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409
Scftflt jafl fim m sea
Trad* baa played a role •£ paramount importance
la the ec enemy of Kashmir during the period under survey.
It provided a means of livelihood to a large population,
stimulated the indlgen4eus Industrie* and added to the
sources •£ revenue to the state* It aIso removed the
anxieties *f the people by providing them the necessities
•f life* either by importing them from fereig* lands or
by transporting from producing to the distributing areas
of the valley* M#re important is the fact that it was
conducive to foster the cultural exchange and friendly
relations of Kashmir with other countries*
Sktaoial Iraflfti
Kashmir enjoyed a brisk internal trade during the
period. One of the most important factors which contributed
to the development of the internal trade# was the rural-
urban interdependance• It can not be gainsaid that the
rural areas were, for the most part# self-sufficient yet
they were dependant on urban areas for various necessities
of life*4 both of ordinary as well as extraordinary nature*
Ft»r example# the salt which was an important ingredient
of fe»d of all the people# of Kashnir* was Imported fren
outsIde and deposited in the urban areas* Net only this*
but the rural areas also depended on the urban market for
the articles of luxurious nature,* since the rural areas
410
were not devoid ef the luxury liking people. B«sides#
the de^endance for certain necessities ef life and limited
classes ef luxurious goods#' the rural areas were alse
dependent on the ucban areas to sell their surplus ateck,
especially cern#1 pattu# weal etc. which *>mo a success lea of
favourable crops and production left at their disposal or
their United resources compelled them to dispose it off to
2meet the ether needs# even If it was net surplus*
However, the dependance of the villages on the urban
areas was net as Indlspensible as these of the latter on the
former. Taking the nature of the urban societies Into account#
the Inhabitants dwelling there wera either traders or artisans
or government servants. A s a result# they were wholly dependant
•n the rural people# net only for the food stuffs to feet their
bellies but aim for the raw material ef their Industries#’
since the rural areas were the repositories ef all the natural
1 . The Chaks# the Influential class ef nobility and then the rulers of the country lived at Trehgam a far flung area ef Kashmir. Sea alse B .S f ff 47a# 51b# 52a# Shrlvara# pp 208# 246^251# Suka, pp 307,242# 347# 364# 379-8a^ the nobles residing In the different parganas ef Kafchralr•Sea alse S . a » ff 2ob#6a#fa-b#29ab^-the Salylds living In different corners of Kashmir.
2. See Shrivarai p . 119 the peasants selling even their household articles to combat* with the death trap fesnlne. In the absence ef any ether Income except the agricultural productions# the currency at the disposalof a peasant was only kind# a portion ef which# therefore# he had to dispose eff to purchase his ©ther necessaries of llfef
411
seurces ef wealth besides the ether deraestically preduced
raw materials* Taking these facts late acceunt# there was a
brisk trade between the rural and the urban areas.
The cammed it tes internally market-̂ ed constituted
of the imparted enes and these ef indigenously produced
like cloth? salt? spices? sugar candies f- drugs? bear8/
ricef ghei? e i l ^ vegetableif meat* and ether victuals,'
woelem eleth, saffron etc. However, amongst these# salt and
rice farmed a thriving business. There was ne state monopoly
and all the transactions were carried eut by the private
merchants. The assertion that the state was a big trader# in
grain, ts net borneout by the facts. Trade in grains# like
other curamedities, was exclusively in the hands of private
merchants which*w^l be^isctissed^tn-deteijfc later^
3 , T . A rifin# f ,3 3 9 a
4 . Shrivarai p . 327
5 , a . Abrari f .9Zb
6 . Shrivarai p . 188
7 . T .R . (S&D)i p ,4 2 5
8 . Ibid|
9 . shrivarai p . 11810. Ibid| Ghee, o i l , ana s a lt w»re precious commodities;
11. Tempi®, p . 216 ( i i ) T h .A f p . 261
1 2 . Shrlvara? p , 235
3r3.“ -« •> u„
mi
1 5 . See f u j t r * p .
412
.anaJSafifcit&taq structural
An important feature of the tewn planning In
Kashmir, since the ancient times, was the opening •£
the markets and shepplng street*1? Thus, while referringp1
to the foundationsra new town by sultan Zainu* l-Abldin, 1
Jonaraja says#iMHe built Jalnanagirt1? rich with mat has,*
provided with rent free land fer Braharoans and with20a
market places" . These stray references in the contemporary
chronicles leave ne ream to doubt that every tev» e£
Kashmir, built either in the vicinity ef the Srinagar city
er in the dif£erent parts ®£ the valloy by the Hindu or
the Muslim rulers, was a principal coramarcial centre
serving a cenvenlent place fer the disposal ef surplus
cem er geeds produced in the neighbouring areas er inperted
frera ether countries 1?b
The capital city (viz. Shahr-i-Kashmir ef Persian
chroniclers and Shrinagri ef Sanskrit chroniclers) was a
16. 3m Rajt# p .358 fer the regular markets in thecity of Farvarapura built by Parvarasenai ZZ near the Hart Parbat hill*'
17. Jainanagri is the Naushahr ef Persia* chroniclers.
18*. Jonaraja# p-Q7.
18b. The towns and cities built by the Sultans have beenmentioned in the H Z chapter. Fer the towns and cities built by the Hindu rulers see Ray# pp 14-20.
413
big commercial centre and a clearing house far the
whole valley. Ia Srinagar specialized markets were a
usual feature. There were a number ef markets and
normally each craft *r trad# was concentrated in a
separate street or bazar where the craftsmen had their
own workshops, stalls and homes, and each ef thoso
markets was known after the various trades like bazar ef
1Qgold smiths (Baaar-l~ss«rgaran) • bazar of copper smiths
(Bazar~l«raisgaraa) bazar far different kinds of moat
(like beef market) 2*etc. Even upte this date many lanes
and streets sf Srinagar are still known after the various
trades followed like#'Seshagar mohalla' etc. However,
from the contemporary records, it seems that the bazar
system was in its Infancy and little in use in view ef
the fact that the brisk traffic was carried at the doors
of hoote-cum-shops of the traders and craftsmen, whilo
a little was carried on in the epoa markets. Both Mirza
Haidar and Abul Fazl state that almost all the tradesmen
did their business la the soclusioa of their ewa houses2?
19. T . Ariflaf f 47oa.
20. Th.Aj p. 250.
21. Shrlvara; p. 235
22. T.R. (MS f .276b) (£&D) j p . 425 (11) A .A .II (text)p. 351. (Jarrett) t p . 350
414
Mirza Haidar found only the drapers (bazzaz) and
retail dealers (khurda-farosh) la the markets# while
ether tradesmen like grocers# (baqqal)# druggists
(attar)# beer sellers ( fuqgai) aad that class •£
pro vis ion waders who usually frequeated the markets# ̂
did busiaess ia their ®wa houses2!
It is worth te note that besides the specialised
lanes aad heme-<um-sheps# there were s«ne special markets
er maadies ia Srinagar# where the commodities ef geaeral
nature w r« openly marketed. Among these the bazar of
Jam* I -Mas j tfl is worthy *e mentioning. Since it was tho
most important place where the Muslims gathered ia large
numbers m all fridays and festivals2*?! a most flour is hiag
bazar ef Srinagar came into existance. According te a
latter source#1 this bazar came into existance during the
reign of Suites Stkander and continued to be the biggest
and well kaewn bazar of srinagar upte the reign of Maharaja
Ranbir Singh2/ who banned the commercial transactions
2fithere aad iastead faund«{a new bazar 'Maharaj OunJ *
27after his aame .
23. Ibid#
24a. Jaraa-i-MasjId still stands at Srinagar ia Newhatta# which is the heart of the city.
24b. Shrivara? p. 236
25. Maharaja Ranbir Singh# the Dogra ruler of Kashmir ruled the country from ( in ft. /&$$ )
26. Maharaja Guaj is one of the important bazars of modem Srinagar where brisk internal trade of Kashmir is conducted,
27. T .H ., I I . p . 852
415
Another important place ef brisk commerclal
transactions was the ' (pat %? the station ef the boats
where the gosds were loaded to aad unleaded £ r m the
beats. As we will see lateren, the river transport was
the chief means ef communication In the valley carried
on by beats, there were frequent lending places er 'ghats'
en the rivers and navigable water-ways threugheut the
country2® These 'ghats' served as Important transit
depets aad formed the brisk trade centres, where fren
the goods were distributed to the ether parts ef the
locality. The deep rooted tradition ef these 'ghats*
as the most convenient, 1 profitable and active places ef
transactions,^ can be had fr^m the fact that lnsplte of the
overhauling change In the market*ing structure and means
of csuBRunicatlon, 1 these 'ghats* still play a significant
role in Kashmir as the vital places of commercial
transactions. die of the important 'ghats' of Srinagar
29was the ghat of Nawpeora •
Besides,’ the regular shops, the petty dealers and
shopkeepers also carried en their business in movable
stalls. Thus,1 as we find In modern times in Srinagar, the
28. Stein,- An. Gee* p . lol
29. D.Sf I p . 273
416
groaa sellers er flsheriaea er wemea carry lag «a their
business In movable stalls was also c m m m during eur
period3? Am appreciable part ef the domestic trade wag
alse carried on by the different bus inessmea by peddl lag
their ge®ds from village to village,' In the towns and
cities3^
Trafltaa .QBffflaato
Thera ware special classes and particular cooiminitles
In trade* They can be groupad la twe classes (1) These who
war a exclusively traders and traded In the commodities either
brought £r«ra ether countries or lecally produced (2) Those
whe wore producers as well as tha distributers* Of the first
category,1 tha large scale business was in the hands of
few families, who dealt In both the Idlgeaeus and ferotga
goads,1 while as the petty business In towns was also carried
oa by the professional merchants3? Among these merchants and
traders,’ there were s*ame whe undertook a special trade of
a special commodity* Per o xample,' there were the grata
33merchants who specially dealt la grata *
30* Th*A, p * 261
31. Ibid# (11) Templet P« 216 (lit) Jonaraja# |f 19-20 (tv) Shrtvara# p. 125.
32. See lafra p*
33* Shrtvara? p* 113*
417
Of the secoad type ef merchants, meation may be
made ef craftsmea whe seld their finished goods at their
hemes, directly te the easterners er the dealers e£ these
goods?* Similarly, there were the producers •£ such geeds
like vegetables, milk etc whe alse seld their geeds
directly te the customers, either ia the markets ef the
towns er by peddllag from lecality te lecality and
village te villagl? This type ef trade was strictly ia
the haads ef special classes aad was fundamentally heredi
tary ia aature.
