CHAPTER

� Napoleon Bonaparte

560

35

1804Napoleoncrowned

1814Congress of

Vienna meets

1815Napoleondefeated

1848Universal malesuffrage begins

to spread

1867Dual monarchy

of Austria-Hungary

Unrest inEurope1755 A.D.–1875 A.D.

� An urn fromNapoleon’stime

UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

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Terms to Learnplebisciteabdicateproletariat

People to KnowNapoleon

BonaparteKarl Marx

Places to LocateWaterlooViennaSardinia

SECTION 1 The Age of NapoleonBy 1799, France had experienced ten years of revolution and

war. The people longed for a return to peace and order. Theywere ready for a strong leader to take charge. It was during thistime that Napoleon rose to power. His rule started a chain ofevents that affected not only France, but all of Europe.

Napoleon When the French Revolution began, NapoleonBonaparte, who had come to France from Corsica (kor’ si kuh),was a lieutenant in the French army. By the time he was 24 yearsold, he had become a general. He was not satisfied, however. Hewanted more power.

In 1796, Napoleon was chosen to lead French troops intoItaly. There, the French defeated the Austrians, who ruled Italy at

Why It’s Important In the early 1800s, Napoleon occupied thecenter of the European stage. He came closer than anyone elseto unifying Europe politically. In so doing, he spread revolu-tionary ideas. After his downfall, there was a return to the oldorder. However, the ideas of the Napoleonic (nuh po le ahn’ ik)era had taken hold, and from 1820 to 1848, revolutions tookplace in country after country. The years after 1848 saw thebreakup of the old order and the formation of new nations.

Chapter FocusRead to Discover

• How Napoleon influenced France and formed the GrandEmpire.

• How the Congress of Vienna established a balance ofpower and brought peace to Europe.

• How liberals, nationalists, and socialists led revolutionsthat threatened the Congress System.

• What effects nationalism had on Italy, Germany, and Austria.

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Chapter OverviewVisit the Human Heritage Web siteat humanheritage.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 35—Chapter Overviews to previewthis chapter.

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562 UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

that time. As a result of this victory, France acquired Belgiumfrom Austria. France also acquired hundreds of art treasuresfrom Italy, which were placed in the Louvre (luv), the Frenchnational museum.

Two years later, Napoleon sailed for Egypt, where Britishforces were stationed. He won a great land victory there, but theBritish fleet destroyed the French fleet. Nevertheless, the Frenchsucceeded in establishing their influence in Egypt. Anotherimportant outcome of the French campaign was that soldiersaccompanying Napoleon discovered the Rosetta Stone.

Meanwhile, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain defeatedFrench forces in Europe. When Napoleon learned of this, he sawhis chance to gain more power. He left his troops in Egypt andreturned to Paris. There, he and two members of the Directoryplotted to take over the government. On November 9, 1799, theyput their plan into effect and met with success.

Napoleon set up a new government called the Consulate(kon’ suh luht). He placed himself at its head and took the title ofFirst Consul. By this time, Russia was no longer at war withFrance. However, Austria and Great Britain were. In 1801,Napoleon led French forces to victory over Austria. In 1802, hearranged a peace treaty with Great Britain.

Affairs at Home Once France was at peace, Napoleonturned his attention to affairs at home. The Directory had beenweak and in debt. Napoleon set out to make the Consulatestrong and rich. He took away the people’s right to choose theirown local officials and gave that power to the national govern-ment. He prohibited local governments from collecting taxes andassigned all tax collection to the national government. BecauseNapoleon’s system was better organized, the French governmentwas able to collect more taxes. In a few years, France’s debt waspaid, and its economy had improved. Napoleon also used someof the tax money to set up a system of public education.

Napoleon also set to work to bring order to the French legalsystem. The French Revolution had swept away most laws andthe different revolutionary governments had never been able toagree on new ones. As a result, different laws were followed indifferent parts of the country. To correct this, Napoleon appoint-ed a committee of lawyers and told them to write a new code oflaw for the whole country. The laws they wrote were dividedinto five parts and were called the Napoleonic Code.

