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Transcript of 316283 3 En BookBackmatter 809. - Springer978-3-319-43739-2/1.pdf · Activity-based costing...
Index
AAccenture Development Partnerships, 783–785Acceptable Range of Macronutrient Distribution
(ARMD), definition, 587Access to Nutrition Index (ATNI), 773Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 414,
419–420advanced AIDS, 450End of AIDS, 668HIV wasting, 451United Nations Programme on (UNAIDS), 415
combination prevention, 426WHO plan, Three by Five, 415
Acrodermatitis enteropathica, 273, 274Activity-based costing ingredients (ABC-I) approach,
619Adequate intake (AI), 161, 330, 587
calculation for, 96Adolescent Girls’ Anaemia Control Programme, 569Adolescents, 124, 126, 129–130, 559
adolescent growth and nutritional status in relation topregnancy, 565–567
child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, 561delivery platforms, 571
community- and health-based delivery platforms,572
school-based platforms, 571–572social safety nets or social protection programs,
572–573determinants of growth of, 564–565global data on adolescent nutrition, 562–563growth and development of, 564intervention strategies and delivery platforms,
567–568micronutrient deficiencies and anemia in low- and
middle-income countries, 567nutrition-sensitive interventions, 570
anthelmintic treatment, 570optimizing interval between pregnancies, 571postponing age at marriage and first pregnancy,
570–571nutrition-specific interventions, 568
dietary intake, improving, 569–570iron and folic acid status, 568–569
pregnant adolescents, nutrition of, 570unique lives and needs of, 560–561and youth, 560
Adult-onset diabetes, 150, 152, 154Adult weight classifications, 97African countries, nutrition capacity in, 73–74African Nutrition Leadership Programme (ANLP), 80Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), 80Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030), 367Agriculture, urban, 718–719Agriculture development programs, 604Air displacement plethysmography (ADP) technology,
96Ajinomoto Group, 775Alma-Ata declaration, 625Alpha(1)-acid glycoprotein (AGP), 105, 2691 a-hydroxylation, 300Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), 322, 325, 330American with Disabilities Act (ADA), 525Amylase, 166–167Anemia, 172, 176, 243, 569
in adolescents, in low- and middle-income countries,567
assessment of, 241, 242control of, 252–256detection, by clinical examination, 243and HIV infection, 428in pregnancy, 477prevalence, 244small for gestational age and, 508and TB, 443as vitamin A deficiency disorder, 210–211
Anorexia nervosa, 470, 472Anthelmintic treatment, in adolescents, 570Anthropometric measures, 96, 124, 125, 126, 131
for adults and aging, 96–98for birth outcomes and pregnancy, 98–99for children, 99–101
Anti-tuberculosis therapy (ATT), 438Antioxidants, 475Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), 341, 371, 415, 416, 425Antiretroviral therapy (ART), 341, 415, 423–424, 457,
459–460, 674, 675Arachidonic acid (AA), 322, 326
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017S. de Pee et al. (eds.), Nutrition and Health in a Developing World,Nutrition and Health, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43739-2
809
Asian countries, nutrition capacity in, 74–75Asthma, 198, 324Attention deficit disorder (ADD), 542Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 526,
542feeding/nutritional problems, 542–543growth deviants, 543
Atwater, Wilbur Olin, 10Autism, 526, 529. See also Autism spectrum disorders
(ASDs)Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 543
feeding/nutritional problems, 543–544growth deviants, 544symptoms, 533
Average for gestational age (AGA) infants, 98Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children
(ALSPAC), 541
BBaby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), 374, 375Baby-friendly hospitals (BFHs), 374–375Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) vaccine, 396, 397, 402,
403, 405, 406historical perspective, 387
Balanced energy and protein (BEP) supplementation, 569Balanced protein–energy (BPE) supplementation, 493,
495The Barker Hypothesis, 512Bedaquiline, 404Behavior change communications (BCC) strategy, 73,
605, 614Beneficence, ethical principles, 795Benefit:cost analysis, 34Benefit:cost ratios, nutrition interventions, 34, 41Bennett’s law, 741Benoiston de Châteauneuf, Louis François, 7Beriberi, 11–12, 14b-apocarotenals, 182Beta-carotene, 182, 541
food sources, 187Bifidobacteria, 350Bilharzia. See SchistosomiasisBiofortification, 171, 216–217, 280Biomarkers, 105–107
and dietary intake, 107and environmental factors, 105and obesity, 106proteomics, 106and time, 106
Bitot’s spots, 208, 209, 211Blegvad, Olaf, 16Blinding, 50Bloch, Carl, 16Body mass index (BMI), 96–97, 99–100, 562, 563, 710
in HIV, 461, 462measure of overweight and obesity, 144–145risk for TB and, 438, 439
Bovine TB, 392
Breast cancer, 479–480obesity, 479vitamin D supplementation and, 480
Breast milk substitute, 362, 372Breastfeeding, 11, 35, 205, 208, 337, 338, 361, 459, 777.
