phloem forms a crescent shape in the

centre and it is embedded in the parenchymatous ground tissue. The two ends of

xylem and phloem is connected to the two vascular bundles situated underneath

the chlorenchymatous band. The pericycle is discontinuous due to the presence of

lignified fibers. Cells of the pith are pitted and lignified: cluster crystals of

calcium oxalate are present throughout the parenchymatous cells of the section

(Plate 27.2).


The cross section of petiole is oval in outline. Plenty of trichomes are

present in the epidermis like that of rachis. The adaxial side of the petiole slightly

concave with two wings on either side. The hypodermis is collenchymatous. The

xylem and phloem forms a crescent shape similar to rachis. The pericycle fibers

are present in the centre of the ground tissue. Pith shows the presence of Lignified

and pitted cells .Calcium oxalate crystals are present in the parenchyma cells.


The section is strongly convex on its abaxial side and somewhat flattened

on its adaxial side .The xylem and phloem forms a U-shape in the centre. 3-5 row

of palisade cells are present in the lamina portion and it extends up to the centrally

located vascular bundle, Below the epidermis lies the collenchymatous tissue: the

remaining ground tissue of the midrib being parenchymatous. The upper

epidermis of the lamina composed of polygonal , cells devoid of stomata: thin

cuticle and bears few trichomes; the cells of lower epidermis are much smaller in

size, stomata and trichomes are plenty. Both simple, unicellular, and a few

multicellular uniseriate 2-6 celledtricomes are present.The parenchymatous cells

contain resette crystals and oil globules. (Plate 27.2).




fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle. In leaf starch grains are seen in

mesophyll region.Tannin cells are very few in petiole, but it is comparatively

more in leaf (Plate 27.2).

4.3.2.2.B.3. Powder characteristics

It shows various types of plenty of trichomes consisting of simple,

unicellular, short, conical, with pointed or blunt apex, collapsed or warty,

multicellular trichomes are 2-7 celled ,often abruptly bendt at its apex, collapsed

or warty, occasionally branched ;glandular trichomes are sessile with globular 4

celled or one celled head, or stalked one, with unicellular head and unicellular

stalk and unicellular stalk with bicellular head; occasionally transversely cut

fragments of an arc of epidermis covered with trichomes ,fragments of

transversely cut lamina, upper epidermal thick cells of lamina devioid of stomata,

lower epidermal cells in surface view with plenty of anomocytic stomata and

trichomes are present. Rectangular parencymatous cells of the rachis containing

calcium oxalate crystals, lignified pitted pith cells of the rachis, vascular strands

of the rachis with pitted squarish cells of the parenchyma are seen (Plate 27.3).

4.3.2.2.C. Phytochemical studies


The preliminary phytochemical test of the ethanolic leaf extract of Vitex

negundo shows the presence of carbohydrates , alkaloids, steroids, flavanoids,and

terpenoids..It was performed by the standard methods (Table . 4.21 )

Table.4.21.Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts

Chemical compounds

ReagentVitex negundo

Alkaloids

Hagers Reagent

Sample .1 Sample.2 Sample.3

+ + +




Carbohydrates and

Glycosides


Benedicts Reagent+ + +



Saponin Foamtest - - -

Phenolics andTannin




FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +Extract+NH3 + + +

Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -

Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.

4.3.2.2.C.2. HPTLC studies

a) Extraction of drug


The extract after complete siphoning of the respective solvent in to round bottom

flask (RBF) is distilled over water bath (1000 C ) to remove the solvent and final

traces of solvent removed under vaccum in a rotary evaporator . Weights of

extract is noted.

b) TLC profiling

Test solution

Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10

ml.

Solvent system

Toluene :Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)

Procedure




Visualization


Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.9, Plate No…...). HPTLC

profile of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also after

derivatisation.

Table.4. 22. TLC Details of Test Solution of Vitex negundo L.