Zt is curieus te aete ttet the sources are completely
sileat about brokers, whe playpd aa lapertaat part ia the
cemmerclal transactions e£ the Indian subceatlnent during
the period35^ * But the silence ef the seurces can aot lead
us te believe that they did aet figure ia the cemmerclal
transactions ef the period.
Higgling, cheating, adulteratiea, cornering, black-
marketing aad iaflatiea by the busiaessnea aad shepkeepers
was a common feature and caa be expected to be werst ia the
absence e£ preseat market regulations. Zt was because of this
knavery e£ the Kashmiri merchaats that the Sufis, ia order
te earn aa heaest livelihood, (at'lroa'lf halal) Insisted ea
34. T.R.(MS), f .276 (E&D) /p425 (it) A.A . (Jarrett) p3S0
35. Temple* p. 216(ii ) Jonaraja; p . 19-20 (lli)Sh rlv ara ; p .125 (iv) T h .A , p .261
35b« c£« K.S. Lai'History ef Khiljis*
418
th«lr discipline that# instead ef trade# they should
undertake sue It ere less lens like arts and crafts and
cultlvatie»?5(c*
The stiepkaepsrs reserted te strange buslaess
deal lags. They belittled the canned iti os ef ethers se
as te purchase them at lew rates and exteled their own
in erder te soil them at high prices, G*ee sheikh Heeru’dU
Dia, a lead lag salat aad the feuader ef Rishl Order la
Kashmir# put te task such a dishonest merchaat who# while
hiss elf purchasing a cammed tty# exposed all its defects
and drawbacks to seller aad as a result bought that
cammedity at a lew price. After a short while a customer
came to him aad waated the same commodity. The merefcaat#!
instead ef petatiag out aay ef its defects# ̂ praised it
lavishly and demaaded double tho cost price. The customer
was extremely eaticed by the higgliag of the merchant aad
payed him the ameuat charged?®
Abdul Fazl gives us aa interesting account about
adulteration 1)1 Saffrea which, curiously oneugfc, centiaues
upte this time. He says that for defraadiag the iaaeceat
customers#1 the people often cuaningly intermixed the yellow
stameas with these ef red which yield the saffron'
35c. e#Ari£iaj ff. 2 oa -21a36. F.Kubraviy»f F.l09b
3 7 . A.A. vol I (Biechmaaa)p
419
Cantering# bearding and black marketing were the c&amwm
Habits e£ the merchants. Me seener did the ceuatry face
the seariscity ef any cscornedity# either due te the failure
ef crepe er the bleeka.de ef reads letding te the fereign
lands#1 than the merchants reserted te bearding te Jack the
38prices ef their cssmedities up. Inspite ef the warnings
and regulatlens by the state against cern^ng and black-
marketing, merchants Indulged in such malpractices3? We
are teld that a Khar! ef rice# which was seld at 300 dinnars
in nermal times# was seld at 1500 dinnars daring the days
ef scacfcity and was net even ebtalned easily by the peeplef1
The merchants net enly charged exerbltant rates but
expleited the suffering cenditlens ef the pesple by exchamg*
ing their cenmedities with precieus articles which were net
duly paid? Sultan Zainu'l Abidin Is the smly Sultan whe
teek s eme definite steps te prevent cetnering and black-
marketing, He Issued a decree in his kingdem that the articles
imperted by merchants sheuld net be hearded but sheuld be
seld te the public at a lew prefit}^ Hew far did the Sultan
succeed in implementing His decree is net knewn. However#*
the meat Impertant step taken by t|re Sultan te check the
fluctuatlem ef prices and te save the peeple fr«n the fradulent
38 • Shrlvara# «p. 117-18# 32739. T.A#' (Text) P.6014A. Shrivara, P .U 842. Ibid,! p.11943. T.A. (Text)#: p. 601
€11) T.F.(T«xt)# p. 342
420
attitude ef the merchants, was the intreductien ef price
control. Te regulate the prices ef articles the Sultan
inscribed the pricea ef different cemmedities an the cepper
plates and fixed them at all Impertant centres fer the
infermatien ef the general public. He she* alse made a plea
44te his would be successors te maintain the practice”
But it appears that these regulations ceuld net check the
rise in prices, since we find that during his very regies
and alse after him, the merchants raising the pricea ef
different cararaadities t» their liking, especially during
45ths times ef scartcity. As a result ef these fluctuations,
the conditions ef the masses became very pitible. A number
ef people, while net afferdtng te pay these exorbitant rates,1
perished,* especially when the prices ef their staple feed
i.e . rice shet up while as the merchants delighted In such
times t7
Banking
Te give a baest te the commercial enterprise and
te previde eppertunities fer undertaking the business te
these did net pessess the herC&itary wealth, there was
a fairly l a r g e class ef meney lendars who thrived an the
44, Ibid45, Shrlvara, p, 32746, Shrivarai pp. 117-1947, Zbid
421
business •£ leading neney. With regard te the lending
ef meney fer conanercial purposes, there were twe types
e£ neney lenders* The first grwip ef meaey lenders were
knewn as 'Sarrafsi There was a sizable and prospfreus
class ef 'Sarrafs' whose exclusive business was te give
leans en usuary. They had accumulated a huge wealth by
charging the mest profitable rate e£ interest* W« find
a 'Sarraf*, named M#han Das, whe pessed three lakhs efJO
rupees. In the absence ef any Information, it is net
possible te ascertain tha rate ef interest# but there is
ne doubt that these unsurleus leans prevdkd mere e£ harm
than ef help te the people, whether merchants er ether
classes* They led te heavy Indebtedness ef the people.
The meney lenders gave a lean ef fruition but demanded
a hard repayment ef principle and interest. That is why
I*alla wails ftor geing te a country where there was ne
system ef debts ner any one that lends. 'Happy indeed*#1
She sayn^ "is the contended soul e£ when he (the neney
lender) refuses te make the lean*^ Bends were executed
between the credlter and debtor#0 specifying probably the
name ef the credlter, the ameunt ef lean and rate ef
Interest charged. The leans were previded net only te the
48. T. Arifinj f . 402a
49. Griersoni pp. 48-49 il) Temple p 185
50. Shrlvaraj p. 119
422
merchants but alse te ether classes ef pe«ple«
Hewevrsr, the mest benlflclal and a selld improve
ment upea the usurleus leans was 'j aaether type e f leading
meney kaewa as *Muzarabat*. It is tl»e Islam ic Way e f
Commercial meney leading and was evidently introduced
in Kashmir by the Muslims, Si the language e f the law#
'm auzarabat' sign ifies a ceatract e f cepartaershtp/ la
which eae party (namely the preprieter er the meney
leader) is entitled te a p refit ea account e f stack er
meney he leads/ he being daaemiaated 'Rabbu'l- Mal'
• r preprieter e f s~teck er meney. (which is termed Rasu*l
Mai) and the ether party Is oatitled te a p re fit ea account
e f his labeur, and this last is deaemiaated the rauzarib (er
maaager) ,1 la as much as he derives a beatflt frem his
ewa labeur said endeavours?2 Thus, ualike the leaaa^
'rauzarabah' was free fr«a aay usuary and ceuld net be
established witheut a participation ia the p re fit betweea
the preprieter (er crediter) and debter (er m aaager). We
find a number e f references la eur cmtamperary chreateles
abeut 'muzarabat* which might have been mere pepular as
54cellared te the usurleus laeas.
Aaether Islamic way e f leadlag meaey iatreduced
55by the Muslims in Kashmir was kaewa as "q a rzi has and*.
However, It was net lend fer commercial purposes,* but was
51 . Ibid
5 2 . Hughes T .P . 'A dictlenary e f Islam* p . 426
5 3 . Ib id .5 4 . T . Arfittf f f . 373 b , 387a5 5 . Ib id , f . 412b
51
423
provided te the peer aad dewa trodden people. It waff
free from any usuary aad te be repaid at the pleasure
•£ the berrewer.