The Napoleonic Code preserved the most important rightswon in the French Revolution. Serfdom was ended. People weremade equal before the law. Anyone charged with a crime wasguaranteed a public trial by jury. Freedom of religion was alsoguaranteed. However, some rights the people had won in therevolution were taken away. No one was allowed to criticize the

Example of NapoleonicDress

French Law Franceenforced the NapoleonicCode in its Europeanempire and its NorthAmerican colonies. Today,Louisiana, once part ofFrance’s lands in America,is the only state with lawsbased on the NapoleonicCode.

Student Web ActivityVisit the Human Heritage Web site athumanheritage.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 35—Student Web Activities to findout more about Napoleon.

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national government. There was no freedom of speech or of thepress. A large police force kept watch on anyone suspected ofbeing against Napoleon. Many people were put in jail.

Napoleon tried to make both Paris and France more beauti-ful. He had a huge marble arch, called the Arc de Triomphe (ahrkdeh tre ahmf’), built as a monument to his campaigns. He namedJacques-Louis David as court painter. David designed furniturethat looked like that of ancient Greece and Rome. Soon, the“Empire” style spread throughout Europe. This style affectedclothes as well as furniture. Women wore narrow white cotton ormuslin dresses with low square necklines and short puffedsleeves. They also fixed their hair like the women of ancientRome.

Napoleon also worked to improve transportation. Under hisdirection, French workers dug canals and improved roads. Four-teen new bridges were built across the Seine River, which runsthrough Paris.

Because Napoleon brought peace and order, he was verypopular. In 1802, he asked the people to elect him First Consulfor life. They did so in a plebiscite (pleb’ uh sıt), or popular vote.Two years later, the French made Napoleon emperor of France.His coronation was held in the Notre Dame (no’ truh dahm)Cathedral. The Pope came from Rome for the crowning but didnot have a chance to place the crown on Napoleon’s head.Instead, Napoleon took the crown from the Pope’s hands andcrowned himself.

The Grand Empire Being emperor of France was notenough for Napoleon. He wanted to build a Grand Empire thatwould take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. He had theadvantage of an army whose soldiers worshiped their emperorand whose officers were chosen because they were able in battle,not just because they were aristocrats.

In 1803, Great Britain, threatened by Napoleon’s actions,declared war on France. Great Britain and its allies, however,were not able to stop Napoleon and his soldiers. In 1805,Napoleon had himself crowned king of Italy. In 1806, he formedthe Confederation (kuhn fed uhr a’ shuhn) of the Rhine, whichconsisted of a group of conquered German states. In 1808, heinvaded Spain and Portugal. The following year, he made thePapal States part of France and put the Pope in prison. France’sboundaries now included much of Europe.

The countries in Napoleon’s Grand Empire were stronglyinfluenced by France. French citizens, including relatives ofNapoleon, took over the government of many conquered areas.The French rulers made the Napoleonic Code law. Thus,Napoleon’s conquests helped spread the ideas of the French Rev-olution throughout Europe.

Photograph of Arc deTriomphe

Painting of a Napoleonic Officer

Reading Check What is a

plebiscite?

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Only Great Britain and Russia remained undefeated byNapoleon. Since the French could not defeat the British navy,Napoleon tried to obtain victory in a different way. He forbadethe countries in his empire to trade with Great Britain, which hecalled a “nation of shopkeepers.” His order, however, was hardto enforce, and it proved unsuccessful.

Napoleon then decided to take on Russia. He organized aGrand Army of about 600,000 soldiers of different nationalities. Itwas the largest army the world had yet seen. In the summer of1812, the Grand Army invaded Russia. Except for one battle,though, the Russians did not fight. Instead, they retreated,drawing the French deeper into Russia. As the Russiansretreated, they burned their villages and food supplies, leavingnothing for the advancing French. This tactic is called a scorched-earth policy.

UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

Napoleonic Europe

PLACES ANDREGIONS Napoleonhad power over most ofthe European continentin 1812. What bodies ofwater helped to protectGreat Britain fromNapoleon’s armies?

MAP STUDYMAP STUDY

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In September, Napoleon reached Moscow, which had beenabandoned by the Russians. Shortly after the French arrived, thecity caught fire and three fourths of it was destroyed. The Frencharmy now had neither food nor shelter. Napoleon sent severalpeace proposals to the Russians, which they ignored. He finallygave the order to withdraw. By then the bitter Russian winterhad started. Hundreds of thousands of French soldiers froze todeath as temperatures fell to 40 degrees below zero. Thousandsmore died from disease and lack of food. In the end, fewer than100,000 soldiers made it back to France.