Rf

valueColour of the

bandRf

valueColour of the

bandRf value

Colour of the band

0.19 Dark Green 0.17 Red 0.09 Violetl0.27 Dark Green 0.22 Red 0.14 Violet

0.34 Dark Green 0.27 Red 0.57 Violet

0.48 Dark Green 0.30 Red 0.64 Red0.64 Dark Green 0.49 Red 0.79 Violet

0.71 Dark Green 0.52 Red 0.82 Violet

0.78 Dark Green 0.57 Dark

0.83 Dark Green 0.64 Red0.71 Red0.74 Red0.78 Red0.83 Red

4.3.2.2.C.3. GC/MS analysis of essential oil of vitex negundo L. leaf.

Hydrodistillation of leaf yield 0.03% of essential oil. GC/MS analysis is

performed on GC instrument : 6850 network gc system, agilent technologies. MS

: 5975c vlmsd with triple axis detector, agilent technologies (column : HP 5 MS

Nominal length: 30.0 m Nominal diameter: 250.00 μm, nominal film thickness:

0.25 μm)and temperature programmed as 600-1500 at 20 C rise/mins. And 150-

2500 at 5 rise per minute. The carrier gas is He at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min and the

split mode at a ratio of 1:10.The injection port is set at 2200 C. Quadrupole MS

operating parameters were at interface temperature 2400 C ;electron impact

ionization at 70 eV with scan mass range of 50-500 m/z at a sampling rate of

1.0.scn/s.

About 39 compounds were identified in leaf oil, (Table 4.23) of which

Ledol predominates in the oil with 17.14%., Caryophyllene 13.77 % , β-

Phyllandrene (7.39%), the other major compounds present in the oil

analysed.(Plate.29).

.Table.4.23. Percentage, Composition of Essential Oil from Vitex negundo L.

Retention Time

n-alkane index Compounds Abundance (%)

5.8 928 α-Thujene 0.55

6.01 931 α-Pinene 0.67

7.29 1030 β-Phyllandrene 7.39

Retention Time

n-alkane index Compounds Abundance (%)

7.46 959Amyl vinyl carbanol

1.70

7.72 952 Amyl ethyl ketone 0.07

7.88 979 β-myrcene 0.98

8.06 985Amyl ethyl carbenol

0.06

8.90 1008 α-Terpenen 0.56

9.23 1076 O-cymene 0.91

9.41 1020 D-limonene 0.87

9.53 1023 Eucalypteol 0.67

10.07 1048Benzene

Acetaldehyde0.56

10.76 1047 -Terpenon 0.43

12.18 996 3-carenen 0.58

12.82 1081 β-Linalool 3.1

13.11 1094Isovaleric acid isopentyl ester 0.08

13.26 1093 Amyl iso valerate 0.07

17.01 1161 4-Terpeneol 1.3

17.80 1172 Terpeneol 0.32

21.66 1215 Nerol 0.11

29.41 1361 β-demaceone 0.46

29.84 1387 β-elemen 0.74

30.76 1436 α-gurjunene 0.87

31.38 1424 Caryopyllene 13.77

33.34 1456 α- Caryopyllene 1.08

39.11 1535 Elemol 1.11

40.79 1576Caryophyllene

Oxide1.01

41.44 1597 Ledol 17.14

43.60 1627 α-Eudesmol 0.12

44.55 1644 β-Eudesmol 0.25

4.3.2.2.D Biological Activities

4.3.2.2.D.1. Antimicrobial Studies



positive strains staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and gram negative strains

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes susceptible to aquous extract of leaf of

Vitex negundo . The gram negative strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa is resistant

to aqueous extract of Vitex negundo. The details is given in Table 4.24.

Table.4.24. Anti bacterial property Fresh juice of Vitex negundo L. leaf

Test Microorganism


25µl 50µl 75µl 100 µlGentamicin

50 µl

Staphylococcus aureusMTCC 3160 nil 3 9 12 30

Bacillus subtilisMTCC 441 nil 2 5 10 31

Escherichia coliMTCC 401 nil nil 6 7 25

Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384 nil nil 5 8 25

Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741 nil nil nil nil 26

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