See also Human milkand 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 367benefits
for child, 339–340for mother, 340
community and global issues affecting, 370–371definitions and recommendations, 361–362essential fatty acids in, 327and HIV transmission, 341, 429infant feeding after 12 months, 365and infant health, 363–364initiation, 365–366Kangaroo method, 366–367and maternal health, 364–365nutrient content of breast milk, 362–363promotion and support, 340–341protection, promotion and support, 371
policies and guidelines, 372–374promotion programs, 374–376
socioecological model and social determinants, 371suboptimal, 35, 37trends, 367
global and regional trends, 367–370vitamin D deficiency, 299, 302, 304
Bretonneau, Pierre Fidèle, 9Britannia Industries Limited, 774Britannia Nutrition Foundation (BNF), 775British Public Health Act (1848), 8Buffalo milk, 339, 341
CC-reactive protein (CRP), 105, 269Cachexia
in HIV, 454tuberculosis and, 440–441
Calcium, 538deficiency signs and symptoms, 103pregnancy and, 476
Calmette, Léon Charles Albert, 405Candida albicans, 366Capacity development, 67
achieving international goalsand targets, 68–69
advocacy and leadership, 79–80approaches to develop
individual capacity, 77institutional capacity, 81–82systemic capacity, 82
assessing nutrition capacity, 70in African countries, 73–74in Asian countries, 74–75capacity for addressing obesity and
non-communicable diseases, 75
810 Index
global health workforce and capacity to delivernutrition services, 70–72
multi-country nutrition initiatives, 72–73building on what we know, 76burden of malnutrition, 67–68complex nexus of contributing factors, 68curriculum and credentials for development needs,
78–79defining, 69innovative approaches to education and training,
80–81levels of, 69monitoring and evaluating, 82–84new knowledge and skills to address post-2015
challenges, 77new ways of working with other disciplines, 77–78
Caritat, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas, 4Carotenoids, 107, 182, 188Casein proteins, 342, 349Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, 533, 534CD4 count, 424–425, 429, 455CD4 receptor, 418CD4+ T cells, 395, 400, 418Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 414Cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD), 474Cerebral palsy (CP), 525, 544
feeding/nutritional problems, 545growth deviants or nutritional deficits, 545–546
Cervical cancer, 480Chadwick, Edwin, 7, 7–8Chapin, Charles, 10Child growth
assessment, 119importance of zinc for, 274
Child health, 127, 506, 508, 631Child Health Days, 214Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group (CHERG),
506Child marriage and adolescent pregnancy, 561Child mortality, 506, 548, 714
reduction of, vitamin A and, 16–18Child nutrition
disparities in, urban and rural areas, 708–709services, 73zinc supplementation, 275
Childrenanthropometric measures for, 99–101HIV infection in, 429–430preventive zinc supplementation in, 275–276tuberculosis in, 443–444
Chinese city dynamics, 695Cholera, 8, 9Chromium, 104
deficiency signs and symptoms, 103recommendations for
older men, 588older women, 589
Chronic diseases, 516
in aging, 585and diet and nutrition in LMICs,
585–586non-transmissible disease epidemiology in
low-income country, 585relationship of chronic disease to diet and nutrition
in LMICs, 585–586Cities, nutrition analysis of, 688
consumption trends in cities, 690–691global nutrition status, 688–689global urban nutrition status, 689–690
City region food system, 700Climate variability and agriculture, relationship between,
68Cod liver oil, 16–17, 438Cognitive function
economics of malnutrition and cognitive impairment,34
iodine role in brain development, 290Colostrum, 338, 362Combination prevention, 425–426Communities, 625
historical perspectives, 626, 627access barriers, overcoming, 630defining and monitoring quality of care, 632health services, delivering, 630–632home care and care seeking, educating for,
629–630social norms and rights, promoting, 627–628social support, providing, 632–634
shifting dynamics, 634focus shifting from communities to individuals,
637–638physical communities, changing dynamics of,
635–636sustainable development goals (SDGs), 634–635virtual communities, 636–637