Napoleon quickly raised another army, but the new soldierswere not well trained. They were defeated by the allied forces ofAustria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. This was the first timethe four countries had joined together to fight Napoleon.

In 1814, the allies took Paris, and Napoleon was forced toabdicate (ab’ duh kat), or give up the throne. He was sent intoexile to the small island of Elba off the coast of Italy. He managed toescape, however, and gathered together enough troops to invadeFrance. For 100 days, Napoleon again reigned as emperor. Theallies, under the British leadership of the Duke of Wellington,finally defeated him in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. This time,Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena (huh le’ nuh) offthe west coast of Africa, where he died in 1821.

After Napoleon’s defeat, representatives from Austria, Prus-sia, Russia, and Great Britain met in Vienna (ve en’ uh) to decidewhat to do about France and the rest of Europe. Although thesettlement they agreed upon brought peace to Europe for a time,it also set the stage for revolution in many countries and reformin others.

Reading Check Where did

Napoleon go when he was forced toabdicate his throne?

Section 1 Assessment 1. Define: plebiscite, scorched-earth poli-

cy, abdicate.2. What was the Grand Empire?3. Why did Napoleon’s invasion of Russia

fail?

Critical Thinking4. Understanding Cause and Effect

How did weaknesses of governmentunder the Directory help pave the wayfor the rise of Napoleon?

Graphic Organizer Activity 5. Draw this diagram, and use it to

summarize Napoleon's accomplish-ments in the areas of government, edu-cation, law, transportation, and the arts.

Law

The Arts

Education

Transportation

Government

Accomplishments

SECTION 2 Revolution and Reform

CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE

Reading Check How did the

Russians use ascorched-earth policyto defeat the French?

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The Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna wassometimes called the “Waltzing Congress.” This was because therepresentatives spent much of their time at dinners, dances, andfox hunts. However, decisions were made by a few leaders. Theyincluded Prince Klemens von Metternich (met’ uhr nik), theAustrian foreign minister; Czar Alexander I of Russia; KingFrederick William III of Prussia; and Viscount Castlereagh (vı ’kownt kas’ uhl ra), the British foreign secretary. Charles-Mauricede Talleyrand (tal’ e ran) decided matters for France.

The leaders did not want to punish France too harshly. Atthe same time, they wanted to build a peaceful and stableEurope. They believed the best way to do this was by establishinga balance of power, or equal strength among countries. Theyhoped that a balance of power would prevent any single countryfrom starting another war.

To accomplish this, the leaders divided Napoleon’s GrandEmpire. Russia got Finland and most of Poland. Sweden gotNorway. Austria got part of northern Italy. Great Britain got theislands of Malta (mahl’ tuh) and Ceylon (sa lahn’), as well asthe Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa. Belgium and Hollandwere made into a single nation. In addition, the 39 German stateswere combined into a loose confederation headed by Austria.

The leaders of the Congress of Vienna were against democ-racy. Hoping to crush revolutionary ideas, they brought backdivine-right monarchy. They had already put Louis XVIII,younger brother of Louis XVI, on the French throne. Now, theybrought back the monarchy in Spain and Portugal. The Pope wasagain made ruler of the Papal States.

Political Movements The balance of power in Europewas maintained for a number of years. However, the revolution-ary ideas that had been spread by Napoleon’s Grand Empire didnot die. Several groups were against the Congress System, or thepolitical plan and division of Europe set up by the Congress ofVienna.

One group was the liberals. They wanted political reformbased on the ideals of the French Revolution. These includedindividual freedom, equal rights under the law, and freedom ofthought and religion. Most liberals were members of the middleclass. They also wanted changes that would improve their ownlives. Among these changes were voting rights for landownersand the protection of private property. Some liberals wanted aconstitutional monarchy. Others wanted a republic. The liberalswere strongest in Great Britain and France.

Another group that was against the Congress System was thenationalists (nash’ uh nuh lists). They wanted politicalindependence for areas where people shared the same language,customs, and history. The Congress of Vienna had paid no

Painting of Metternich

Reading Check Why did the

Congress of Viennawant to achieve abalance of power?