2fratta»*cfca.Ua»
Beat was the p i vet e£ all commerce ia Kashmir
during the per led5? Slace Kashmir abounded ia rivers,
lakes aad streams accessible te boats, beat was the chief
mode e£ transporting the goods frera eae place te another,
besides a cenraea ferra e£ csaveyance. It was a ls e easiedt
speedy aad cheap meaas e£ traaspertatlea, aet ealy ia the
absaace e f stedera meaas •£ coamualcatiea bat evea ia
these e f medieval tines sine® the carriages were alse
57practically uakaewa te the people here.
The produce e f the ceuatry was thus breught
te the great centres by beats. Villages situated evea at
a great distaace had ae deu t Jis t a£ the preseat day,'
their leadiag places (Kashmiri Yarbal) ea the river er the
eaaear aavigable waterway.
The Impertaace e f river traffic ia Kashmir may
be measured by the fact that aecerdiag te Abul Fazl^« there
56 . A *A .I (te x t ), p . 161 (Bochnaaa) p . 290(i i ) XI (text) p . 351 (Jarrett) p , 351 (l it ) Tuzuk (text) p . 3o2 (HfitB) I I p 142 .See alse P.H> (Text) V e il , p . 24
5 7 . S te in . Aac. Gee# p . 100
5 8 . Ib id , p . 101
424
were mere thaa th irty theut-aad beats Ia Kashmir wm the
goeve e f the Hughal eccupatlea e f Kashmir *^aad the number
e f beatinea engaged according te Jahangir amounted te
74006 0 .
Besides making the use e f beats# the rivers aad
canals •£ Kashmir were alse used fer transportation ef
such materials like weed* Wood as we fiad ia medera times
was frequently breught fr«n the meuatalas by means e f
canals aad rivers wltheut aay help e£ beat.
The mest important highway e f Kashmir was river
Jehlam# £r«n Khaaabal62 te Baramulla? At Khaaabal, the
Jehlum# as new# became aavigable and continued te b e so
ea Its whele ceurse threugh the valley t ill it reached
the aerth west end e f the valley# a dlstaace e£ 102 m iles.
Thus its value fer the development e f iateraal trade ef
Kashmir c aa hardly be underestimated.
The ceaveaieat aad cheap aature e f the river
transport can alse be had by the fact that Sultan Za inu 'l
Abidin ceas true ted a canal known as 'Mar caaal* within the
5 9 . A .N .f I I I (Beveridge)# p .835
60. Tuzuk (Text)# p . 302 (R&B) XI p . 142
6 1 . T h . A , p . 586 2 / Khaaabal is situated aear Aaaataag aad “ its part ea the
Jehlemw1
6 3 . Baramulla is a town#* situated m the Jehlem 34 milesWest e f Srinagar.4
425
city su fficleat to admit the boats e f considerable
burden,- am that the d ifferent cammed it ies cauld be
carried by th is m a ss late the heart •£ the city*
A detailed acceunt •£ th is canal w ill be glvea
presently*
The aeceadary means •£ iateraal transportation
64were the peales aid pertars. They were used la the
areas which were far frem the access e f rivers .
Steas takes by the sultana to aacwiragqt Ahfi
The Sultaas taak seme impertaat steps which
might have given a great impetus te the iateraal trade •£
Kashm ir. First aad foremast was the ceastructlaa e f
bridges aad caus e-ways. Befere the Sultaas there were
ae permonant bridges la Kashmir. The beats were bound
together by chains,' aad threugh the b r i d e s a way cauld
65be spaaed far the river t r a ffic . However, these boat
bridges cauld be easily brekea up at the approach ef
the army er la danger ef fire causiag great disturbance
to the Iateraal trade e f Kashmir. It gees te the credit
e f the Sultaas who fer the first time tatreduced la
6 4 . A .A j EC (Text) p . 351 (Barrett), p . 351
6 5 . Raj itr I I p . 449
66 . Ib id .
426
Kashmir the system ef permaaaat bridges. These bridgesia Kashmir ware ceastructed accardiag ts the caatllavarp rin c ip le . The mala supports er piers were farmed ef
layers ef deedar lags rest lag aa a feuadatlaa ef staaes67cemented with lima* Thasa bridges ware sa streag that
same af them existed upt* the first half af the twentieth century aad have afton beea described by the medieval aad madera travellers?8 ‘The sacret af their stability nay perhaps be attributed ta the skalta* piers ef fer lag little ar aa reslstaace,* ta the large velume af water braught dawa at fleed time.*
The first parauuicat bridge accardiag ta the auther af Nawadlru*l Akfebar) was ceastructed by Sultaa All Shah (1412«2o) la the aarna af All Kadal*9 The Other well kaewa brld^i namely Zaiaa Kadal was ceastructed by Sultaa Zalau* 1-Abidia?* Thea there ware the bridges like Fateh Kadal aad Habba Kadal caa struct ad by Sultaa Fatah Shah (1486-1515) aad Sultaa Habib Shah (1957-61) respectively?1
67* Tuasuk (Text) p. 302 (R&B) ZZ p 142(il) S.K, XZ (text) pp*31-3268* Ibid far the nadara absarvarsSee Vlgae; XZ 23/ Lawraace# p 3669. M* Akhbari f. 32bTo* ShrIvara; p. 127 See alse N. Akhbar; f. 34a71. T,Hf Z# p* 310
427
These were constructed ia the main city aad have often been described by the Mughal historians with high laud?2 The Sultans alse built a number e£ such bridges in the different parts of the country* while referring te this shrivara says "The King (Sultan ZaUu'l-Abidin) had constructed a bridge en the vitasta# named Zainaftadali (Zain Kadal) and it was the tenth bridge en the way from the Darad villages to the c^3/! It should bo noted, however, that the construction of boat bridges was not entirely given up by the Sultans, Sharafu'd-Din Ali Yazdi, the author of Zafar nama notices the existence of such bridges across the Jehlast «nd Is
72• lor example Muhammad Salih Kumbo#, says" , y
S.H. XX, pp.31-32 73. Shrivarai p. 127
428
also corroborated by tike local chroniclers.Te facilitate the business of the traders and
travellers, the Sultans also built a number e£ cause-ways
which shortened the distance and made the transportationof goods easy from one place to Mother* Sultan Zainu’l-Abldln constructed a causeway of clay and stone over theDal LaIce, connecting the Pargana Phak te the city,1 which
75was one 'Ices' In length . Another causeway was built over76 77the Wuiar lake connecting Seporo to Andarkot • It was
built of stones cemented with line and a number of bridgesto give way te the water, sultan Zainu' 1-Abidin assigned
78the revalues ef a village for its maintenance • While following the steps of their Sultans,' the nobles also did not lag behind in constructing the cause ways. Thus referring to a causeway constructed by Naureas/ the son of Haik Ahmad Vatu, the wazlr of Sultan Hasan Shah,1 shrivara says, "Nauruja (Naurez) constructed a stone causeway from the tewnC?) to
74
74. Zbldi pp. 127, 229 (11) Z.N.II (text) p. 179 for a number of boat bridges which spanned the river Jehlam.75. A.A* II (Jarrett)f pp. 360-61.76. Sepere is a town on both sides of the Jehlam situatedIn bat. 34.17* long 74 31'. Its ancient name wasSuyyapure, built by Suyya, the minister of Avantlwarraan. (Rajt. Book. V. NOiUi,)77. Andarkot Is a village situated In Lat. 34 13*long 74 42* on the Sanfcal lake absut twelve milesnorth west of Srinagar.̂78. S.A# f.l7a .
429
the Kshiptika, and when it was completed as far as the Island ia the river the people o£ the town ceased to vender at the sight e£ long causeway supported on pillars" ®9
Besides linking the primary producing areas with the collecting aad distributing centres, the coastructioa •£ these bridges aad causeways considerably shortened the distaace and ensured a free movement beth of the people and the goods. Thus were the great Incentives te the development ef trade.
^e have also evidence that due attention was paidtowards the development of river transport, which as alreadyreferred to was the main means of communication. Theremarkable step taken In this direction was the constructionof Mar canal. It was constructed by sultan Zalnu'l-Abldlnthrough the heart of the clty,i with sufflclant water/servicable to the heavy boats of considerable burden," sothat the different commodities like grain, wood/ vegetables
81etc. would be brought easily into the heart?? of the city.This canal continued to play a significant role in the internal trade aid commerce of Kashmir upte the recent times. While describing the commercial importance of the canal Meercraft writes la the first half of the lgth century.79. I cannot Identify the place Kshiptika.80. Shrivara* p. 226.81. Ibid; p. 143.
79
430
"Tim canal new called the Mala Mfcr proceeds through the tmm passing under the several bridges/ being the roest servlcable ef any ef the canals,? although net kept In very good order. It has water sufflclant te adiBlt the beats ef considerable burden# and grain was brought by this means Inte the heart ef the cl(ty8#*,H»wever# ever the years due te the Indifferent attitude ef the la titer rulers/ the maintenance ef the canal was neglected and all the sevage of the Interler city was directed towards this canal. The result was that this canal net enly lest Its commercial value, but became a health hazard, theugh It was this canal mere picturesque than sweet smelling, which had once led te the frequent comparis ons ef Srinagar with Venice8?
Another mest remarkable step taken by the sultans was that the streets and markets ef the cities and touts were paved with stones. Mlrza Haider while admiring this developed aspect ef market" Ing structure ef Kashmir says," The passage In the markets aad the streets ef the city, are all paved with hewn stones"
82. Meercraft# U p * 116.83. Stetu, Anc Gee* p. l04,«4. As a result the canal has recently been filled up by the state.84. T.Rf (E&D) p . 425.