supporting integrated health and nutrition, 639cross-sectoral approaches, models of, 639–642
Community- and health-based delivery platforms, foradolescents, 572
Community-based management of acute malnutrition(CMAM), 631–632, 659
Community-driven quality, 632Community health workers (CHWs), 629–630
history of, 633–634Competency-based training and education, 78Complementary feeding, 173, 206, 362Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs, 572–573Condorcet, Marquis de, 4Confidentiality, ethics in public health research, 799–800Contagion, origins of concept, 8–9Contagionist theory, 8Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD), 548Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 547Convergence model, 387Copper deficiency, 278
Index 811
signs and symptoms, 103Copy number variants (CNVs), 532Corporate social responsibility (CSR), 772Cost–benefit analysis, 35–36Cost-effectiveness, 34, 36, 606Cost-effectiveness analysis, nutrition interventions,
41–43Council for International Organisations of Medical
Sciences (CIOMS), 794Counterfactual, 612Cow’s milk, 341–342
and linear growth, 344–345malnutrition, 348–349pregnant and lactating women, 348SAM and MAM
in prevention and treatment of, 345–347use of cow’s milk ingredients in foods for, 351
school milk programs for prevention ofundernutrition, 348
Cretinism, 290Cross-sectoral approaches, models of, 639–642Curriculum and credentials for development needs,
78–79CYP27B1 mRNA, 300Cytochromes, function, 236
DDairy ingredients, recommended use of, 351
cost-effectiveness of milk content, 352–353Dairy products, 312D’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 4Declaration of Helsinki, 794, 800, 8047-Dehydrocholesterol, 299Delamanid, 404Demographic dividend, 560Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) surveys, 145Demographic transition, 585Development Impact Bonds (DIBs), 780–781Developmental disabilities (DDs), 523
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 542feeding/nutritional problems, 542–543growth deviants, 543
autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 543feeding/nutritional problems, 543–544growth deviants, 544
cerebral palsy (CP), 544feeding/nutritional problems, 545growth deviants or nutritional deficits, 545–546
definition, 524–526Down syndrome (DS) or trisomy 21, 546
growth deviants, 546epidemiology
cultural perceptions, 530–531discrepancies, 530etiology, 531in low-income and middle-income countries,
526–530etiology, 531
environmental exposures, 532from epigenetics/epigenomics, 534–535gene-environment interactions (GxE), evidence
for, 533genetics and genomics, 531–532potential to prevent developmental disabilities,
535–536nutritional implications for, 536
folic acid, 540–541iodine, 541iron, 540macronutrients, undernutrition in terms of,
536–537micronutrients, undernutrition with respect to,
538–539vitamin A deficiency, 541–542
outcomes, 548education, inclusion, or exclusion, 550–552employment, 552–553morbidities and mortalities, 548–550
sociopolitical, policies, and conventions adopted bycountries’ regulations, 547–548
spina bifida, 546growth deviants, 547
Deworming and enhanced vitamin A (DEVTA), 195DIAAS (digestible indispensable amino acid score), 342Diarrhea, 23t
prevention and treatment, 629relative risk of suboptimum breastfeeding, 339zinc deficiency and, 268
Diderot, Denis, 4Dietary diversification, 212–213, 279–280, 568Dietary intake, measuring, 95–96
biomarkers and, 107long-term trends, 18–19
Dietary reference intakes (DRI), 160, 189adequate intake level (AI), 161estimated average requirement (EAR), 160–161groups and circumstances with higher nutrient needs,
162–163recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 160recommended nutrient intake (RNI), 160upper intake level (UL), 161–162
Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS),165
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-(OH)2D), 300Direct nutrition interventions, 490–495
preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495
Directly Observed Therapy Short-Course (DOTS),401–402
Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), 35, 41–42Divalent metal transporter (DMT1), 238Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 322, 325, 326–327
in breast milk, 339supplementation during pregnancy, 328
Down syndrome (DS), 546