Reading Check What changes

did the liberals support?

Reading Check Why did the

nationalists opposethe Congress System?

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Comparing Historical Maps

Europe After the Congress of Vienna

A comparison of historical mapscan reveal the changes that occur in thepolitical features of an area over time.

Look at the map on page 564. Now,look at the map below. Note that bothshow about the same area, but at differ-ent times. The map on page 564 showsEurope’s political divisions duringNapoleon’s rule. The map below showsEurope after the Congress of Vienna.

To compare historical maps, firstlook at both maps to make sure thesame region is being illustrated. Then,study the boundaries and note anychanges. Study also the names of thecountries to see if they have changed.

For example,note that theGrand Duchy ofWarsaw was sub-ject to Napoleon.After the Congress of Vienna, however,both its boundaries and its name changed.

Compare both maps and answer thefollowing questions.

Map Practice1. How was the French Empire divided

after the Congress of Vienna?2. What countries were not directly

affected by either Napoleon’s rule or the Congress of Vienna?

567

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attention to nationalist feelings when it divided the Grand Empire.For example, the Belgians did not want to be part of Holland.The northern Italians did not want to be ruled by Austria.

A third group that was against the Congress System was thesocialists. They wanted to end private ownership of land andfactories. They believed the state, or the people as a whole,should own all means of production. In this way, the socialistsbelieved, everyone would be treated fairly and the workers’ liveswould improve.

Some socialists tried to set up ideal communities based oneconomic cooperation. They thought these communities wouldshow that theirs was a better way of life. Such socialists wereknown as utopian socialists (yu to’ pe uhn so’shuh lists).

Other socialists believed the only way to bring about reformwas by revolution. One such socialist was Karl Marx, a German.He believed the proletariat (pro luh tar ’ e uht), or industrialworking class, would rise up and take power. “The workers havenothing to lose . . . but their chains,” he wrote in his book TheCommunist Manifesto (kahm’ yu nist man uh fes’ to). “They have aworld to gain. Workers of the world, unite!”

Marx believed that after the workers’ revolution, therewould be no hunger or poverty. Everyone would become equal.Governments would not even be needed. People would workbecause they wanted to give something to society. In return, theywould be able to develop their own interests and talents. Marxcalled his kind of socialism communism (kahm’ yu¯ niz uhm).He believed the workers’ revolution would be led by his newCommunist party.

An Era of Revolution Beginning in 1820, liberals,nationalists, and socialists led revolutions against the CongressSystem. The earliest of these took place in Spain, Portugal, Italy,and Russia. They all failed. However, Greek nationalists weregiven hope by these attempts. In 1821, they rebelled against theOttoman Empire. After eight years of fighting, Greece gained itsindependence.

In 1830, there was another revolution in France. After LouisXVIII died, his brother Charles X had taken the throne. Hewanted to bring back the Old Regime. Just a few weeks afterbeing crowned, Charles did away with the National Assembly.He took the right to vote away from the middle class andreturned control of the schools to the Roman Catholic Church. Inresponse to Charles’s actions, middle-class liberals, helped bystudents and unemployed workers, overthrew the government.After three days of fighting, Charles X fled.

The July Revolution, as it was called, was a victory for themiddle class. Members of this class, unlike members of theworking class, wanted a constitutional monarchy rather than a

UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

Karl Marx

Reading Check How did the

socialists feel aboutprivate property?

Reading Check Who were the

utopian socialists?What did Karl Marxexpect the proletariatto do?

Reading Check What did Marx

believe would hap-pen to governmentunder communism?

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republic. So, they gave the throne to Charles X’s cousin, Louis-Philippe (lu’ e fi lep’). Under Louis-Philippe’s rule, the number ofpeople who could vote increased. However, of the middle class,only its richest members could vote. This angered other membersof the middle class. Working-class people were also angry. Theyhad wanted not only a republic but also universal male suffrage(suhf’ rij), or the right of all adult males to vote.

News of the July Revolution touched off rebellions in othercountries. In 1831, Belgian nationalists won independence fromHolland. The Poles fought against Russia but were defeated.Uprisings in several German and Italian states also were putdown and ended quickly.