431
Stops were also taken by tile Sultans to guarantee
peace and security te the trader* and merchants# both from
o ffic ia l oppression and other anti-social elements. They
took serious action against these officials# whe happened
te be tyrannical towards the traders and merchants even
though at a miner scale . For example ence an attendant of
the son of Sultan Ghazi Shah Chak (1561*63) wea charged
with taking away forcibly a small quantity o f fruits from
a petty merchant and when the sultan came te know of this#
he ordered for the aitfeilatien e f the hand of the attendant.
This event strained the relations between Ghazi Shah and
his son to the extant that Ghazi Shah had te issue an order
35far the execution e f his sen . Moreover# no stone was le ft
unturned by the Sultans to eradicate the robbery and theft
in the valley . Means e f livelihood were provided to those
who committed theft because of the lack of provisions •
Another check for preventing theft was the introduction of
sort of collective responsibility by making the headman ofa
87a v illage responsible for any theft • Moreover# guards
(passbaas) were appointed to guard the property of the
3 5 . Suka; p . 339 (11) H.Mf p .62 See also Jonarajai p . 65 fer the exilement o f an influential person whe was charged far taking forcibly seme m ilk from a m ilk woma*.
8 6 . Shrlvara; p p . 101-2
3 7 . Ibid# (l i ) T .A # & U 0tS)cxp¥(Bny) XXX. p . 436 .
432
people aad I f any body was charged with robbery or
theft# be was heavily penalized* Gfece according te suka
a th ie f had stolen a fish frwn some fisherman a penality
ef twe hundred pieces e£ geld coins were imposed m i
k lm F
as a result ef these measures, te quote the
centeiqperary authorities# “Men slept In peace 1b their
houses and travelled in safety even through the forests
and lonely p l a c e s * T h e absence e£ robbery and theft
In Kashmir astonished even Abul Fazl who could not but
to remark*#Yet* strange to say# notwithstanding Its
numerous population and the scantiness of the means o£
91subsistence thieving and begging are rare* ? Under
these circumstances trade was bound to flourish*
88
88,’ N . Naan; £ .35la
89* Suka; p* 389
90* Shrivarai p* lol (11) T .A . ifcnxfck (Dey), XIX p* 436
91* A»A| XX (Jorrett) ; p* 349
433
fiKtanwl Twdfl*-
locked country. Access te Kashmir Has net been easy ,
Nevertheless, Kashmir has had commercial intercourse with
02distant parts ef the war Id . A source relevant te the
15th - 16th century Kashmir refers te a Kashmiri merchant
whe was carrying en trade simultaneously with Ind ia , Tibet
and parts of Central A s ia «. a matter of cons id er able
importance*
Though from some stray references in the contemporary
literature and numismitic evidence, we learn o f the wide
•pread external trade of Kashmir* i f judged by the medieval
standard, yet the paucity of the material prevents us from
making a detailed study o f the subject* The following account,
which has been pieced together with the help of fragmentary
and scanty data available , may, therefore be regarded as
Illustrative rather exhaustive*
The period under review c®nstitues an important
era In Kashm ir's economic life * Xt witnessed the founda
tion and establishment o f Muslim Sultanate which gave a new
boost to the external trade activities o f Kashmir, which
had stagnated as a result of the threat of the foreign
Kashmir has, since remote past, been a mountain
9 2 . T *A r ifia ; f . 385 b .
434
invasions and continuous civil wars in the Valley^?
Favoured by the political stability in the
neighbouring countries which reduced the p o ssib ilities
e f foreign invasions#* instead helped in maintaing
friendly relations with them9? worthy and strong leader
ship o f Kashmiris who not only maintained peace and order
in the country# and resisted its past glory by conquering
its surrounding htlly states95 but also conducted cultural
93* To quote A.lbe-runi who wrote long before the establishment o f Muslim Sultanate in Kashmir* "They (Kashmiris) are particularly anxious about the natural strength of their country# and therefore take always much care to keep a stronghold upon the entrances and roads leading into it . Sb consequence it is very d iffic u lt to have any commerce with them* In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country/ particularly Jews# but at present they do not allow any Hindu, whom they do not know personally to enter#' much less ether people* A1 Biruni# V e l, I# p . 2 0 $ , However# this was the condition during the powerful rulers# but under their weak successors the condition changed# they no doubt le ft the reads# leading to the outside world unguarded but due to their weaknesses Kashmir was thrown into an uncontrolled p o litical turmoil which did not come to an end upto its logical c a n d us ion of the establishment o f Muslim s-ultante. As a result of the internal chaos and confusion whatever l it t le trade might have been carried en during the times of the serious foreign invasions was further curtailed ,
9 4 . s ,c . Hay asserts that the rise of Islam in the neighbouring countries also proved an obstacle to the foreign trade of the Hindu rulers* Ray S ,C , j p ,9 1 *
9 5 , For more than one hundred and thirty years (1339*1472)# Kashmir enjoyed complete peace and prosperity. Due to the efforts of some strong rulers like Sultan $hihabu'&- Di&& Sultan Zainu*l-Abidin not only the internal peace aad prosperity was maintained but they sutbdued a ll the frontier territories adjoining Kashmir, These conquests helped the foreign trade of Kashmir in two ways. F irst these conquests might have created fresh markets for Kashmir goods in these territories and vice verse. Secondly by conquering these territories a free and fearless passage was ensured to other countries.
435
aad friendly relations with distant rulers^ Kashmir
•n e e again stimulated the growth o f its foreign trade.
Secondly during th is parted net only the eld arts
and crafts were revived and Improved «pon but num erous new
•n es were intreduced and cultivated on acceunt e f the31
whele hearted patronage ef the Sultans • It is th is per ted
te which net enly most e f the modern arts and o*ra£ts e£
Kashmir ewe their existence and encouragement but Kasfcalr
gained werld wide significance as the greatest and only
98distributer e f seme e f thera.
Mere ever under the Sultans a new culture a*dt l ife
style was introduced in Kashmir by the influx e f a large
nuniber e f people from Persia and Central A sia , The impact
ef this foreign culture was so profound that the people
could not remain uninfluenced# though they had to defend
for the essentials of its fulfilm ent on the far o ff countries#
aowhich in turn encouraged the foreign trade*
A s ,a result Kashm ir's external trade relations
became so deep rooted that in spite of the d ifficu lties of
means o f communication and even in times of disturbed
96* Zainu'l- Abidin o f Kashmir maintained friendlyrelations with the rulers of Hindustan# CentralAsia# Iraq# Egypt# Macca etc* Shrivara p* 15$«
97* T .R * (JS&D) # p . 434
98* A .a . II(Text)# pp* 350-51
99* See Infra p* l|
436
p o litical conditions and frequent changes e f ruling
fam ilies trade and commerce seems te have flourished
without much interruption.
The literary and nunlsmltlc evidence shews that
Cemmerce e f Kashmir 1 was mere gravitated te its neighbour
ing countries in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia ,
T ibet and China.
t r a d e R O P T E S
As Kashmir had been a mountain locked country#
its trade was exclusively conducted through overland routes.
In the great mountain chain# which encircles the Valley#'
there was# as is now, but one narrow gap le ft , near to
the north west end of the Valley, where the river Jehlum
flows o ut. However# it was at this point that the river
ceased to be navigable.
The external trade of Kashmir was thus mainly
conducted by three main routes, each route having a number
o f ancillary roads which connected Kashmir with Punjab#
Ladakh and Baltlstan and thereby with other parts of the
world. Thus Shrafu'd-Dln All Yazdl says that there were
three principle highways leading through Kashmir - the one
to Khurasan, the other to Hindustan and the third one to
Tlbe49°
According to Abul Fazl twenty six routes connected
Kashmir with In d ia .lo i However, It seems that Ban I ha 1 , Sldfru,
loo Z.N .# 11 (Text) p . 180
101 . A .A . XX (Text) # p . 350
437
P lr Pantsal, Tesamadan and BararaulJa routes ware » s t
canvenient aad frequently used . The Banihal read
maintained link with the h ill states ef Eastern Punjab.
This pass was the only reute across the Plr Pantsal
range where the snowfall m s comparatively less aad
through which commun teat ten was pesslble fer the mest
part of the year.
Sidhu and Budil pass, 14000 feet high lies ea
a reute directly connecting Srinagar with Akhnur and
Sallk et . Running up aad dewa high ridges. It m s only
suitable fer fleet tr a ffic , but ewlng te Its shortness
102it was formerly a favourite route with the Kashm iris.
P lr Paatsal, 11 ,400 feet high. Is marked by a
pass known as P lr Pantsal. The route which crosses It
has from early times to the present day been the most
frequented llae of communication between Kashmir and Central
Punjab* The starting point fr«m Kashmir was Hlrpur and
while from the Punjab, Bhlabor. It has remained since ancient
times the chief road by which the produce of the Punjab
lQ3salt mines coming via Jehlum and Bhimber entered Kashm ir.