812 Index
growth deviants, 546Dried skimmed milk (DSM), 349, 351, 353Drug-resistant virus, 425Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, 96
EEbola virus disease (EVD), 628Economics
malnutritioncognitive impairment, 34productivity losses, 36
nutrition interventionsbenefit:cost ratios, 34, 41cost-effectiveness analysis, 41–43overview of costs, 37recommendations, 42
Education and training, innovative approaches to, 80–81Effectiveness trials, 50, 608Efficacy trials, 50Eicosapentanoic (EPA) acid, 322Eijkman, Christian, 12, 14Elders in low–middle-income countries, 579
biology of aging, 581burden of chronic diseases in aging, 585
non-transmissible disease epidemiology inlow-income country, 585
relationship of chronic disease to diet andnutrition, 585–586
deficiency and undernutrition states in low-incomecountry elderly, 592–594
demography of aging of populations, 583–584dietary intakes assessment in older subjects, 590–591evolutionary paradoxes, 580–581excess and overnutrition states, 594–595good nutritional status, addressing, 595nutrient intake recommendations
for older men, 588for older women, 589
nutritional requirements, nutrient intakerecommendations and guidelines for healthfuleating, 586–590
patterns of dietary consumption in later life, 591–592senescence of tissue and organ function with aging,
581function of alimentary and digestive tract in aging,
582–583successful aging
normative aging, 583frail aging, 583
ELISA techniques, 241Ellison, Joseph, 16ENACT course, 80Encyclopédie, 4Energy and protein, 120, 488
pregnancy, 474Energy availability, 472Energy density, 166–167
increasing, 167–168
eNutrition Academy, 80Enzymes, sources of, 165Epidemiological transition, 585, 586Epilepsy, 529Essential fatty acids, 165, 321
effect of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in pregnancy,lactation, and infancy, 325–326
immunomodulation, 323long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk,
326–328metabolism, 322–323n-3 and n-6 PUFA dietary intakes and disease,
associations between, 324asthma, 324noncommunicable diseases, 324
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 323n-3 and n-6 PUFA, 324, 325–326
requirements, 329and specific needs in developing countries, 329–330
Essential nutrients, 51, 55and active compounds, 165
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 96, 160–161,176, 265, 586
Estimated Energy Requirement (EER), 587Ethambutol, 404Ethics, in public health research
basic ethical principlesbeneficence, 795justice, 794, 796respect for persons, 795, 796–797
confidentiality, 799–800informed consent, 796–798responsibilities after completion of research, 802–804review of research proposals, 804, 805–806standards of care, 800–802
Evaluation research, using results from, 622Evidence-based medicine (EBM), 48–51, 53–54
drawbacks, 53Evidence for nutrition-specific interventions and
programs, 53–60assessing impact of programs for improving nutrition,
59choosing a control group for, 54–55evidence-based medicine paradigm, 53–54magnitude of nutrient intervention, 56outcome focused interventions, collecting and
interpreting ‘right’ evidence, 56stunting, 59–60
Exercise. See Female athlete triadExtensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB), 386External validity of RCTs, 50, 57Extrapulmonary TB (EPTB), 392, 397, 400, 403
FF-75, 346–347F(-)100 (therapeutic milk), 163, 164, 346–347Factors affecting impact on nutrition
characteristics/effects of crisis, 655
Index 813
displacement, 655service quality and access, 655–656women, crises and nutrition, 656
pre-crisis nutrition situation, 653–655FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, 174Farr, William, 6Fat, in milk, 343–344Female athlete triad, 472Ferritin, 237, 241, 256Fetal growth restriction (FGR), 131–132, 503First pregnancy, postponing age at marriage and,
570–571Fisher, Ronald A., 6Fluoride deficiency signs and symptoms, 103Folic acid, 540–541
costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35improving, in adolescents, 568–569supplementation, 568
Food access, 719cash and food purchases, importance of, 719
food price shocks, 720formal and informal safety nets, 722–723urban employment, 720
maternal employment and childcare, 721–722Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), historical
