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CHAPTER NINE The Art of the Third Dimension THE VOCABULARY OF THE THIRD DIMENSION BASIC CONCEPTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART Sculpture Other Areas of Three-Dimensional Art Architecture Metalwork Glass Design Ceramics Fiberwork Product Design THE COMPONENTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART Materials and Techniques Subtraction Manipulation Addition Substitution The Elements of Three-Dimensional Form Shape Value Space Texture Line Color Time (the fourth dimension) Principles of Three-Dimensional Order Harmony and Variety Balance Proportion Economy Movement Installations

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C H A P T E R N I N E

The A r t o ft h e T h i r dD i m e n s i o n

THE VOCABULARY OF THE THIRD DIMENSION

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART

SculptureOther Areas of Three-Dimensional ArtArchitectureMetalworkGlass DesignCeramicsFiberworkProduct Design

THE COMPONENTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART

Materials and TechniquesSubtraction

ManipulationAdditionSubstitutionThe Elements of Three-Dimensional FormShape

ValueSpaceTextureLineColorTime (the fourth dimension)Principles of Three-Dimensional OrderHarmony and VarietyBalanceProportionEconomyMovementInstallations

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THE VOCABULARY OF THE THIRD DIMENSIONThree-dimensional Possessing, or creating the illusion of possessing, the dimension of depth as well as the dimensions

of height and width.

additionA sculptural term that means building up,assembling, or putting on material.

atectonicCharacterized by considerable amounts ofspace; open, as opposed to massive (ortectonic), and often with extendedappendages.

BauhausOriginally a German school ofarchitecture that flourished betweenWorld War I and World War II. TheBauhaus attracted many leadingexperimental artists of both two- andthree-dimensional fields.

castingA sculptural technique in which liquidmaterials are shaped by being poured intoa mold.

glypticI. The quality of an art material like stone,wood, or metal that can be carved orengraved. 2. An art form that retains thecolor and the tensile and tactile qualitiesof the material from which it was created.3. The quality of hardness, solidity, orresistance found in carved or engravedmaterials.

installationsInterior or exterior settings of mediacreated by artists to heighten the viewers'awareness of the environmental space.

manipulationThe sculptural technique of shaping pliablematerials by hands or tools.

mass (third dimension)1. In graphic art, a shape that appears tostand out three-dimensionally from thespace surrounding it or that appears tocreate the illusion of a solid body ofmaterial.2. In the plastic arts, the physical bulk of asolid body of material.

mobileA three-dimensional moving sculpture.

modelingThe sculptural technique of shaping apliable material.

patinaI. A natural film, usually greenish, thatresults from the oxidation of bronze orother metallic material. 2. Coloredpigments and/or chemicals applied to asculptural surface.

relief sculptureAn art work, graphic in concept butsculptural in application, utilizing relativelyshallow depth to establish images. Thespace development may range from verylimited projection, known as "low relief,"to more exaggerated space development,known as "high relief." Relief sculpture ismeant to be viewed frontally, not in theround.

sculptureThe art of expressive shaping of three-dimensional materials. "Man's expressionto man through three-dimensional form"(Jules Struppeck; see Bibliography).

shape (third dimension)An area that stands out from the spacenext to or around it due to a defined orimplied boundary or because ofdifferences in value, color, or texture.

silhouetteThe area between or bounded by thecontours, or edges, of an object; the totalshape.

substitutionIn sculpture, replacing one material ormedium with another (see also casting).

subtractionA sculptural term meaning the carving orcutting away of materials.

tectonicThe quality of simple massiveness; lackingany significant extrusions or intrusions.

voidI. An area lacking positive substance andconsisting of negative space. 2. A spatialarea within an object that penetrates andpasses through it.

volume (third dimension)A measurable area of defined or occupiedspace.

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BASIC CONCEPTSOF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART

In the preceding chapters, ourexamination of art fundamentals hasbeen limited mostly to the graphic arts.These art disciplines (drawing, painting,photography, printmaking, graphicdesign, and so on) have two dimensions(height and width), existing on a flatsurface and generating sensations ofspace mainly through illusions createdby the artist. This chapter deals withthe unique properties of three-dimensional artwork and the creativeconcepts that evolve from theseproperties.

In three-dimensional art, the addeddimension is that of actual depth. Thisdepth results in a greater sense of realityand, as a consequence, increases thephysical impact of the work. This is truebecause a graphic work is usually limitedto one format plan, always bounded by ageometrically shaped picture frame,while a three-dimensional work islimited only by the outer extremities ofits multiple positions and/or views. Thethree-dimensional format, although morecomplicated, offers greater freedom tothe artist and greater viewing interest tothe spectator.

Because actual depth is fundamentalto three-dimensional art, one must be inthe presence of the artwork to fullyappreciate it. Words and graphicrepresentations of three-dimensional artare not substitutes for actual experience.Two-dimensional depictions are flat,rigid, and representative of only oneviewpoint; however, they do serve as avisual shorthand for actual sensoryexperiences. In this text, and particularlyin this chapter, we use two-dimensionaldescriptions, by way of text andphotographic reproductions, as the mostconvenient means of conveying thethree-dimensional experience. But we

9 • 1

Isamu Noguchi, The Stone Within, 1982.Basalt, 75 x 38 x 27 in. (190.5 x 96.5x 68.6 cm).The sculptor Noguchi has subtracted justenough stone in this work to introduce hisconcept of minimal form while preserving theintegrity of the material and its heavy, weightymass.Isamu Noguchi Foundation. Photograph by Michio

Noguchi.

emphatically encourage readers to putactual observation into practice.

Practicing artists and art authoritiesdesignate the three-dimensional qualitiesof objects in space with such terms asform, shape, mass, and volume. The termform can be misleading here, because itsmeaning differs from the definitionapplied in early chapters—the inventivearrangement of all the visual elementsaccording to principles that will produceunity. In a broad structural sense, form isthe sum total of all the media andtechniques used to organize the three-dimensional elements within an artwork.In this respect, a church is a total formand its doors are contributing shapes;similarly, a human figure is a total form,while the head, arms, and legs arecontributing shapes. However, in a morelimited sense, form may just refer to theappearance of an object—to a contour, ashape, or a structure. Shape, whenused in a three-dimensional sense, mayrefer to a positive or open negative area.By comparison, mass invariablydenotes a solid physical object ofrelatively large weight or bulk. Mass mayalso refer to a coherent body of matter,like clay or metal, that is not yet shapedor to a lump of raw material that couldbe modeled or cast. Stone carvers,

accustomed to working with glypticmaterials, tend to think of a heavy,weighty mass (fig. 9.1); modelers, whomanipulate clay or wax, favor a pliablemass. Volume is the amount of spacethe mass, or bulk, occupies, or the three-dimensional area of space that is totallyor partially enclosed by planes, linearedges, or wires. Many authoritiesconceive of masses as positive solids andvolumes as negative open spaces. Forexample, a potter who throws a bowl ona wheel adjusts the dimensions of the

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9• 2John W. Goforth, Untitled, 1971. Castaluminum, 153/4 in. (40 cm) high withbase.

The volume incorporates the space, bothsolid and empty, that is occupied by thework.

Collection of Otto Ocvirk. Courtesy of CarolynGoforth.