In Great Britain, however, liberal reforms were made bygradual change instead of revolution. In 1832, the British govern-ment passed a law that lowered the amount of land a man had toown in order to vote. This increased by one half the number ofvoters. It also gave the new industrial towns more representationin Parliament. As a result, the British middle class had more sayin the government.

Reforms also helped the working class. Labor unions gainedthe right to strike, or stop work, in order to obtain shorter hours,

CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE

Reading Check What group

fought for universalmale suffrage inFrance?

Reading Check Why did work-

ers want the right tostrike?

Universal Suffrage English author and teacher MaryWollstonecraft (left) believed all people should vote,regardless of gender. In 1792, she published a widelyread book defending the rights of women. Her bookhelped spark the start of the woman’s suffrage move-ment, which eventually made it possible for MargaretThatcher (right) to become Great Britain’s first femalePrime Minister. She heldthe office from 1979 to1990. What reformshelped increase suf-frage in Great Britain in the 1830s?

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higher wages, and better working conditions. By 1890, working-class males also obtained the right to vote.

The Revolutions of 1848 In 1848, another series of revo-lutions broke out. All over Europe, governments were over-thrown. Once again, the rebellion started in France.

Louis-Philippe had tried to be a “citizen-king.” He walkedthrough the streets of Paris without any servants to show that hewas a bourgeois rather than an aristocrat. He wore a frock coatand trousers like the men of the middle class. He was very richhimself, however, and his government served only the rich.Industrial workers and middle-class liberals became increasinglyunhappy. At the same time, the economy was bad throughoutEurope, including France. Many people did not have jobs. Then,in 1845 and 1846, the potato and wheat crops failed. There wasnot enough food to feed everyone.

In February of 1848, riots broke out in the streets of Paris.Louis-Philippe fled, and the revolutionary leaders declared theSecond French Republic. They set up a temporary government torule until a new National Assembly could be elected. Louis Blanc(lu e blahnk), a socialist, was one of the leaders. He persuadedthe other leaders to set up national workshops, or factories runby the workers but paid for by the government. The nationalworkshops provided jobs for thousands of people. However, thenumber of people out of work grew faster than jobs could becreated. Before long, the French government was supporting over100,000 people.

When the new National Assembly was finally elected inApril, it did away with the workshops. The workers revolted,fighting violently for three days. They were defeated by the army,but not before over 10,000 people were killed.

The National Assembly then drew up a constitution. It calledfor a strong president to be elected by universal male suffrage.Napoleon’s nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, was electedpresident of the Second French Republic. He believed, however,that he had inherited his uncle’s destiny. So, in 1851 he did awaywith the constitution. A year later, the people voted him EmperorNapoleon III. At the same time, the Second French Republic wasrenamed the Second French Empire. Louis-Napoleon remainedon the throne until 1870.

The revolution in France was followed by revolutions inother parts of Europe. The Hungarians (hung ger’ e uhns), theItalians, and the Germans all rebelled. Their revolts failed. Evenso, the revolutions of 1848 led to some important changes. Intime, universal male suffrage spread to most northern andwestern European countries. Workers, who felt they had beencheated, began to form political parties. Soon, there was a social-ist party in almost every European country.

UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

Painting of Louis-Napoleon

Reading Check What was the

purpose of thenational workshops,and why did theyfail?

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Did you ever wish you could seeinto the future? Predicting futureevents is very difficult. You can, how-ever, develop skills that will help youidentify the logical consequences ofdecisions or actions.

Learning the Skill Follow thesesteps to help you accurately predictconsequences.

• Review what you already knowabout a situation by listing facts,events, and people’s responses. Thelist will help you recall events andhow they affected people.

• Analyze patterns. Try to determinewhat the patterns show.

• Use your knowledge and observa-tions of similar situations. In otherwords, ask yourself, "What werethe consequences of a similar deci-sion or action that occurred in thepast?"

• Analyze eachof the poten-tial conse-quences byasking, "Howlikely is it thatthis willoccur?"

• Make a prediction.

Predicting Consequences

Louis-Philippe fled France in1848

Skill PracticeHistorians often make predictionsabout the future based on patternsfrom the past. Imagine you are a his-torian at the start of 1849. Use theinformation in the chart below tomake predictions about what liesahead for the 1850s and 1860s.

The following questions will serveas a guide.