Abul Faal and Jahangir refer to this road as one of the
two convenient routes which led fr«n Kashmir to Punjab and
vice v erso .10* It was the shortest and the most convenient
102 . Ste in , Anc. Geo, p« 71
10 3 . Ib id p . 75 (11) A.Abrarf f . 121b
104 . (I) a * a , I I (text) p . 350 (11) Tuauk (text) p . 303
438
» f a ll the routes mentioned by the Mughal historians
loSwhich gave passage te Kashmir but it was net communicable
in winter and spring as it became burrled under heavy
s-n« . 106
The last important route across the P ir Pantsal
w t o7range was the Tos&dan pass* It was the shortest raute
into the valley o f Punch and hence te that portion of
western Punjab which lies between the Jehlum and Indus.
Xt was under the old conditions o f road and travel
probably the easiest and safest route in that direction
and remained a favourite trade route until the recent
Jehlum Valley Cart road was constructed. Zt was followed
by Hieunfstang108 and also by Mahraaud of Ghazaavi during
IQQhis unsuccessful expedition to Kashm ir. However,
owing to the elevation o f the pass this route was closed
by the snow for a longer period than that of the Pir
Pantsal.
The last but not the least important route which
connected Kashmir not only with India but also with Persia
105 . ( i ) Ibid (ii ) Ib id ( H i ) P .M . (textl Vel.X .Chapter XX p p . 15-16
106 . P .N . Vol. X Chapter H , pp* 15-16.
107 . This road started fr«a the present villege ofDranga situated at the foot o f the mountain in the Biru Pargana and was a lso known as Dranga road, Shrlvara, p . 327
108 . S .c . Ray, p . 1 3 .
109 . Albiruni,- V o l. X p . 2o7 3 qqj
439
1 1Aand Turkistan was the Baramulla route. It was one e f
the best entrances and commercial reutes recsgnised by
a ll whe travelled te and £r«m Kashmir since ancient times
such as Hieiiafstaag# Oukong, Abul Sfezl, Jahangir# Abdul
Hamid Laheri aad alse almost all the emigrants whe aame
fr«m Persia and Central Asia* Of all the reads which led
te India it was warmer and snowfall was much less* Thus
it was the only passage open te Kashmir in winter and
early spring! 11 This reute was the shertest line e£
communication te the present Hazra d istr ict and the Indus
Valley* It was alse convenient for these whe wished te
go te Atteck and Peshawar* . Kashm ir'* trade with Persia
and western Turkistan was alse conducted through this 112 reute*
It is clear £rem the abeve acceunt that a ll these
reads linked Kashmir te Punjab, thus making it the commercial
depot e£ Kashm ir's expert and import trade with ether parts
e f In d ia . Much e f the trade e f the Punjab with T ib et ;
BaltIstan and Turkistan passed threugh Kashmir. As a result
the trade relationship between Kashmir and Punjab was so
110 . x m It was named as Vitasta er Varamuhla reute by the Sanskrit chr»1»Glers, Baramulla by the Kashmiri Persian writers, Pakhli by the Mughal chr w ild e r a and is known as Jehlum Valley route in present tim es.
11 1 . ( I ) Tuzuk (text) p . 303
( I I ) P .M . (text) Vol. I , Chap. H , P . 15
112 . Many learned scholars and Sufis fr «* Persia and Western Turkistan came to Kashmir by this route.S .A . f f 15a, 31a \
440
Intimate that net only the Kashmiri merchants but alse
the Kashmiri Sultans used to borrow money from the La here
merchants. 13
Ladakh. Tibet, China and Central Aalai.
Another important thoroughfare which connected
Kashmir with Ladakh and thence with Tibet# China and central
Asia was the reute leading ever the Zo jlla pass. This reute
was comparatively better than ether routes which connected
Kashmir with India and Central A s ia , Th is is alse substantiated114
by Shara£U*d«Din All Yazdl, the author e£ zafar Hama « From
Srinagar to Leh i f conveyance was by men only it took a month
er a l it t le more and from Kashmir to China# the joinery was 115
of three months. The town o f Leh la Ladakh was the ch ie f
commercial depot ef Kastatirfs Import and expert trade with
Tibet# Turkistan aad China, There was also another reute which
ceanected Kashmir with eastern Turkistan. This passed through
Baltlstan# twit was very d iffic u lt to traverse as compared to
Ladakh and was followed only when there was any p o litical116
trouble along with Ladakh route.
Cenvevaneot
The available means o f transportation were porters #
horses# asses and elephants,
m l " * #T^A rif in# *f 1373b ( U ) h Im J p . 6 9 ...........................................
1 1 4 . Z .H ,(te x t ) Vol. ZZ# p , 180
115 , Bernier, p . 425
116^ Purchase# S . Pure ha 3 his Pil grimes# London 1905-7vide 'Mfefhlbbul Hasaa» p. 245
441
W m m fiMCiflCaaL wh«« h ills ware steep and covered
with huge mmw neither horses nor elephants# ner any ether
conveyance could be used* Under these circumstances coolies
were the only means e f transport from Kashmir te ferelgn
lands * According te 2afar Nama the reads which led te
Kherasan and Hindustan were se d ifficu lt that i t was net
passible fer beasts e f burden with leads te be driven aleng
It# se the Inhabitants whe are accustomed te such work,
carry the leads upen their own shoulders, u ntil they reach117
a spet where it is possible to lead a horse. The read to
Tibet was easier than these two "but" says Sharf«udUDla
"one finds nothing but poisonous herbs which make the
transit inconvenient for travellers en horse back, since118
the horses perish” • Thus the human carriers became
indispensable for this route also . The trade thus gave
opportunity e f livelihood to a number of people and led
to the emergence of a labour class known as professional
lead carriers . Accerding to the Waqf Name of Khanqah~l<J*u'alla
two hundred lead carriers were permanently employed for119
bringing salt from Punjab fer the kitchen e f the Khanqah.
According to Shrlvara " Zainu* l«Abidin settled a colony e f120
lead carriers at the custom stations of Surapura (Sopere)1*
11 7 . Z .N . (text) I I , 1 p . 1801 1 8 . Ib id .11 9 . Waqf Name is preserved In the Khanqah-l-Mu'alla of
Srinagar. Its contents have been incorporated by Abdul Wahab Neer in his ' Putuhat-l-Kubraviya * MS Research and Publications Deptt. Srinagar, f f . 78a — 79b and P ir Hasan Shah in his *Tarikh-i-Hassan Published by Research and Publication Deptt. Srinagar# V ol. I I ,5 pp 333* 34 .
120 . Shrlvara vide Stein , M .A . Ancient Geography of Kashmir, p . 75 n 2 .
442
which besides shewing the lmportaace •£ lead carriers
la the transportation e f foreign lands shows the beaevolaat
state policy feewards them.
A fter crass lag the h illy aad snew e & d tracks aad
reaching the pi a las the lead was transferred fram human
carriers te the beasts of burden like asses, horses,
elephants aad camels. **e alse find references about horses
and elephants used in the mouataiafteus routes but not121without serious dangers. As * matter of fact beasts of
burdea were mostly used up to the bottom of the mountain
passes. The most common animal used from Kashmir side was 122the a ss / while elephants, camels aad horses were used
123from the sides other thaa Kashmir. We do not knew, however,
the amount p aid for the traaspertatiea.
I w r t a .w d SjXBtsfcai-.
Kashmir exercised an affective demaad for certain
accessaries of life besides certaia lim ited classes of Uxu-nVus
foreign goods aad she vas able to pay for them by exporting
a variety of her own products as she was famous for some
articles aad had the world wide fame of being the only
12 1 . Bernier, p . 407
12 2 . Tuzuk (text), p . 305
123 . (i) a .N . (text) Vol. II#’ p . 180(ti) P .M . (text) Vol. I , Chapt. I I , p . 1 6 .
443
producer and distributor of some of them. Moreover Kashmir
was a channel, through which trade was conducted between124
Punjab, eastern Turkistan and Tibet# a circumstance which
made Srinagar a rich emporium o f trade. Thus Kashmir apart
from handling Its own Imports and experts# was also acting
as a transit depot whic|r greatly added to its ceraaercial
activity*
Imports
The various articles Imported from foreign lands
can be br-oadly classified into three categories* (l)necessar
ies ; (2) luxurious articles and (3) Raw m aterial* Among
the necessary commodities o f import for which Kashmir was
as is now dependable for foreign lands was salt* Since it
has been an essential ingredient ia food at all times in
a ll places, not only o f a ll classes of people# but for
the diary product! ? 5 its huge consumption and demand rendered
salt an important article o f brisk Import* Zt was ch ie fly126
Imported fr«m Punjab v ia the P lr Pantsal route. Thana was
the *mundi* o f salt where fr«n it was Imported by theus
Kashmiris on their backs# which according to Babu Datad Mlshktt
124*
125*
126 .
Indian Antiquary# 1908# p .1 6 2 vide M&hibbul Hagan* p . 244,4 n2
Sheikh Hooru'd-Din# the founder o f R ishi Movement in Kashmir# though staunch opponent o f luxuries# includes salt as an indispensible article for his sustenance. He saws; _ „ , < „ .-• ?« ,
Saqi# p . 26 See also# N.Nama F 192a fer salt as a diary food.