9• 3Joan Livingstone, Seeped, 1997-2000. Felt, stain, resin, pigment, and steei, 112 x36 x 96 in. (284.5 x 91.4 x 243.8 cm).

Modern sculpture exploits every conceivable material that suits the intentions of the artist.

Courtesy of the artist and the SYBARIS Gallery, Royal Oak, Ml. Photograph by Michael Tropea.

interior volume (negative interior space)by expanding or compressing the clayplanes (positive mass).The sculptor whoassembles materials may also enclosenegative volumes to form uniquerelationships (fig. 9.2).

Looking more widely, most objectsin our environment have three-dimensional qualities of height, width,and depth and can be divided intonatural and human-made forms.Although natural forms may stimulatethe thought processes, they are not inthemselves creative. Artists invent formsto satisfy their need for self-expression.In the distant past, most three-dimensional objects were created forutilitarian purposes.They included suchimplements as stone axes, pottery,hammers, and knives, as well as objects ofworship. Nearly all these human-madeforms possessed qualities of artisticexpression; many depicted the animalstheir creators hunted. These prehistoricobjects are now considered an earlyexpression of the sculptural impulse.

SCULPTURE

The term sculpture has had variedmeanings throughout history. The wordderives from the Latin verb sculpere,which refers to the process of carving,cutting, or engraving. The ancientGreeks' definition of sculpture alsoincluded the modeling of suchpliable materials as clay or wax toproduce figures in relief or in the round.The Greeks developed an ideal standardfor the sculptured human form that wasconsidered the perfect physicalorganization—harmonious, balanced,and totally related in all parts.Theconcept of artistic organization was partof the definition of sculpture(see fig. 2.42).

Modern sculpture has taken on newqualities in response to the changingconditions of an industrialized age.Science and machinery have made

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sculptors more conscious of materialsand technology and more aware of theunderlying abstract structure in their art.

Sculpture is no longer limited tocarving and modeling. It now refers to anymeans of giving intended form to all typesof three-dimensional materials. Thesemeans include welding, bolting, riveting,gluing, sewing, machine-hammering, andstamping. In turn, the three-dimensionalartists have expanded their range ofsculptural forms to include planar, solid,and linear constructions made of suchmaterials as steel, plastic, wood, and fabric(fig. 9.3).The resulting sculptures arestronger (even though made of lightermaterials) and more open.They also haveexpanded spatial relationships. Three-dimensional forms like wire constructionsand mobiles have changed thedefinition of sculpture that, prior to thenineteenth century, would have includedonly solid, heavy, and sturdy glyptic forms.Michelangelo Buonarroti, an innovativesculptor within his Renaissance timeframe, thought only in terms of massivematerials and heavy figures (fig. 9.4).

The diversity of newfound materialsand techniques has led to greaterindividual expression and artisticfreedom. Sculptors experiment with newtheories and have found new audiencesand new markets (fig. 9.5).

OTHER AREAS OFTHREE-DIMENSIONALART

The bulk of this book has addressed worksof pure or fine art that have no practicalfunction. But sensitivity to the sculptural(and/or artistic) impulse is not confined tothe fine arts; it permeates all three-dimensional structures.The same abstractquality of expressive beauty that is thefoundation for a piece of sculpture canunderlie such functional forms asautomobiles, television receivers,telephones, industrial equipment, windowand interior displays, furniture, andbuildings (fig. 9.6). Artist-designers of thesethree-dimensional products organizeelements, shapes, textures, colors, and space

9• 4Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Bearded Captive,c. 1516-27. Marble, 8 ft 81/4 in. (2.65 m) high.Michelangelo created heavy, massive sculpture andenlarged the sizes of human body parts for expressivepurposes. The tectonic composition was in keepingwith the intrinsic nature of the stone.Accademia, Florence, Italy. © Arte & Immagine srl/Corbis.

9• 5Naum Gabo, Linear Construction in Space No. / (Variation),1942-43 (enlargement 1957-58). Plexiglas with nylonmonofilament, 243/4 x 243/4 x 9'/2 in. (62.9 x 62.9 x 24.1 cm).Naum Gabo was an early pioneer in the Constructivist movement. Hecreated sculptures free of traditional figures with such new materials asthe sheet plastic seen here.Patsy R. and Raymond D. Nasher Collection, Dallas, TX. Photograph by David Heald.

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9 • 6

Pontiac Protosport concept car, 2001 GM Corp. Mixed media, full scale.

New concepts in automotive design are determined by advances in technology, engineering,economics, and visual appearance. One of the stages of the design process is shown here asartisans model the basic form.

2001 GM Corp. Used with permission of the GM Media Archives.

9 •7

Armchair designed by FrankLloyd Wright for the Ray W.Evans House, Chicago, IL,made by Neideken andWalbridge, c. 1908. Oak,341/4 x 23 x 22 1/2 in. (86.9x 58.5 X 57.1 cm).

To Wright, form and functionwere inseparable, so a chair,which functions for sitting,should be considered along withthe whole architecturalenvironment.

Art Institute of Chicago. Gift of Mr.

and Mrs. F. M. Fahrenwald, 1970.435.

Photo © Art Institute of Chicago. Allrights reserved. © 2001 Frank Lloyd

Wright Foundation, Scottsdale, AZ,Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY.

according to the same principles ofharmony, proportion, balance, and varietyas are used in the fine arts. Although formprinciples can be applied to such usefulobjects, the need for utility often restrictsthe creative latitude of the artist.

The famous architect Louis Sullivanmade the oft-repeated remark that "formfollows function." This concept hasinfluenced several decades of design,changing the appearance of tools,telephones, silverware, chairs, and a vastarray of other familiar and less familiaritems. Sometimes this concept ismisapplied. The idea of streamlining ispractical when applied to the design ofsuch moving objects as trains and cars,because it has the function of reducingwind resistance. However, streamlining hasno logical application for the design ofspoons and lamps. Although streamlining ishelpful in eliminating irrelevancies fromdesign, even simplification can beoverdone. The Bauhaus notion of thehouse as a "machine for living" helpedarchitects rethink architectural principles,but it also produced many cold and austerestructures against which there wasinevitable reaction.

Contemporary designers are veryaware of the functional needs of theobjects they plan. Consequently, theydesign forms that express and aidfunction. However, designers also knowthat these objects need to be aestheticallypleasing. All of this points out that thecreator of functional objects must be ableto apply the principles of fundamentalorder within the strictures of utilitarianneed. Frank Lloyd Wright, the celebratedAmerican architect, combinedarchitecture, engineering, and art inshaping his materials and theirenvironment. The unity of his ideas isexpressed in the chair he designed forthe Ray Evans House (fig. 9.7).Thesophisticated design and formal balancethat Wright incorporated into thisordinary object can be seen in his highlyselective repetitions, proportionalrelationships, and detail refinement.

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The balance that exists betweendesign, function, and expressive contentwithin an object varies with each creator.For instance, when designing his rockinglounge chair, Michael Coffey placed strongemphasis on expressive form withouttotally sacrificing the function of recliningcomfort (fig. 9.8). At first glance, we aredrawn in by the chair's dominant outercontour and by its open shape. This uniquepiece of furniture resembles many freelyexpressed contemporary sculptures.Expressive form follows function in a newand creative way.