1. Review the information on thechart. What patterns do younotice? What do the facts tell youabout political affairs in Europeduring the early 1800s?

2. Suppose one of the leaders whotook part in the Congress of Vien-na asked you to predict what toexpect in the mid-1800s. Whatwould you say? Was the CongressSystem safe from future threats?Explain.

Events of the Early 1800s Results and ReactionsNapoleon is defeated The Congress of Viennaat the Battle of Waterloo. seeks to restore divine-right

monarchy to Europe.

The July Revolution of Rebellions erupt in 1830 returns constitutional other European nations.monarchy to France.

Worker riots in France The revolution in France lead to revolution and the is followed by revolutions Second French Republic. in other parts of Europe.

The revolutions of 1848 fail to overturn the Congress System.

?

Glencoe’s SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook CD-ROM,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

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After the revolutions of 1848 failed, the Congress Systemseemed stronger than ever. However, this was not the case.Before long, the growth of nationalism would destroy the balanceof power that had been established at Vienna. Three countriesthat were affected by the growth of nationalism were Italy, Ger-many, and Austria.

Italy In 1848, eight of the nine Italian states were underAustrian control. Only Sardinia (sahr din’ e uh) was indepen-dent. Ever since Napoleon’s time, the Italians had been unhappyabout this state of affairs. They remembered that Rome had onceruled the ancient world and that Italian city-states had led theRenaissance. They wanted to become a unified nation.

Many nationalists in Italy looked to Sardinia to take thelead. This was because of Sardinia’s prime minister, CountCamillo di Cavour (kont kuh me ’ lo de kuh vuhr’). Cavourbelieved in industrialization and favored a constitutional monar-chy. He also realized that Sardinia needed help to drive the Aus-trians out of Italy. To this end, he made an agreement withNapoleon III. It stated that if the Austrians attacked Sardinia, theFrench would help the Sardinians. When Austria declared waron Sardinia in 1859, Napoleon III kept his word. Austria wasdefeated, and the Italian state of Lombardy (lahm’ bahr de) wasunited with Sardinia. By 1860, the other northern Italian statesalso revolted against Austria and united with Sardinia.

That same year, an Italian nationalist named GiuseppeGaribaldi (ju zep’ a gar uh bahl’ de) led another revolution in

Charcoal and Free-dom Carbonari, whichmeans “charcoal burners”in Italian, was the name ofone of the first secret soci-eties formed to overthrowforeign rule in Italy. Char-coal is black, but it glowsbrightly when burning.Italian rebels associated theglow with the light of free-dom and liberty.

SECTION 3 Growth of Nationalism

Section 2 Assessment 1. Define: balance of power, liberals,

nationalists, socialists, utopian social-ists, proletariat, communism, universalmale suffrage, strike, national work-shops.

2. What were two goals of the Congressof Vienna?

3. What were some of the results of therevolutions of 1848?

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons Which one of

the three groups—liberals, nationalists,

or socialists—would you have support-ed in the 1800s? Why?

Graphic Organizer Activity 5. Draw this diagram, and use it to show

predictions made by Karl Marx.

Marx'sPredictions

UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES

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southern Italy. Garibaldi had spent much of his life in exile inBrazil and Uruguay (yur’ uh gwı). There, he had learned how tolead small bands of soldiers behind enemy lines. The bandswould hide in forests and on hillsides. They would make sur-prise attacks on the enemy and then go back into hiding. Thiskind of fighting is called guerrilla warfare (guh ril’ uh wor far).In guerrilla warfare, a small group of soldiers can often defeat amuch larger army.

Garibaldi taught guerrilla warfare to his followers. Theywere called “Red Shirts” because they, like their leader, wore redshirts. They also wore loose grey trousers, silk handkerchiefsaround their necks, grey cloaks, and black felt hats. In 1860,Garibaldi’s Red Shirts conquered Sicily within three months.Then, they sailed to the Italian mainland and conquered the stateof Naples.

In 1861, the northern and southern nationalist groups com-bined. The Kingdom of Italy was formed as a constitutionalmonarchy. Victor Emmanuel II (e man’ yu el) of Sardinia becameking. The Pope, who wanted to keep control over the Papal

GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI Giuseppe Garibaldi led the fight for Italian unifica-tion in southern Italy. He was skilled in guerrilla warfare, having fought in other revo-lutionary wars. In this painting, Garibaldi leads his Red Shirts in an attack on troopsfrom Naples. Who became king of the united Italy?