(i) A . Abrar f f . 1 2lb , 122b (11) Tuzuk (text)
p . 320
444
the author o f Asrar-ul-Abrar, was a journey of fifteen127 128
days. The Increased pressure en the Punjab sa lt ,• together
with the natural d ifficu lties of cammunication like the
h illy and inaccessible roads, snow and rainfall which closed129
the roads for a considerable time, the canals and reads130
which lnter;pers«ed the way and men made d ifficu lties lik e
the internal and external invasion, which resulted into
the blockade of the roads, were the causes which led to
the consequent shortage of the commodity and a legitimate
cause of the rise In prices resulting in havoc within the
country. According to the eye witness account of Shrivera
once when the passes of the south were closed owing to
po litical troubles, the price of salt In the capital short
very high as a result *the people o f this country had to131
eat their food without s a lt 1* what would have been the volume
of salt trade can be judged by the above mentioned demand,'
however, its method of transit was lim ited 'as a result o f the
d ifficu lties mentioned above. Consequently the prices of
salt rose very high and achieved the epithat of luxurious
article132*
127 . A . Abrar, F .121 b
128 . We do not have any reference about the import of salt from any quarter other than Pun> b .
129 . A*A .XX (text) / p . 3SO (11) Tuzuk (tex t), ’ p .3 0 3 (i l l ) D .N . (text) Vol. I Chapt. XX, pp 1«- 16.
130 . A .Abrar, f . 122b131 . Shrlvara, p . 327
132 . Ray, S .c . p .2 o 7 . Even In present times its legacy is found In some far flung areas of Kashmir, where rock sa lt is bestowed as a token o f congratulation in times of seme happiest ceremonies.1
445
The ether items in th is category consisted •£ the
animals especially herses aad elephants. Accordlag te
Jahangir# there were no lecally«bred herses in Kashmir
prior te the Mughals aad the chief maaas m£ communication
133was a ss . H#wever# except fer the lead purposes this
animal was neither f it fer the conveyance nor f»r m ilitary
pucpeses. Thus as a result e f the eaermeus m ilitary demand#
apart from the problem e f the ne aas e f ceaveyaace and
pleasure riding, the supply e f horses was essential te
the p lace . Pram centernperary accounts we fcaew that the
herse stable was one ef the chief sources of strength £»r
134 .the stab ility e f the state and the Sultaa. Thus it had
been the constant anxiety e f the state to strengthen the
stable by Importing as many herses as it ceuld, which probably
never stepped under the prevailing m ilitary system n ecessiated
by the constant internal feuds aad external a g g r e s s io n s ,^
13 3 , Tuzuk (text) p , 305
134 , The importance of herses fer the m ilitary purposeshas been conspicuously referred te by Sheikh Nog ru'd-Din w h. „ y . .
"That without a herse the position e f a soldier is like that e f a father without a se n ". Saq i; p . 93
Besides we find that the seize of throne was usually
Sreceeded by the capture of the royal stable See hrivara, p , 173 ,
135 , A fter the death of 2ain-ul-Abtdin the period ef Sultaas was characterised by the internal strifes and external invasions. See Mohibul Hasan 'Kashmir uader the Sultaas'# pp 96 sqfy,.
446
Besides under the prevailing m ilitary system,' feet «©ly the
Sultan , but every noble had a substantial m ilitary force,
e f which horses fam ed the essential p art. This alse
increased the demand for the horses. Moreover, we find that
apart from the m ilitary purposes, the horses were Imported
fer the sake of conveyance aad pleasure riding . It was
the cheapest means o f conveyance ef the upper classes
Including the Su fi sa in ts . Shaikh Hamza, the famous salat
o f Kashmir had a stable, attacked to his Khaaqah fu ll e f 136
Imported horses. We find oae Hehidi Chak denoting four137
Turkish horses te the Shaikh 's stable . Thus because e f the
m ilitary demand aad being a sw ift source e f conveyance on
laad, a large number of wealth was spent en the said import.
138Hom os were ch iefly imported from Iraq and Turklstaa.
We also flad references te Arabh .r s J 3 9
which might have
been Imported through Central A s ia . According to t(L ceaten*erary140
source, the cost e f a Turkish horse was Rupees 250} a considerable
amount I f judged by the medieval value o f money.
Besides, horses, the elephants were also Imported
for m ilitary purposes. We have references In the chrenlcles
136 . (1) C . A r ifla , f f . 8oa-b (11) T #A r tfin , f . 4l 8a
1 3 7 . T . Arifla# f . 440b1 3 8 . Ib id ( U ) TuzUk# (text) p . 305
1 3 9 . Q .G .Y .S f f . 6a (l l ) T.A.(taott) p 603
1 4 0 . T .A rifla# f . 440b
447
about the empleyraeat •£ elephants la the w rs side by
side with the herses aad aa elephaat stable like a herse
stable attached te the reyal headquarter1?1 The elephants
were alse bestowed as gifts by the Sultaas te their
faveurites*}2 Elephants were obviously inserted £rem the
eastern parts e£ Indian sub-continent.
kaxurims arttoJLaf*
Ameag the luxury articles imperted mentiea may
ne made ef geld aad silver# textiles# spices# precieus
stsees etc.
A large prapertiea e£ geld aad silver was used
fer display though a small quaatity e£ it was used £er
ce iaagei4? Apart frara the upper class w»menl44geld aad145
silver eraaments w»re used by the Sultaas aad aebles •
Besides 'mahr1 by the upper class Muslims was alse paid
la terms ef silver and geld14? Is add it lea te this the14
uteasils e£ the upper class were made e£ geld aad silver •
141. Jeaaraja; p . 57 (11) Shrivaraf p . 171
142. Suka# p . 393.
143. Seme geld aad silver ceias e£ eur per led are preserved la the Sri Far tap Museum »f Srinagar (Kashmir) .
144. Jeaaraja; p . 87 (11) Th.A, pp 36-37, (111) S.A* £.25
145. Shrlvara, pp 183# 184# Tol, 214# 323.
146. Th. Af p . 68 (11) S.Af £.25a
147. Jeaarajai p . 90
448
demand by the upper strata e f the seciety and constituted
the most wanted item in the l is t e f Imports. According te
148th eextan t sources geld was imparted from Tibet .
O f the textiles imported/ brecadeicloth/
em broidered cleth and cetten cleth are worthy te mentieaw
£-yy\l>Xoic((!YJnPThe brecaded cleth and eatees?«4ed cleth was imported te
satisfy the demand e f the royalty. These were alse bestowed
by the Sultans ea their favourites. However/ the import ef
cotton cleth was more important since it fu lfilled the
demand e f a large number ef people as the summer dress.
Silken cleth was locally manufactured but its use was
confined te the selected few and its use was alse lim ited
149on religious grounds . While as the cotton textile industry
does net seen te have flourished in the country te fu lfill
ISOthe internal consumption . Thus the requirement e f a
considerable m ajority Cor summer dress was fu lfille d by the
148. T .A j (text) p . 7 (11) Morkham/ Mission e f Begel te Tibet# vide M ehibbu'l Hasan* p . 121.
149 . D .S .I f p . 394.
150 . Moore raft writing about Kashmir even in 19th century gives a poor opinion about the progress e f the cotton textile Industry M eorcraft/ «**ad Trebec Travels in the Himalayan prenlces of Hindustan and the Punjab#! la X*adakh and Kashmir ed . by H .H . Wilson# Volf I I /p . 154."
Thus besides the coinage, geld and silver was in large
449
imported cettea clothes. The varieties e f brocade cloth,
embroidered cloth and cotton cloth were imported frera Indian
sub-c«attBe«t15l
Besides Ladakh also imported to Kashmir weaken
fabrics which were sold by the Ladakhi merchants aad were
152suitable for royalty .
Spices was aa another article of Import, To under
stand the lateaslty ef the demand for specie## we must have
some knowledge of social l ife ef the tim e. As we have seea
that It was this per led te which modern * Kashmiri Wazawam*
owes Its existence* Almost a ll the dishes we find today la
153Kashmir were frequently used by the upper classes , As a
result spleces may almost be described accessaries at this
per led and these had to be bought frem where ever they were
to be fetiad and at whatever exorbltaat rate te sa tisfy the
154 155aeeds of the people * Peppar was bought from Agra aad
156prebably sold at high prices *
151. Shrlvara# p . 151 (11) T* Murshldf ££. 42a*to.
152 . Joaaraja# p . 18
153. (I) Th.A# p p .6 8 ,9 4 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 1 , (ll) T . Arifla# f .4 5 6a , 457a, ( I I I ) Saqi# p . 9 0 .
154* See T . Arifla# p . 4oa» The cook e f Ghazl Shah, the Chakruler ef Kashmir (1561-63) bringing the latter the dishwith sweet smelling sp ices. See also C . Arifla# f .S o a , Sheikh Hamza, the great salat o f Kashmir selling three horses o f his stable for purchasing spices fer the kitchen e f his Khaaqah.
155 . Palsaert# p . 3 6
156 . (I) N . Hama# f.33a- b, (ll) A . Abrar# £ .92b .
450
From Khetan was imperted# Yashab# (oriental Jade)
me ©£ the meat valued precious stones £®r which it has been
famous since ancient times and was the chief source •£
supply te the east. The commercial relations between the
twe countries existed since ancient times as the coins of
Rajas and Sultans have bean discovered there1 According
to a latter source precieus stones were alse imported from
Badkhshan#' Bokhara and Yarqand1?8
Besides these principle.: luxurious articles of
import some miner articles ®£ this category were alse
imported. Musk, China, Wood# rhubarb and memiren were
imperted from China15? According to Zafar Hama sens £ruits
like lemons# oranges and dates which did not grow in Kashmir
3.6ftwere imported from the neighbouring warm regions • This
is also substantiated by other contemporary records* We find
references te dates of Arabia and superior quality ef
pomegranate imported from Jalal-Abad~Pur# Kabul t
157. J .A .S .» . txvtllf pp 28-32# Vide M *hibbu 'l Hasan# p. 246# a . 8
158 . bawrance# p . 6 5 .