Tremendous developments havetaken place in the general areas of three-dimensional design where works usuallyserve some functional purpose.

Architecture

Recent technological innovations andnew building materials have givenarchitects greater artistic flexibility.Thanks to developments in the steel andconcrete industries, buildings can now belarge in scale without projecting massive,weighty forms. With the advent ofelectric lighting, vast interior spaces canbe illuminated. Because of airconditioning, buildings can be completelyenclosed or sheathed in glass.Cantilevered forms can be extended intospace. Sophisticated free-formed shapescan be created with the use of precastconcrete. All of these structuralimprovements have allowed architects tothink and plan more freely.Contemporary public buildings thatdemonstrate these developments includethe National Assembly Building at Shere-e-Bangla Nagar, in Dhaka, Bangladesh(fig. 9.9); the Lincoln Center for thePerforming Arts in New York; theKennedy Center in Washington, D.C.; theJefferson Westward Expansion Memorialin St. Louis; and the Los Angeles CityHall and Civic Center. In many waysarchitects today are "building sculptors,"and their designs require a thoroughgrounding in artistic principles as well as

9 • 8Michael Coffey, Aphrodite (a rocking lounge chair), 1978. Laminatedmozambique, 4 ft 6 in. x 7 ft 6 in. X 28 in. (137 x 229 x 71.1 cm).A useful household article can be transformed by the style of contemporary sculpture.

Courtesy of the artist. Photograph by Rich Baldinger, Schenectady, NY.

9 • 9Louis I. Kahn, National Assembly Building at Sher-e-Bangla Nagar in Dhaka,Bangladesh, 1962-83. Poured concrete, wood, brick.Louis Kahn, an American architect, shows his unique use of geometry in a simple, massivesculpturelike structure.

© Khaled Nowan/Architectural Association Slide Library, London.

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9 • 10Frank Gehry, Model for a New Guggenheim Museum in New York City, 2000.Architect Frank Gehry proposed this free-flowing sculpturelike design to house artfrom the twentieth century.

Frank O. Gehry & Associates. Photograph by David Heald, © Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York.

9• 11

Marilyn da Silva, The Golden Pair, 1996. Copper, brass, 24K gold-plate, gesso, coloredpencil, (each teapot) 31/2 in. h x 6 in. w x 21/2 in.d (8.9 x 15.2 x 6.4 cm).This pair of pears, as teapot dwellings, reflects the artist's use of personal symbolism in asculptural approach to metalwork.

Courtesy of the artist. Photograph by Philip Cohen.

an understanding of engineeringconcepts.This may be seen in FrankGehry s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,Spain, and the proposed GuggenheimSouth Street Seaport project (fig. 9.10).

Metalwork

Most of the changes in metalworking(jewelry, decorative and functional ware,and so on) have been in concept ratherthan technique.Traditional techniques arestill in use, although modern equipmenthas made procedures simpler and moreconvenient. To a large degree, fashiondetermines the character of metalwork,but it is safe to say that contemporarywork is larger and more oriented towardsculpture than most work of the past.Constant cross-fertilization occurs amongthe art areas, and metalwork is notimmune to these influences.Themetalworker benefits from studying theprinciples of both two- and three-dimensional art (fig. 9.11).

Glass Design

Glassworking is similar to metalworkingnow that modern equipment hassimplified traditional techniques.Designing glass objects, however, is verymuch an art form of recent times. Manyfree-form and figurative pieces have thelook of contemporary sculpture. Colorsaugment the designs in a decorative, aswell as an expressive, sense. Thus, theprinciples of art structure are integratedwith the craft of the medium (fig. 9.12).

Ceramics

In recent years the basic shape of theceramic object has become moresculptural as ceramic work has become,in many cases, less functional. Theceramist must be equally aware of three-dimensional considerations and of thefundamentals of graphic art, becauseindividual surfaces may be altered byincising, painting with colored slips,fuming, or glazing (fig. 9.13).

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9 • 12Dale Chihuly, Lakawanna Ikebana, 1994. Blown glass, 18 ft.diameter.These magnificent glass pieces are most unusual and creative in theirscale, coloring, shape definition, and total environmental concept.

Courtesy of the artist. From the Union Station Federal Courthouse, Tacoma,Washington. Photograph by Russell Johnson © Chihuly Studio.

9 • 13Paul Soldner, Pedestal Piece (907), 1990.Thrown and altered clay with slips and lowtemperature salt glaze, 27 x 30 x 11 in.(68.6 x 76.2 x 27.9 cm).The coloring resulting from the controlled firingprocess enhances the sculptural composition ofthe clay piece.Scripps College, Claremont, CA. Gift of Mr. and Mrs.Fred Marer. 92.1.154.

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9 • 14Eta Sadar Breznik, Space, 1995. Wovenrayon, 1571/2 x l377/8 x I377/8 in. (400 x350 x 350 cm).Contemporary textile design frequently goesbeyond its largely two-dimensional traditions.

Ljubljana, Slovenia. Photo © Boris Gaberscek.

Fiberwork

Fiberwork has undergone a considerablerevolution recently. Three-dimensionalforms are becoming increasingly morecommon, particularly as the traditionalmaking by hand of rugs and tapestries hasdiminished.Woven objects now include avast array of materials incorporated intodesigns of considerable scale and bulk.Traditional as well as contemporaryconcepts of fiberwork require anunderstanding of both two- and three-dimensional principles (fig. 9.14).

Product Design

A relative newcomer on the art scene,product design usually has commercialapplications.The designer produces worksbased on function but geared to consumerappeal. To be contemporary in appearanceand thus attractive to consumers, productsmust exploit all the design principles ofour age.The designs of common objects inour daily environment are the products ofthe designer's training in these variousprinciples.

THE COMPONENTSOF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARTSubject, form, and content—thecomponents of graphic art—function inmuch the same manner in the plasticarts. The emphasis placed on each of thecomponents, however, may vary. Forexample, sculptors use the componentsfor expressive purposes. Architects,ceramists, and metalsmiths, whileexpressive, may also interpret form forthe sake of utility and ornamentation.

Formal organization is morecomplex in three-dimensional art thanin the graphic arts. Materials developedin actual space through physicalmanipulation exist in a tactile, as well asin a visual, sense. The resultingcomplexities expand the content ormeaning of the form.

MATERIALS ANDTECHNIQUES

Materials and techniques also play largerroles in three-dimensional art than ingraphic art. In the last 100 years therange of three-dimensional materials hasexpanded from basic stone, wood, andbronze to steel, plastic, fabric, glass, laserbeams (holography), fluorescent andincandescent lighting, and so on. Suchmaterials have revealed new areas forfree explorations within the componentsof subject, form, and content. But theyhave also increased our responsibilitiesfor fully understanding three-dimensional materials and theiraccompanying technologies. The natureof the materials puts limitations on thestructures that can be created and thetechniques that can be used. Forexample, clay modelers adapt thecharacteristics of clay to their concept.They manipulate the material with theirhands, a block, or a knife to produce agiven expression or idea. Modelers don't

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try to cut the clay with a saw. Theyunderstand the characteristics of theirmaterial and adapt the right tools andtechniques to control it. They also knowthat materials, tools, and techniques arenot ends in themselves but necessarymeans for developing a three-dimensional work (fig. 9.15).