Garibaldi Between 1850and 1860, GiuseppeGaribaldi lived on StatenIsland in New York City.Here he made a meagerliving working in a friend’scandle factory.

Reading Check Why might

rebels such as the"Red Shirts" engage inguerrilla warfare?

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States, fought against Italian unity and lost. In 1870, the PapalStates became part of Italy, and Italian unification was complete.The balance of power in Europe, however, was weakened.

Germany Nationalist feelings were also strong in the 39German states. German poets and writers, like Johann Wolfgangvon Goethe (ger’ tuh) and Friedrich von Schiller (shil’ uhr), wroteabout German nationalism. German composer Richard Wagner(vahg’ nuhr) wrote operas based on German folk tales. In 1834,many of the German states signed a trade agreement. In it, theypromised not to tax goods coming from other German states.Soon, the economy of these states improved. However, many ofthe rulers of the smaller states were not willing to give up theirpolitical power. Austria was also against any attempt to unifyGermany.

These obstacles were overcome by the Kingdom of Prussia.In 1862, King William I named Count Otto von Bismarck (biz’mahrk) prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck was a junker (yung’kuhr), or rich landowner, who believed in divine-right monarchy.He said that he would unite Germany, not “by speeches andmajority votes—but by blood and iron.” He also believed that waragainst a common enemy would bring the German states closertogether.

In 1864, Bismarck joined with Austria to defeat Denmark andto gain territory. Two years later, he used a dispute over thisterritory as an excuse to go to war against Austria. Prussia wonthe war in seven weeks. It had superior weapons, as well as anexcellent railroad system that moved troops quickly from onebattlefield to another. The resulting peace treaty ended the looseGerman Confederation. The North German Confederation, ledby Prussia, was set up in its place.

In 1870, Bismarck found an excuse to go to war againstFrance, Germany’s oldest enemy. As Bismarck had hoped, thesouthern German states joined the northern German states in thestruggle. Well-trained and well-equipped, the German armyeasily defeated the French army. Bismarck then laid siege to Paris.The city held out for four months. Food became so scarce that thepeople were forced to eat the animals in the zoo. The trees thatNapoleon III had planted along the streets of Paris were cutdown and used for fuel. At last, on January 28, 1871, the citysurrendered.

Meanwhile, at Versailles (vuhr sı ’), William I of Prussia wasnamed kaiser (kı’ zuhr), or emperor, of the new German Empire.This included both the northern and the southern German states,as well as the rich mining and manufacturing lands of Alsace (al’sas) and Lorraine (luh ran’), which had been won from France. Aunified Germany, however, meant a further weakening of the bal-ance of power.

Germany Bismarckfought three wars to unifyGermany, but anotherwar—World War II—left Germany divided for45 years. In 1990, WestGermany and East Germany were reunited asone country.

Reading Check What was a

junker?

Reading Check Who was the

kaiser of the newGerman Empire?

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575CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE 575

THE GERMAN EMPIRE The struggle for a united Germany was led byCount Otto von Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia. In this painting, Bismarck (cen-ter) proclaims King William I of Prussia (on platform) the emperor of a new Germanempire. What effect did a unified Germany have on Europe?

Otto von Bismarck1815-1898

Prime Minister of PrussiaOtto von Bismarckgrew up the son of awealthy landowner,whose noble ancestrystretched back morethan five centuries. Hewas only an averagestudent and showedlittle promise until his30s, when he marriedand entered politics.For the rest of his life,Bismarck demonstrat-ed the discipline hehad lacked as a youth.He was the architectof German unificationand served as the firstchancellor, or primeminister, of unifiedGermany. Peoplecalled him the "IronChancellor."

Austria Nationalists in Italy and Germany wanted to unifytheir nations. Nationalists in Austria, on the other hand, threat-ened the unity of the Austrian Empire.

The Austrian Empire was made up of many nationalities.Although its emperor, Francis Joseph, was German, four out offive people were not. Other nationalities included the Czechs, theSlovaks, the Poles, the Croats, the Slovenes, and the Magyars(mag’ yahrs), the largest group in Hungary. Each had its own lan-guage and history and wanted self-rule.