159 . Berntar* pp 425-426
1 6 0 . 2 .N . (text)# IX p . 179
161 . T* Morshid# ff 45b~46a (it ) T. Arifin# f ;44 2b
451
* m ftatagUigA
The mest Important e f all the articles imported
was probably the raw materials* ea which depended the twe
celebrated industri.es v iz Shawl aad S ilk which net wily
earned a large amount ©f fereiga currency but prevlded
livelihood te a large number e£ people. We have seea that
twe aerts •£ shawls were manufactured ia the ceuatry
(1) Alacha Shawls--these which were made e£ the wool •£ the
ceuatry and ( 2) Tus shawls— these which were made •£ the weel
•£ aa animal e f that aame which inhabits Great T ibet^f2
Hewever# the kiad e f shawl which was unrivalled and made
the ceuatry faraeus la the whole world#'* fer its lightaess#
warmth# durability and seftness was the Tuz Shawl1? 3 Thus
te retain its fame aad te preserve a chle£ source ef income#
Kashmir had te depend fer its raw material exclusively ea
Tibet# the ealy preducer ef this quality e f weel16f Besides#
te meet the lacreasing demand e f shawl weel " i t had beea the
usual business ef the Kashmiri merchants te travel from
meuntaia te mountain te collect the fine weel with which
*165shawls were manufactured . Ladakh and Yarqand alse supplied
162* a .A . I I (text) ff 352 (11) Bernier# p . 403
163 . Ibid#
164 . Ib id (11) T . A rif in# £ .49 lb (il l ) Tuzuk (text) p i3o f
165 . Beraier* p . 419.
452
shawl wo®l te Kashmir1 #6 Accord lag to Moor era ft by an
ancient agreement Tlbets shawl wool was exported only te
Ladakh aad sim ilarly by ancient custom and engagements Its
export from Ladakh was confined to Kashmir alone. A H
a t t e s t s to convey It to other countries were punished by
16?confiscation . However# we do net know the quantity o f
shawl wool imported during our period. But la the time of
Heeecraft about 800 horse loads were Imported annually
168each weighing about 23 trakhs • Another Important article
of th is class of Imports was the silk worm eggs aad s ilk
yarn to rua an Important industry v iz s ilk Industry o f
Kashmir. We have seen that the sllkea clothes were the
favourite dress of the royalty aad were frequently conferred
by them ea their favourItJtes . Thus te meet the exhaustive
demand o f the royaltty, the state patronized the silk
Industry. The silk Industry had to meet its extra needs
apart from those met by Kashm iri's own plentiful local culture
of raw s ilk 1! 0 The additional raw s ilk was imported from
its northern neighbours where It was found In great abundance
16 6 . Irwin# Kashmir and Its Shawl# p p .31-32.
167 . Meorcraft# Vol. I# 347
168 . Ibid# V o l. H # p . 165
169 . Shrlvara# p p . 151# 138# 20?# 230 .
170 . T .R . (M .S) f.277a (ll) A .A .I I (text) p . 351 ( H i ) Tuzuk (text)# p . 304.
453
and with which Kashmir had close commercial r e la t io n s .
It is important to point out here that the basis of Kashmiri
raw s ilk v is the s ilk worm eggs were imported from G ilg it
and B altistaa3’? 2
jBxoortai
The exports of Kashmir were many but among the
principal articles of expert for which Kashmir had been
celebrated throughout the world was its Shawl and Saffron.
From the accounts o f <-bu*l Fazl and Jahangir it
become quite clear that the shawl industry was the most
flourishing industry of Kashmir under the Sultans and had
dominated the world market. As a result of the natural
quality which bestowed Kashmiri shawl with softness and
delicate stexture/ Kashmir became the only distributor of
such shawls in the world* Its range of asqaort had no lim its .
It was exported to the various parts of the Indian sub
continent# Central A sia , T ibet, China fed to borrow the
metaphor of Abu* 1 Fazl *to every d i m e ' 1! 3 The volume of
this export must have been very large ia view of the prodigious
171
171. J .A .S .B , ixv iiif p p . 28-32.
172 . A*Aj I I (text) p* 351 (i i ) Tuzuk (text) p* 304
173* (i) a .A| I I (text) p p . 350-35.1, See also Ain- UAkbariV ol. I (te x t ); p . 74 for the export of shawls to Indiaprior to the Mughal occupation o f Kashmir*
454
quantity ef shawls manufactured and exported .
Saffron# for which Kashmir has been famous since
times immemorial, was an equally important and profitable
175article e f expart. The extensive cultivation o f saffron j
its unparalled flavour and its position of being an
176important source of revenue to the state te stify to
177its overwhelming demand as an article of foreign trade .
Due to the paucity e f material we are unable to mention
the lands where it was sent. However#' incidentally there
is a reference of two traders who dealt in regular supply
17Sof saffron to India • What was the quantity o f export
is also not ferth-ceming but ws can in£er its large income
from the fact that once the saffron o f a merchant was
179looted on his way the cost o f which was 8s. lO+OOO/* •
Next to these two important articles# mention may be made
o f the export of paper known as 'Kashmiri Kagkaz1®0 It
was in great demand in Hindustan whore it was used for
131writing the Holy urans and other documents . For the dxport
1 7 4 . Ibid#
175 . Ibid# I# p . 69 (ii) Tuzuk# (text)p . 46
176 . Ibid#
177 . The absence of foreign market was responsible for the extreme poverty of same industries o£ Kashmir# See Jk ^ra p . 2.7̂
1 78 . * T . Arifin# £ .374b
1 7 9 . Ibid#
1801' See supra p »Jt
181 . Ibid# p .
174
455
It Is better te quote George Forster who wrote la 1783
that "the Kafchmiris fabricated the best writ lag paper
e f the East and that It was formerly aa article e f extensive
182traffic . Other articles ef export were musk, crystals#
lead# weiien cleth1 .^ Babur Includes musk# lead and cepper
184among the Important articles sf expert ef Kashmir •
Besides a ll the foreign travellers who travelled te Kashmir
during eur period ©r immediately after it have tremendously
praised Kashmir for its abundance « f delicious fruits and
vegetables ̂ ^ B u t there is n© reference in c hr m i d es te
their expert# which became a regular supply te India after
181its conquest by the Mughal3 in 1586 .
value of Kashmir paper during the parted trader review
182* Forester# G .A . Journey fr«m Bengal to England#through the Northern part e f In d ia / Kashmir etc*#Volf I I p. 19
133* Babar-Nama (Saver Idge) , I I . p. 485(II ) T .A . (text) p . 603(I I I ) T.Jf. (text) p . 344 . There Is a reforeace In the Shah Kama e f Firdusl te Kashmiri woelea stuffs kaowa to the ancient perslans/ as It Is kaowa to ua for Its warmth and durability . Among the cwnmesslorate r e q u is it e s necessary for a new army# Yazdigird, the last ef the Sassanian kings mentions the cloth o f Kashmir# journal Royal Asiatic Society / Bombay/l095# XDC# p . 241.
18#. Ibid*
186. (I) T .R . (E&D)f p . 276(I I ) A .A .f I (t<*xt) pp 50-51( I I I ) Tuzuk (text) p . 304 .
187 . A .A . (text) | V o l. I# p p . 50-51
456
D iffic u ltie s in conducting the f arei^p trade and
tt<S .lfM?SCit«!ii ..........................in .m w ■ ■■ i . uni . i . i , ............. mm i. i . i
Although literary evidence testifies te the
fact that Kashmir had much scope for Imports as well
as exports but its progress was hampered by many factors
both natural as well as man made. First and foremost was
the absence of easy means o f communication. The traders
had to pass through the tedious and troublesome jungles/
snow clad and inaccessible mountains, often visited by
the snows, r a in fa ll / cold winds, etc . Some ideas of the so
d ifficu lties can be had from the aaceunt o f S t . Xgvier,
who accompanied Afcbar from Lahore t® Kashmir through the
P lr Pantsal route. He says "How much trouble wo had in
getting through these mountains/ which are much bigger
than those of our Pyreness# and when we had passed one/
there was another s t ill worse. For eight er ten days,' wo
went from mountain to mountain/ from snow to snow/ and under•» lag
great c e ld / though it was the end of Hay . These
conditions were thus inconsistent even with the mere
189walking or the conveyance effected by the pack animals
not to mention the passage of any heavy tr a ffic . As a
result the foreign trade was badly hindered.
188 . Journal Asiatic Soceity Bengal/ Volt X X III , 1927 /Not I , p . 116 .
18 9 . Z .N .(t e x t )I V ol. Ilf p . 180.
457
Secondly these routes remained blecaded fer the
mast part e f the year because e f 3new1f0Thus trade could
net be conducted throughout the year.
Thirdly since the routes passed through the
mountaHlaiK areas, where travelling was mostly effected
by walking en feet, leng Intervals, as a result elapsed
In the passage of a carvan. Thus a jeuraey frera Srinagar
191to Ladakh occupied more than one month .