The four primary technical methodsfor creating three-dimensional forms are

subtraction, manipulation,addition, and substitution.

Although each of the technical methodsis developed and discussed separately inthe following sections, many three-dimensional works are produced usingcombinations of the four methods.

Subtraction

Artists cut away materials capable ofbeing carved (glyptic materials), such asstone, wood, cement, plaster, clay, andsome plastics. They may use chisels,hammers, torches, saws, grinders, andpolishers to reduce their materials (fig.9.16). It has often been said that whencarvers take away material, they "free"the image frozen in the material, and asculpture emerges. The freeing of formby the subtraction method, although notsimple, produces unique qualitiescharacteristic of the artist's material.

Manipulation

Widely known as modeling,manipulation relates to the way materialsare handled. Clay, wax, and plaster arecommon media that are pliable or thatcan be made pliable during theirworking periods. Manipulation is a directmethod for creating form. Artists can usetheir hands to model a material like clayinto a form that, when completed, willbe a finished product. For additionalcontrol, special tools, such as wedgingboards, wires, pounding blocks, spatulas,and modeling tools (wood and metal),are used to work manipulable materials(fig. 9.17).

9 • 15Mel Kendrick, Bronze with Two Squares, 1989-90. Bronze (edition of three),73 x 28 x 28 in. (185.4 x 71.1 x 71.1 cm).This piece appears to be made of wood, but it is actually bronze that has beencolored chemically to resemble weathered wood. The sculptor has to know hismaterials well to create this kind of trompe l'oeil effect.Courtesy of John Weber Gallery, New York

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9 • 16Subtracting stone.In the subtractive process, the raw material isremoved until the artist's conception of theform is revealed. Stone can be shaped manuallyor with an air hammer, as above.

Photograph courtesy of Ronald Coleman.

Manipulable materials responddirectly to human touch, leaving theartist's imprint, or are mechanicallyshaped to imitate other materials.Although many artists favor the honestautographic qualities of pliable materials,others—especially those in business andmanufacturing—opt for the economicsof quick results and fast change.Techniques and materials are importantbecause both contribute their ownspecial quality to the final form.

Because most common manipulablematerials are not durable, they usuallyundergo further technical change. Forinstance, clay may be fired in a kiln(fig. 9.18) or cast in a more permanentmaterial like bronze.

Addition

Methods of addition may involvegreater technology and, in terms of(nonfunctional) sculpture, have broughtabout the most recent innovations. Whenusing additive methods, artists addmaterials that may be pliable and/or

fluid, such as plaster or cement (see figs.9.22B and C).They assemble materialslike metal, wood, and plastic with tools(a welding torch, soldering gun, orstapler, and so on) and fasteners (bolts,screws, nails, rivets, glue, rope, or eventhread) (fig. 9.19; see fig. 9.3).

Because three-dimensional materialsand techniques are held in high esteemtoday, the additive methods, with greatrange, freedom, and diversity, offersolutions to many three-dimensionalform challenges.

Substitution

Substitution, or casting, is almostalways a technique for reproducing anoriginal three-dimensional model.Sometimes an artist alters thesubstitution process to change the natureof the cast. Basically, in this technique, amodel in one material is exchanged for aduplicate form in another material, calledthe cast, and this is done by means of amold. The purposes of substitution arefirst, to duplicate the model, and second,

9 • 17In this example of the manipulation technique,clay is removed with a loop tool. Clay may beapplied to the surface with fingers, hands, orother tools.

Photograph courtesy of Ronald Coleman.

9 • 18David Cayton, One Dead Tern Deserves Another, 1990. Ceramics,primitive firing, 18 in. (45.7 cm) high.This is an example of clay that has been fired in a primitive kiln: the heavyreduction firing has caused the clay surfaces to turn black.

Courtesy of the artist. Photograph by Lynn Whitney.

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9 • 19Welding.In the additive process, pieces of material are attached to eachother, and the form is gradually built up. Welded pieces such asthe one illustrated are often, though not always, more open thanother sculptural techniques.Photograph courtesy of Ronald Coleman.

9 • 20Substitution technique.In the substitution process, molten metal is poured into a sandmold that was made from a model.

Photograph courtesy of Ronald Coleman.

to change the material of the model,generally to a permanent one. Forexample, clay or wax can be exchangedfor bronze (fig. 9.20), fiberglass, orcement. A variety of processes (sandcasting, plaster casting, lost-wax casting,and so on) and molds (flexible molds,waste molds, piece molds, and so on) areused in substitution. Substitution is theleast creative or inventive of the technicalmethods because it is imitative; thecreativity lies in the original, not in thecasting process.

Besides acquiring a knowledge ofthree-dimensional materials and theirrespective techniques, artists must also beaware of the elements of form.

THE ELEMENTS OFTHREE-DIMENSIONALFORM

Three-dimensional form is composed ofthe visual elements: shape, value, space,texture, line, color, and time (the fourth

dimension). The order of listing is differentfrom that for two-dimensional art and isbased on significance and usage.

Shape

The artist working in three dimensionsinstinctively begins with shape. Shape, afamiliar element in the graphic arts, takeson expanded meaning in the plastic arts.It implies the totality of the mass orvolume lying between its contours,including any projections anddepressions. It may also include interiorplanes. We can speak of the overall space-displacing shape of a piece of sculptureor architecture, of the flat or curvedshape that moves in space, or of anegative shape that is partially or totallyenclosed. These shapes are generallymeasurable areas limited by and/orcontrasted with other shapes, values,textures, and colors. The three-dimensional artist can clearly define theactual edges of shape borders (fig. 9.21).Ill-defined edges often lead to viewers'

9 • 21Mel Kendrick, White Wall, 1984.Basswood, Japan paint, 16 x 5 x 6 1/2 in.(40.6 x 12.7 x 16.5 cm).The shape of this three-dimensional piece hasedges that have been clearly defined.Courtesy of John Weber Gallery, New York.

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9• 22Jacques Lipchitz, Man with Mandolin, 1917.Limestone, 293/4 in. high (75.6 cm).Exploring Lipchitz's work in the round from every positionreveals the changing contours and makes the three-dimensional work exciting. In figure 9.22B, an isolated viewof the image, the major contour surrounds the silhouetteor the total visible area of the work. Secondary contoursoccur on internal edges.Yale University Art Gallery. Gift of The Societe Anonyme Collection.

9 • 23Ken Price, Pacific, 2000. Fired andpainted clay, 21.5 X 11.75 x 9.5 in.(54.6 x 28.6 x 24.1 cm).The major contour of Pacific is its outermostedge. Secondary contours are nonexistent or,at best, minimal.© Ken Price, courtesy of LA. Louver, Venice,California. Photograph by Brian Forrest.

confusion or monotony. Shape edgesguide the eye through, around, and overthe three-dimensional surface.

In three-dimensional art the visibleshape depends on the viewer's position.A slight change of position results in achange in shape. A major contour is theouter limit of the total three-dimensionalwork as seen from one position (figs.9.22A and B). Secondary contours areperceived edges of shapes or planes thatmove across and/or between the majorcontours. Some three-dimensional worksare constructed so that the secondarycontours are negligible (fig. 9.23).