By 1866, Austria had been defeated by both Sardinia andPrussia. Magyar nationalists saw their chance to become inde-pendent. They revolted. In 1867, a weakened Austria agreed tocreate a dual monarchy. Now, the emperor ruled over two sepa-rate kingdoms—Austria and Hungary. Each had its own officiallanguage, parliament, and laws. Although they were separatepolitically, the two countries needed each other economically.Austria supplied manufactured goods to Hungary. In return,Hungary supplied Austria with food products.

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576 UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES576

The Magyars were satisfied with the situation of having sep-arate countries, but other nationalities in Austria-Hungary werenot. Their unhappiness presented a continuing threat to the dualmonarchy and the peace of Europe.

Section 3 Assessment 1. Define: guerrilla warfare, junker,

kaiser.2. What did Garibaldi do to further

nationalism in Italy?3. How was Austria-Hungary formed?

How did most of its citizens feel aboutthis?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Why do you

think the Italian city-states wanted tobe a unified nation? Explain.

Graphic Organizer Activity 5. Draw this diagram, and use it to

describe the importance of these datesin the drive for German unification:1834, 1862, 1864, 1870.

1834 1862 1864 1870

1. In 1804, Napoleon became emperor ofFrance. He then set out to conquer therest of Europe—a plan that nearly suc-ceeded.

2. Although Napoleon created a strongcentral government and a new code oflaws, the people of France still lost cer-tain rights.

3. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congressof Vienna tried to establish a balance ofpower in Europe and to restore divine-right monarchy.

4. Liberals, nationalists, and socialistsopposed the Congress System.

5. A series of revolutions broke out inmany European countries in 1820, 1830,and 1848.

6. Liberal reforms were made in GreatBritain without a revolution.

7. The revolutions of 1848 failed to over-throw the Congress System, but theystill had lasting results, including thespread of universal male suffrage andthe rise of socialism among workers.

8. The rise of nationalism led to the unifi-cation of Italy between 1859 and 1870and the unification of Germanybetween 1862 and 1871.

9. In the Austrian Empire, nationalism ledto the Empire’s division into two sepa-rate kingdoms—Austria and Hun-gary—each of which had manydifferent national groups that wantedindependence.

Chapter Summary & Study Guide

Self-Check QuizVisit the Human Heritage Web site at humanheritage.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 35—Self-Check Quizto assess your understanding of this chapter.

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Using Key Terms

Imagine you are a writer in Europe inthe 1800s. You have been asked to preparea brief introduction to a revolutionaryhandbook—a book telling people how tobring about change or to resist unfair gov-ernments. Use the following words inyour introduction.

plebiscite scorched-earth policyabdicate balance of powerliberals proletariatcommunism strikeguerrilla warfare kaiser

Understanding Main Ideas

1. Why did the representatives at theCongress of Vienna try to bring backdivine-right monarchy?

2. Why did the temporary French gov-ernment of 1848 set up national work-shops?

3. How did Napoleon III help Italiannationalists?

4. How did the German states becomeunified?

5. What were some of the results of thewar between Prussia and France?

6. Why were national groups in Austria-Hungary unhappy in the 1860s?

Critical Thinking

1. What did Napolean reveal about him-self at his crowning as emperor?

2. Do you think Napoleon’s conquestswere good or bad for Europe? Explainyour answer.

3. How important was nationalism inEurope during the second half of the1800s? Explain.

4. "Liberal reforms can only be madewith a revolution." Do you agree ordisagree with this statement? Explain.

Graphic Organizer Activity

History Create a diagram like theone shown, and use it to give details thatsupport the following generalization: TheCongress of Vienna failed in its goal toreturn Europe to the old order.

Geography in History

The World in Spatial Terms Refer tothe map on page 564. During Napoleon’stime, as during other historical eras, Pariswas an important city. What is the latitudeof Paris? What is the longitude? Describe itsrelative location.

AssessmentCHAPTER

Supporting Details

Generalization

1.

2.

3.

4.

577

Using Your Journal

Review the reasons why differ-

ent revolutions took place in

Europe during the 1800s. Write

a brief editorial in which you

give your opinion about one of

these revolutions and whether

the people had good reason to

revolt. Use facts to support your

opinions.

35

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