Fourthly there was the problem o f security of
l ife and property o f the merchants. The roads were
Infested with cobbers and thugs and the danger of the
loss of property was too great to permit the passage of
small or unprotected convoys. There aro many references
In the •Tnzkirao* to the looting of the property of the
merchants by the robbers and * thugs ‘ on their way which
led**the Indian sub-continent1 . 2
Another grave d ifficu lty In this context was the
Internal disturbances and external Invasions19! which
besides affecting the trade in many ways resulted Into
—• —• — . — • —* —* —* — • —• —»—• *•*—*—• • •
1 9 0 . A*A| I I (text) p . 350 (11) Tuzukf (text) p . 303 (il l ) P .N . (text) Volj I , Chapter H # pp 15-16
191 . Journal Royal Asiatic Society, X I I (185o) i p . 373
192 . T . Arlflni f . 340b , 372b, 374b, 41oa.
193 . The Internal disturbances and external Invasions became coalmen In Kashmir after the death of Suit
Zainu'l-Abidin.
458
gave passage to foreign lands and thus disrupting the
194commercial activities of Kashmir •
These and sim ilar other problems affected the
pro ress of foreign trade of Kashmir and thereby the
economy of Kashmir a whole. First the scope for this
method of transit was strictly limited to the goods of high
value in proportion to their bulk and promising a v e ^ large
proportionate profit at their destination* This speaks
why only shawl and saffron achieved tremendous external
commercial value and why the other equally Important
commercial goods like fruits and veget^bl s , Doedar wood
195etc , lost the same or why the occasional famines in
196Kashmir became so severe •
Secondly due to the blockade of roads, the merchants
often indulged in hoarding of the imported articles to sore
the prices up in times o f scarcity . That is why when Zainu'l-\ ■■
Abidin issued an order to the merchants not to indulge in \
the blocade of the roads, especially of those which
194. Shrlvara# p . 327.
195. From the account of A bu 'l Fazl it seems that fruits began to be exported to Hindustan only after Kashmir became a part of the Mughal empire. The statementof A b u 'l Fazl also makes it cl#ar that the export of fruits and vegetables from Kashmir to Hindustan was fostered by the Mughal emperors who were extremely impressed by the sweet and delicious fruits and vegetables of Kashmir, a .A# I (text)# pp. 50-51.
196* In view of the geographical nature of the country we do not have any reference in the chronicles to import of any sort of food stuffs in the midst of severe famines which occasionally visited Kashmir during our period, as a result of which they took heavy toi»l of l i f e .
459
hoarding aad black market-.ing, he made a particular
reference te these articles which were imported frera
1q 7foreign lands * These factors alse explain the weakness
ef m arket ing structure, economic under development and
unfavourable position o f the volume o f foreign trade,
l̂ gfcata.tfhteh. tha.Trafoi
Inspite of the a b w e mentioned d iffic u lt ie s ,
which no doubt hampered the external trade of K ashm ir
yet the trade flourished i f measured by the then standards
and the geographical condition of the valley* This could
not have been possible without sone definite reasons*
First the outlets which connected Kashmir with
foreign lands had a number of alternative routes which
could be taken when the need ar#se. For example according
to A b u 'l Fazl twenty six routes connected Kashmir with
India1?8 and the same was the case with other routes which
connected Kashmir to the other parts e£ the world* These
different routes had their different characteristics* Some
were warmer but more d iffic u lt , while others were cold but
easy for passage* Thus those which were warmer were used in
199cold days and vice versa * As a result trade activities became
possible inspite of the high mountains which encircled the
valley*
197* (i) T .A# (text) p . 6ol (ii ) T .f * (text) f p . 342*
198* A*Aj(text) Vol. I I ; p* 350
199* (!) A.Af I I (text) p* 350 (ii) Tuzuk# (text) p* 303(ii i ) P .N .I . Chapter I I (te x t ); p p . 15-16.
460
However, the most important factor which contributed
te the development e f trade was the patronage e f the state
which may be b rie fly outlined as £ollewss«
The Sultans net only revived and enriched the eld
industries e£ Kashmir# but alse introduced a number of new
sues such as paper industry#' carpet in d u stry ^^ e tc . These
Industries were given full state patronage as a result
which Kashmir became heme ef arts and crafts and achieved
world wide fame as the producer of seme fine and unrivalled
pieces ®£ arts# which dominated the markets of a ll its
neighbouring countries. Besides due to the flourishing
industries, its scape widened as the greatest importer
of the raw material far same o f its advanced industries
like shawl industry.
Secondly the Sultans maintained ftftondly relations
with the rulers o f far e££ countries like ffars# Iraq#
S i j is tan, Gllan# Egypt#’ Mecca# besides the Indian
sub-continent# Persia and Central A s U ^ T h l s tremendously
widened the scope of external trade of Kashmir .-
200. Supra# pp
201 . Shrivara# p . ISo# ( I D T .A . (text) p . 603# (t il) T .P . (text) p . 304.
461
Another and most important step taken by the state
to promote the trade e£ Kashmir was the construction of a
network o f inns and places of protection within the city# in
2«2the v illages , close to the mountains and oven within the
forest* 203 to facilitate the journey of the traders and
travellers. It is important to note that same inns wore provided
not only with shelter arrangements but even food was provided
to them by the stato^^Besides, tanks were also constructed
close to the mountains for the benefit of the travellers2*®
Last but not the least step taken by the state was
to facilitate the transport of gvads aa far as they could.
Apart from constructing a number of permanent bridges in the
valley,' some Sultans like Zainu '1-.Abidin bu ilt a colony o f load
carriers at an important outlet , to make the transport available
to the traders near to the needful places, since the load carriers
were the only means ©f transport an the passes• A ll these factors
contributed ta the development of foreign trade of Kashmir during
our per iod.
202 . Jonaraja# p . 35
203 . Ibid# p . 82
204. Ibid# p . 36 . Jonaraja says that s'me rest houses b u iltby Zainu*l-Abidin at the outskirts of villages woro supported by v illagers.
20 « . Ib id ; p. 35
206 . Stein, Anc. Goo# p . 75^2
462
In return for the peace and prosperity which the
merchants enjoyed, they had te bear same charges. Custom
houses were established en the passes leading te the foreign
countries where the duties had to be paid &a the conmodltles
both imported as well as exported20! what was the rate of
duty paid on the articles is net known, however/ ws can
infer that the scales of customs dies were dlstlncly moderate
since there is net even a passing reference te shew that
exorbitant rates were charged on the commodities.
Besides# the main routes an which the custom houses
were posted# there were by-passes which were used oometimes
to escape from the country when the main routes used te be
properly guarded2?8 There is little roam to doubt that these
routes might have been alse sometimes taken by the traders
to escape from the levy of taxes on their goods or for
smuggling purposes or to escape frsm the passport system
introduced to regulate the course of commerce and te check
2qqunauthorised emigration or e s c a p e ™
Trading ..
A few words must be alse said about the fam ilies of
Kashmir the members o£ which had specialized especially In
207 . Jonarajaf p . 97 (il) Shrlvaraj p . 140
208. Jeaarajaj p . 66
2o9• (1) Shrlvara# p . 271# ( I D Sukaj p . 340
463
conducting the foreign trade. The most prominent
communities among the Muslims were 'A s h a te ^a k ?10#
Kawoosa2* } Katjee21? Nawchee2^ 3 Baaday2}:4 Ganle215 The
castes among the Hindus who also carried the trade are
sot known.
However# the doors for conducting trade were
not closed to other communities who did not possess the
hereditary wealth since as we have seen to use the medern
term banking was not unknown.
The paucity of material does not allow us to throw
any light on the composition o f forelcpa merchants who
conducted trade In the country.
It is Impossible ts> make even a rough estimate
of the net profit ©btaiaed by Kasimlr from foreign trade.
However# the passing evidences show that the merchants
gained considerable p ro fits . They were the wealthy men o f the
210 . T . Arlfln# ft 410a
211. Ibid# f .413b & 452b
212.’ -Cbldf f . 387b
213 . Ibldf f .340b
214 . Ibid# £ .488 a-b
2 1 5 . Ibid# £ .374 a&b>
464
society* Besides, we find Kashmiri merchants giv ing
"(£arzi feusana" even to the people ef far flung countries
like Kashgar21!
In short, the varied trade ef Kashmir benefitted
directly and indirectly every section e f the society.
It gave rise te a very prospers*** merchants cemmuntty
whose p ro fit was shared by the state, the labourer, the
broker, the money lender, the transporter e tc . I t gave
a boost to the indigenous industries which indirectly
benefitted the whole community.
Secondly K ashm iris foreign trade was not merely
an exchange of c«offleditles* I t also reflects the growing
understanding and friendship o f Kashmir with these countries
and their concern for one another's v ital needs*
Moreover, the fact that Kashmir has already a *
extensive experience over the past hundreds of years to
expand its trade with far* flung areas inspite of the
stumbling block o£ the means o f communication and other
d ifficu lties of then tiroes, is the firm guarantee that
in the coming days and years this mutually benef itted trade
relations would expand steedily in view e£ its importance
as a dominant factor in the economic growth and development
o f a country and the fact that Kashmir is now no more an
isolated country*
216* T . Ajrifin# (text) f . 38?a