A shape might be a negative space—athree-dimensional open area that seems topenetrate through or be contained by solidmaterial. Open shapes can be areas thatsurround or extend between solids. Suchopen shapes are often called voids.Alexander Archipenko and Henry Moore,prominent twentieth-century sculpturalinnovators, pioneered the use of voidshapes (fig. 9.24, see figs 9.26 and 10.79).Voids provided new spatial extensions forthese artists; they revealed interior surfaces,opened direct routes to back sides of thesculpture, and reduced excessive weight.

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9 • 24Alexander Archipenko, Woman Doing HerHair. c. 1958. Bronze casting from plasterbased on original terracotta of 1916,215/8 in. (55 cm) high.This is a significant example of sculptural formwhere the shape creates negative space, or avoid. Archipenko was one of the pioneers ofthis concept.

Courtesy of the Kunst Museum, Diisseldorf, Germany.© 2001 Estate of Alexander Archipenko/Artists RightsSociety (ARS), NY. Photograph by Walter Klein.

Void shapes should be considered integralparts of the total form. In linear sculpture,enclosed void shapes become so importantthat they often dominate the width,thickness, and weight of the materials thatdefine them (fig. 9.25).

Value

As the artist physically manipulates three-dimensional shapes, contrasting valuesappear through the lights and shadowsproduced by the forms. Value is thequantity of light actually reflected by anobject's surfaces. Surfaces that are high andfacing a source of illumination are light,while surfaces that are low, penetrated toany degree, or facing away from the lightsource appear dark. Any angular change oftwo juxtaposed surfaces, however slight,

9 • 25Jose de Rivera, Brussels Construction,1958. Stainless steel, 3 ft 1O1/2 in. x 6 ft63/4 in. (1.18 x 2 m).The concept of attracting observers to acontinuous series of rewarding visualexperiences as they move about a static three-dimensional work of art led to the principle ofkinetic or mobile art, as with this sculpture seton a slowly turning motorized plinth.

Art Institute of Chicago. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. R.Howard Goldsmith, 1961.46. Photo© 1998. ArtInstitute of Chicago. All rights reserved.

results in changed value contrasts. Thesharper the angular change, the greater thecontrast (fig. 9.26).

When any part of a three-dimensional work blocks the passage oflight, shadows result. The shadows changeas the position of the viewer, the work,or its source of illumination changes. If awork has a substantial high and lowshape variation and/or penetration, theshadow patterns are more likely to definethe work, regardless of the position ofthe light source. Sculptors who createmobiles typify artists interested incontinuously changing light and shadow.The intensity of light markedly changesthe shadow effect as the object moves.

Value changes can also be affected bypainting a three-dimensional work. Lightvalues strengthen the shadows, while

9 • 26Julie Warren Martin, Morchesa, 1988.Italian Botticino Marble, 28 x 12 x 10 in.(71.1 x 30.5 x 25.4 cm).A piece of sculpture "paints" itself with values.The greater the projections and the sharperthe edges, the greater and more abrupt thecontrasts.

From the Collection of Kirby and Priscilla Smith.

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9 • 27Richard Lippold, Variation within a Sphere, No. 10, the Sun,1953-56. 22-carat gold-filled wire, 11 x 22 x 51/2 ft (3.35x 6.70 x 1.68 m).Development of welding and soldering techniques for use insculpture made the shaping and joining of thin linear metalspossible, as in this work by Lippold.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Fletcher Fund, 1956. Photo ©Metropolitan Museum of Art, all rights reserved.

dark values weaken them. The lightervalues work best on pieces that dependon secondary contours; darker values aremost successful in emphasizing the majorcontours. Thin linear structures dependmore on background contrast and appearas strong dark or light silhouettes(fig. 9.27).

9 • 28

The rectangular and ovoid solids areexamples of two minimal objects that canbe formed from displaced, boundlessspace. The flat and rounded planes inthese positions define their specialcharacteristics and spatial intervals.

Photograph: Lynn Whitney.

Space

Space may be characterized as a boundlessor unlimited extension of occupied areas.When artists use space, they tend to limitits vastness.They may mark off extensions

9 • 29The figures show four bricks that have been arranged and rearranged to illustrate an increasinglevel of visual complexity within the third dimension—this is achieved by interactions betweenthe positive objects and negative sculptural spaces.(A) Stacked bricks (B) Separated bricks (C) Crooked bricks

(D) Slanted bricks (E) Crossed bricks (F) An Installation of bricks

Photographs: Lynn Whitney

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in one, two, or three dimensions or asmeasurable distances betweenpreestablished elements.Three-dimensional artists use objects to displacespace and to control spatial intervals andlocations. Rectangular and ovoid shapescontrol space effectively, because theirweight is felt and established by the flat orrounded dimensions of the planes (fig.9.28).The two shapes seen together createa spatial interval. Although the two solidsillustrated are three-dimensional, theirspatial indications are minimal. Greaterinterest and, in turn, greater spatial qualitiescould be added to the two shapes bymanipulating their surfaces. If materialwere cut away, the space would moveinward, and if material were added, thespace would move outward.

In figure 9.29A, four bricks have beenarranged in a very restricted manner toform a large, minimal rectangular solid.The individual bricks are distinguishedonly by the line of cracklike edges visiblein the front and side planes.These linearedges are reminiscent of graphic linearrenderings.

The four bricks illustrated in figure9.29B are separated by indentationssimilar to the mortar joints used bymasons. These gaps, although relativelyshallow, nevertheless producedistinctively clearer and darker edges

9 • 30Giacomo Manzu, Death by Violence,1950. Bronze cast from claymodel, 365/8 x 251/4 in. (93.5 x 64cm).This is a study for one of a series ofpanels for the doors of St. Peter's(Vatican, Rome). The confining spatiallimitations of relief sculpture areevident. To create a greater feeling ofmass, Manzu used sharply incisedmodeling that is similar to the engravedlines of the printmaker's plate. Thecrisp incising creates sharp valuecontrasts that accentuate movement aswell as depth.© David Lees/Corbis.

than those shown in figure 9.29A.Although the darker edges indicategreater three-dimensional variation thandid the first stack of bricks shown, theystill have decided spatial limitations.Many low relief sculptures functionin a similar way (fig. 9.30).

The bricks in figure 9.29C utilizeeven more space. They are positioned so

that the planes moving in depth arecontrasted with the front and side planes,moving toward and away from theviewer. The light that strikes thegrouping produces stronger shadows andmore interesting value patterns.Thisarrangement can be compared to thequalities of high-relief sculpture. The playof deep shadows against the lights on

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9 • 31Auguste Rodin, The Gates of Hell,1880-1917. Bronze, 20 ft 8 in. x 13 ftI in. (6.3 x 3.99 m).In this high relief, the forms nearly breakloose from the underlying surface.

Musee Rodin, Paris, France. Peter Willi/TheBridgeman Art Library.

9 -32Fetish, Yombe tribe from Zaire, Africa.Wood and mixed media, 23 1/8 in.(59.5 cm).This African artist has created surfacecharacter (texture) in this sculpture thatreflects the psychological and physicalqualities of this Zaire subject

Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium.Photograph by R. Asselberghs.

projecting parts of a high-relief sculpturecan increase the work's expressive oremotional qualities (fig. 9.31).

Although still in a compact andclosed arrangement, the rotation of thebricks in figure 9.29D makes possiblenew directions and spatial relationships.The work is becoming more spatiallyinteresting as contrasts of movement,light, and shadow increase. In a way, thisinward and outward play of bricks issimilar to what the sculptor creates in afreestanding form. Such works are nolonger concerned with simple front,side, and back views, but with multipleaxes and multiple views. Although allthe brick illustrations are actuallyfreestanding, or in the round, the firsttwo examples show surfacecharacteristics closer in spirit to thecondition of relief sculpture, as waspreviously indicated. Some authoritiesuse the terms freestanding and sculpture inthe round interchangeably whenreferring to any three-dimensional workof art not attached to a wall surface (seefig. 9.26).

The variety of brick positions infigure 9.29E, particularly that of thediagonally tipped brick, creates fargreater exploitation of space than othergroupings. The void, or open space,emphasizes the three-dimensional qualityof the arrangement by producing a directlink between the space on each side.

In figure 9.29F, the bricks areseparated and achieve greater spatialindependence. This can be reminiscent ofan architectural environment or aninstallation within a special space. Thus,we have seen the concept of the brickgrow increasingly more complex insculptural consideration and application.

Texture

Textures enrich a surface, complementthe medium, and enhance expression andcontent. Textured surfaces range from therough media (fig. 9.32) to the contrastinghard glossiness of glass or polishedmarble (fig. 9.33). Certain surfaces areinherent to certain media, and,traditionally, these intrinsic textures are

respected. The artist usually employstexture to encapsulate the distinctivequalities of the subject. The sleeksuppleness of a seal, for example, seemsto call for a polished surface, while thecharacter of a rugged, forceful personcalls for a more rough-hewn treatment.However, artists sometimes surprise uswith a different kind of treatment. Theactual, simulated, and invented texturesof graphic artists are also available toplastic artists and are developed from thetextures inherent in the materials thatplastic artists use.

Line

Line is a phenomenon that does notactually exist in nature or in the thirddimension. It is primarily a graphicdevice used to indicate the meeting ofplanes or the outer edges of shapes.When two planes come together, theyform a sharp edge or an arris.Whatappears to be a line is often enhanced bya cast shadow or the different values ofthe two planes. The definition of line

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9 • 33Michael Braden, Nurse Log, 1998. Persiantravertine, Swedish verde and Coloradoyule marble, 7 ft 6 in. x 4 ft X 2 ft 4 in.(228.6 x 121.9 x 71.1 cm).This sculpture is enriched by the artist's choiceof materials in contrasting colors andvariegated graining.

Lumina Gallery, New Mexico.

9 • 34Marisol, Women and Dog. 1964. Wood, plaster, synthetic polymer, taxidermed doghead and miscellaneous items, 721/4 x 73 x 30l5/16 in. (183.5 x 185.4 x 78.6 cm).This example of Pop art reveals the willingness of some contemporary artists to use bright colorto heighten the three-dimensional characteristics of form at the same time that it enrichessurfaces. The form has its roots in earlier twentieth-century styles (Cubism, Constructivism),while the use of combine-assemblage tends to fuse the media of sculpture and painting into one.

© Nancy Graves and Saff Tech Arts., Inc./Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY (Photograph by Sam Kwong).

may also be broadened to include themain direction or thrust (axis) of a three-dimensional shape whose length isgreater than its width. In addition, linecan be used to refer to the thin shapesof contemporary linear sculpturecomprising wires and rods. Developmentof welding and soldering techniquesmade possible the shaping and joiningof thin linear metals in sculpture. Suchartists as Jose de Rivera and RichardLippold have expanded the techniques oflinear sculpture (see figs. 9.25 and 9.27).

Incising line in clay or in any othersoft medium is similar to the graphictechnique of drawing. In three-dimensional art, incised lines are used toaccent surfaces for interest and

movement. The Italian Giacomo Manzuemployed such lines to add sparkle torelief sculpture (see fig. 9.30).

Color

Color is also an inherent feature ofsculptural materials. Sometimes it ispleasant, as in the variegated veining ofwood or stone (fig. 9.33), but it can alsobe bland as in the flat chalkiness ofplaster. Paint is often added when thematerial needs enrichment or when thesurface requires color to bring out theform more effectively. Painted surfaces,as with any color application, can addexpression and boost attractive qualities.The elements of value and color are so

interwoven in sculpture that artists oftenuse the two terms interchangeably. Thus,an artist may refer to value contrasts interms of color, actually thinking of bothsimultaneously. Many applications ofcolor are an attempt to capture therichness and form-flattering qualities ofthe patina found on bronzes oxidizedby exposure to the atmosphere. Thisapproach stresses color that is subordinateto the structure of the piece. In certainhistorical periods (for example, earlyGreek art) application of bright colorwas commonplace. Some revival of thistechnique is evident in contemporaryworks. In every case the basic criterionfor the use of color is compatibility withthe form of the work (fig. 9.34).

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9 • 35Alexander Calder, The Spinner, 1966.Aluminum, steel, paint, 235 X 351 in.This noted artist introduced physically movingsculptures called mobiles. In this mobile-stabile, movement requires time for theobservation of the changing relationships,thereby introducing a new dimension to artin addition to height, width, and space. Theresult is a constantly altered, almost infiniteseries of views of parts of the mobile.Collection Walker Art Center, Minneapolis. Gift ofDayton Hudson Corporation, Minneapolis. © 2001Estate of Alexander Calder/Artists Rights Society(ARS), NY.

9 • 36James De Woody, Big Egypt, 1985.Black oxidized steel, 72 x 30 x 30 in.(182.9 x 76.2 x 76.2 cm).In this example of a tectonic arrangement,James De Woody has cut planes that projectin and out of his surfaces without penetratingvoids or opening spaces. This is sometimesreferred to as "closed" composition.Courtesy of the Arthur Roger Gallery, New Orleans,LA.

Time (the fourth dimension)

Time is an element unique to the spatialarts. It is involved in graphic arts onlyinsofar as contemplation and reflectionon meaning are concerned. The physicalact of viewing a graphic work as atotality requires only a moment.However, in a plastic work, the additionalfourth dimension means that the workmust turn or that we must move aroundit to see it completely.

The artist wants the time required toinspect the work to be a continuum ofrewarding visual variation. Each sequenceor interval of the viewing experiencebrings out relationships that will lure theobserver around the work, all the whileextending the time spent on it.

In the case of kinetic sculpture, theartwork itself, not the observer, moves.Such works require time for theirmovements. Mobiles, for example, presenta constandy changing, almost infiniteseries of views (fig. 9.35; see fig. 10.81).

PRINCIPLES OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ORDER

Organizing three-dimensional art is thesame as organizing two-dimensional art.However, three-dimensional forms, withtheir unique spatial properties, call forsomewhat different applications of theprinciples.

Three-dimensional artists deal withforms that have multiple views.Composing is more complex. Whatmight be a satisfactory solution for anarrangement with one view might beonly a partial answer in the case of awork seen from many different positions.Adjustments are required in order tototally unify a piece. Compositionalry, athree-dimensional work may be

tectonic (closed, massive, and simple)with few and limited projections, as infigure 9.36, or atectonic (open, to alarge degree), with frequent extensivepenetrations and thin projections, as in

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figure 9.37. Both tectonic and atectonicarrangements can be found in nearly allthree-dimensional art, and each of thesearrangements can be used individually toachieve different expressive and spatialeffects.

Harmony and Variety

Harmony and variety have been cited asindispensable concerns in the creation oftwo-dimensional artworks; this is equallytrue in the realm of the third dimension,although its discernment is not always soobvious and its achievement somewhatdifferent. In order to bring this to lightwe will primarily focus on sculpturebecause it exists in the round. One mustkeep in mind that in order to fully viewa three-dimensional work such assculpture, the viewer must"circumnavigate" the work, which has analmost infinite number of aspects. Theinterest generated by the many viewsunder the control of the sculptorproduces a degree of variety, but thismust be balanced by harmony for thebenefit of the work's totality.

One very important consideration inproducing harmony and in leading theviewer around a sculpture piece is in"extensions." In the chapter on form,these are defined as actual and subjectivelines or edges and shapes that suggestdirections around the work. They implyconnections with other such lines andshapes, thus creating a continuousmovement encircling the work. Thismovement can be calculated to give asense of rhythm that is either agitated orcomparatively calm. Predictable rhythmincorporates proportional transitions thataid in giving flow to a work (fig. 9.38).

If there are areas consideredsignificant, the sculptor may utilizeclosure by employing the proximity ofcertain shapes or lines to achieve a focuson those passages.Viewers must, however,be able to extricate themselves fromthese areas to facilitate the continuousmovement sought. We must be reminded

9 • 37Kenneth Snelson, Forest Devil, 1977. Aluminum and stainless steel, 17 x 35 x 25 ft(5.2 x 10.6 x 7.6 m).Kenneth Snelson has developed sculptures that are "open" or atectonic.

Collection Museum of Art, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, PA.

9 • 38

Sebastian, Voriacion NuevoMexico, 1989. Painted steel,27 x 24 x 24 ftThe rhythmical repetition ofthe stepping planes inSebastian's sculpture creates anexciting, flowing movement.

Funded by the City of AlbuquerqueI % for Art Program and TheAlbuquerque Museum, 1987 GeneralObligation Bonds. Incommemoration of the Sister Cityrelationship between Albuquerqueand Chihuahua, Mexico. Photograph© 2001 Jam Photography.

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9 • 39Nancy Graves, Unending Revolution of Venus, Plants, andPendulum, I992. Bronze, brass, enamel, stainless steel, andaluminum, 97 x 71 1/2 x 561/2 in. (2.46 x 1.82 x 1.44 m).

In this sculpture, we see a variety of form parts. We also see anexcellent example of an asymmetrically balanced sculpture.

Created at Saff Tech Art. © Saff Tech Arts/Nancy Graves 1992. Photographby Sam Kwong.

that, in sculpture, shapes may be seen aswell-defined edges or by cavities andbulges, whereas lines may again be edgesor scratches and extended cuts.

Some sculptors make use oftransparent (such as glass) rather thanopaque media. The superimposition ofsuch material will create genuinetransparency, unlike the illusion of thetwo-dimensional artist. This would alsosuggest space, although usually limited.Architects, who are becomingincreasingly sculptural in their vision,sometimes make use of overlapping,producing harmony in the portions oftheir building structures. Additionally, insculpture there are instances of

"interpenetration" used to pull thingstogether, notably in large metal sculpturepieces. Media that are related in color orthrough the painting of the surface mayalso assist in acquiring sculpturalharmony. All of the foregoing areprobably only some of the means bywhich the three-dimensional artist,specifically the sculptor thus far, may findharmony. Variety, as in two-dimensionalwork, is possible by reversing the meansby which harmony is produced, the aimbeing to create greater interest (fig. 9.39).The ultimate goal is usually a precariousbalance between harmony and variety.This goal is a concern of all three-dimensional artists whatever the nature

of the work. It might be added, inreturning to sculpture, that such workin low relief is closely related to two-dimensional work, whereas high-reliefsculpture is somewhat of a hybridproduction, at times calling on some ofthe problems of harmony and varietyencountered in sculpture in the round.

Balance

When considering balance and theextension of spatial effects in three-dimensional art, some special conditionsshould be examined. For example, whenbalancing a three-dimensional piece ofwork symmetrically, the addeddimension of depth could change withits multiple views. While a sphere mayappear symmetrical from any of itsmultiple views, a rectangular box couldappear symmetrical only from the frontand back but not from the side or top ifseen in conjunction with other views.The views that are seen in depth couldproject other types of balance. Threetypes of balance are possible in actualspace: symmetrical (see fig. 9.42),asymmetrical (see fig. 9.39), and radial(fig. 9.40). Of the three, symmetrical andradial balance are more formal andregular. Radial balance is spherical, withthe fulcrum in the center. The parts thatradiate from this point are usually similarin their formations. However, artistsmore commonly make use ofasymmetrical balance because it providesthe greatest individual latitude andvariety.

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Proportion

When viewing a three-dimensionalwork, the effect of proportion(contemplating the relationship of theparts to the whole) is as crucial as it is ina two-dimensional work. Being in thepresence of an actual three-dimensionalwork that can not only be seen but canalso be touched or caressed, stood on,walked on, or passed through puts specialemphasis on both the parts and thewhole. Proportion is more easily realizedas it applies to three-dimensional art ifone actually grasps the nose or chin of aportrait sculpture while looking at itfrom multiple views. Similarly one couldget much the same sensation by passingan arm through a void of an abstractsculpture while gripping a portion ofthat sculpture. Proportion is involved indetermining the basic form: It sets thestandard for relationships and permeatesthe other principles.

Scale is most dramatic when three-dimensional pieces are small enough tobe held with the fingertips or when weare in the presence of giganticarchitecture, landscapes, sculptures, and soforth (see fig. 9.10).The actual physicalsize of three-dimensional works whencompared to the physical measurementof the human figure is here referred to asscale. Small jewelry and/or miniaturizedmodels and maquettes of automobiles,architecture, landscapes, and sculpture arerepresentative of the smaller-scaledpieces. Works designed for public placesare usually of the largest scale. Religioustemples, mosques, cathedrals, statehouses,malls, parks, three-dimensionalcommercial displays, and sculpture sitesare examples of works on the largestscale possible. The spaces these piecesoccupy are awe inspiring and, at the sametime, mind boggling when one is in theirpresence (see figs. 9.10 and 9.37).

The one-on-one relationship thatcomes from actually experiencing athree-dimensional work brings out aspecial feeling for tension, balance, and

scale. Proportion is involved indetermining the basic form; it sets thestandard and permeates the otherprinciples. Repetition and rhythm haverelationships that include proportionalsimilarities.

Economy

Included within the group known asPrimary Structurists or Minimalists arethree-dimensional artists who emphasizethe principle of economy in their works,because they, like their fellow painters,want to create stark, simple, geometricshapes. These Minimalists strip their shapesof any emotional, psychological, orsymbolic associations and eliminatephysical irrelevancies. For furtheremphasis, they also tend to make a featureof large size. Beverly Pepper has reduced

9 • 40Mark di Suvero, For Veronica, 1987. Steel,21 ft 9 in. x 35 ft.The center of this sculpture is the fulcrumidentified by the contrasting rounded, curledparts. Most of the diagonal beams radiate inoutwardly thrusting directions. The exceptionpurposefully adds variety to an otherwiseformal radial balance.

The Rene and Veronica di Rosa Foundation, Napa, CA.Photograph Oil & Steel Gallery, Long Island City, NY.

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9 • 41Beverly Pepper, Thel, 1977. Metal, paint, and earth, 15 ft high x 18 ft wide x135 ft long.

Beverly Pepper has created many artworks that represent nothing more than large-scale, starklysimple geometric shapes. In this group, she has repeated shapes that interact spatially and seemto grow out of the earth. Pepper's economic means unify this interesting arrangement.

Site-specific installation at Dartmouth College. Photograph courtesy of Dartmouth College.

her shapes to simple geometric forms (fig.9.41), while Donald Judd aligns hisprimary shapes in vertical and horizontalrows, thereby interrelating economy withrepetition and rhythm (fig. 9.42).

Movement

Two types of movement are used bythree-dimensional artists. Impliedmovement, the most common type (fig.9.43; see fig. 9.38), is illusory, but actualmovement is special and involves thetotal work. Actual movements that takeplace in kinetic art are set into motionby air, water, or mechanical devices.Alexander Calder, the innovator ofmobile sculptures, at first used motors todrive his pieces but later used aircurrents generated by human bodymotion, wind, air conditioning, orheating (see figs. 9.35 and 10.81).

George Rickey, a contemporarysculptor, works with wind and airpropulsion (see fig. 10.87).Water hasbeen used as a propellant in other three-dimensional works. Jean Tinguely,Arthur Ganson (fig. 9.44), Jose deRivera (see fig. 9.25), and Pol Bury (seefig. 10.86) propel their sculptures withmotor drives. Computer-activatedkinetics are now being marketed. Theprinciple of movement is inherentlyrelated to the art elements of time andspace.

When properly combined, theprinciples of order produce vibrantforms. In the three-dimensional field,new conceptual uses of time, space, andmovement have changed definitions andmeanings that had endured for centuries.The prevailing thought of the past, thatsculpture was a stepchild of the graphicarts, need no longer be true.

9 • 42Donald Judd, Untitled, 1968. Brass, tenboxes, 6 x 27 x 24 in. (15.2 x 68.6 x61 cm).Judd is primarily interested in perceptuallyexplicit shapes, reflective surfaces, and verticalinterplay.

Photo: State of New York/Corbis. © 1998 Estate ofDonald Judd/Licensed byVAGA, New York.

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Installations

Artists turned toward installationsslightly before the fourth quarter of thetwentieth century. The work that hasevolved is usually, but not always,nonfigurative and ranges from therelatively small to the enormous in scale.Some materials that have been usedinclude sheet metal, fiberglass, wood,bronze, steel, plastic, plaster, and stone:Actually any available materials are eligible,including mixed media. If placedoutdoors, the installations may be simple(but frequently quite large); others, mostfrequently in a gallery, are many timescomprised of multiple pieces, sometimesflooding the floors and/or walls. Thepositioning may be simply but

dominatingly placed or even seeminglyhaphazardly spread out. When set in anexterior setting, installations often sit in aneasily viewable civic location.

One reasonable definition of aninstallation might be "setting in a place."This would imply that one could create aninstallation by setting out dinnerware,installing a battery in a car, or placing awork of art on a wall. Obviously, thiswould cover a limitless amount of ground,but in this case the reference is toinstallations produced by artists and placedin interior or exterior situations. Works ofthis kind are composed of any media orcontrivance and of any configuration. Oneintention is apparently a heightenedawareness of a planned alteration of indooror outdoor environmental space.

9 •43Ernst Barlach, The Avenger, 1914, latercast. Bronze, 171/4 x 223/4 x 8 in. (43.8x 57.8 x 20.3 cm).This figure is not actually moving, but it doesdepict a powerful forward thrust. Movement isimplied by the long sweeping horizontal anddiagonal directions made by the edges of therobe, the projection of the head and shoulders,and the base plane.

Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY.

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9 • 44Arthur Ganson, Machine with Chair (time-lapse photograph of 1995 version), 1995.Steel (machine), fiberglass over foam (chair), motor, electronic switches and circuits,rubber. Track 30 ft long, machine 5 ft high, chair at highest point 13 ft from track.Like Jean Tinguely, Arthur Ganson has found the machine to be an instrument for the poet/artist.He produces some machine-driven sculptures that involve kinetic ironies, mechanical awareness,and a sense of time, space, and motion.

Arthur Ganson is a sculptor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Photograph by Henry Groskinsky.

Though carefully thought out, someinstallations have been accused by thepopulace of being inconsequential,dehumanized, or irrational, evenprovoking violent reactions.This is notsurprising as installation is a new art form,and unusual styles of art have many timesproduced a general outcry. Richard Serra,a veteran of installations that are generallyminimalist in nature, has had some of hiswork dismantled or defaced; his Tilted Arcwas removed as the result of protests. Civicleaders have been less than kind to hiswork, one judge equating it with "garbage,and garbage causes rats." Theseprotestations have drawn the wrath ofmany artists of different artistic persuasionswho feel, as most artists always have, thatart should be given free rein, because oftheir knowledge of art forms that haveproduced widespread complaints in thepast, only to be accepted with the passageof time.

Observers who are involved in orhave a genuine interest in art arefrequently accepting, whereas others maybe hostile or indecisive in their response.They react in different ways, someperplexed, some overcome, some havingtheir vision altered, and some delayingjudgment. Despite the ridicule sometimesvisited on them, installations are nowfirmly fixed on the art scene. There is littledoubt that they enhance viewerinvolvement and produce a differentoutlook on the spaces on which they areplaced. Among the significant artists in thisarea are Anne Hamilton, whose work isgenerally sensuous and may bemonolithic; Sandy Skoglund (fig. 9.45);Roni Horn (fig. 9.46), whose work ispresented in surreal architectural settings;and Richard Long, often specializing instone arrangements.

Much of the public is curious aboutthis kind of art; but, whatever thereactions, many artists are engaged in it.Further, installations require a great deal ofsometimes very laborious effort—nodoubt, to its creators, a labor of love.

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9 • 45Sandy Skoglund, Fox Gomes, 1990. Polyester resin sculptures, tables, chairs,painted tableware, painted bread, chandelier, cloth napkins andtablecloths. Approx. 30 x 30 x 12 ft high.In this installation, Sandy Skoglund presents a personal environment of red tablesand gray foxes, which confronts the viewer causing them to see the spatial setting ina new way.

This version was installed at the Denver Art Museum in Colorado in June of 1990. Denver ArtMuseum Collection, 1991.36. Photograph by Bill O'Connor. © Denver Art Museum.

9 • 46Rebecca Horn, Concert for Anarchy, Berlin 1994. Grand piano and mixedmedia, variable dimensions.Rebecca Horn's use of a piano in defiance of gravity makes the space within herinstallation an intimidating and overwhelming three-dimensional setting.Photograph by Attilio Marazano. © 2001 Rebecca Horn. All rights reserved.