perspective, 22Food and available energy, 94–95Food availability, 715
foreign direct investment and globalization, 717street foods, 717–718traditional and modern supply chains, 715–717urban agriculture, 718–719
Food balance sheets, 94Food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG), 164, 166Food fortification, 255–256, 312, 477, 758, 776
biofortification, 171, 217with iron and folic acid, 568with vitamin A, 193, 215, 313with vitamin D, 299, 312, 313with zinc, 278–279
Food insecurity, 92HIV and, 453and tuberculosis, 439–440and undernutrition, 428
Food policy analysis, 745Food production, history of growth, 18Food safety, 726–727Food security, 707
in HIV, 453Food systems, nutrition transition and urban diets, 712
changing demand for food, 714changing role of women, 713physical activity, 714–715urban diets, 714urban structure, technology and society, 713
Food value chain, 755actors across, 755–756
nutrition-focused, 764private sector, role of, 756–757types of, 757–758
Food waste and cold chains, 697–698Ford Foundation, 772Foreign direct investment (FDI), 740, 747
and globalization, 717Forensic medicine, 21Fortification, 171
biofortification, 171considerations for, 172–173home-fortification/point-of-use fortification, 172industrial fortification of foods for general population,
171–172iron, 255–256setting nutrient level for, 174standards, specifications and quality control for,
174–175vitamin A, 215, 216
Fortification Rapid Assessment Tool (FRAT), 215Fortified blended food (FBF), 163Frail aging, 583Frank, Johann Peter, 5Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP), 241
GGene-environment interactions (GxE), evidence for, 533
from epigenetics/epigenomics, 534–535Genovesi, Antonio, 7Geographical communities, defined, 626Gestational diabetes (GD), 508GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), 780Glisson, Francis, 299Global acute malnutrition (GAM) prevalence thresholds,
656Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), 774Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI),
780, 783Global Food Security Index, 94Global Fund for AIDS, Tuberculosis (TB) and Malaria
(GFATM), 415, 416–417Global health workforce and capacity to deliver nutrition
services, 70–72Global Hunger Index, 97Global Vaccines Action Plan, 785Glutathione (GSH), 349Goat’s milk, 339, 342Godwin, William, 4Goiter
iodine deficiency, 289, 290, 294rate in iodine assessment, 291
Goldberger, Joseph, 15Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 471Graduate education, historical perspective, 21Grameen Bank, 638Graunt, John, 6Grijns, Gerrit, 12Growth retardation, 510, 516
814 Index
health and social consequences, 134–135interventions, 135–136measures and indicators
fetal growth, 121–123high weight-for-height, 125international reference population, 125, 126interpretation, 124–125, 130–131low height-for-age, 124–125low weight-for-height, 125overweight, 125
mental development effects, 120prevalence in developing countries
geographic distribution, 131–134intrauterine growth restriction, 123stunting, 124–125underweight, 125, 134
socioeconomic status correlation, 120vitamin A deficiency, 209–210
Guérin, Camille, 405Gynecologic morbidity, 479
HHalley, Edmund, 6Harrison’s sulcus, 307HarvestPlus, 764, 766Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP),
62Health Organization of the League of Nations, 22Health system, defined, 417Healthy growth and development, promoting, 135–136Height-for-age z-scores (HAZ), 99Helen Keller International (HKI), 81, 609, 610, 616Helicobacter pylori infection, 583HemoCue system, 243Hemoglobin, 105, 508, 538
function, 236iron deficiency testing, 243, 244
Hemosiderin, 237Henle, Jacob, 10Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HIV infection, 427–428Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV infection, 428Hepcidin, 239, 240, 257Hidden Hunger Index (HHI), 776High birth weight (HBW) infants, 98High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 458High energy biscuits (HEB), 164High energy foods with low or high nutrient density, 168Highly active antiretroviral therapy, 415HIV, 413, 628
access to care and treatment, 416–417health systems strengthening, 417
anti-HIV antibodies, 419biology of, 418and breastfeeding, 341clinical history of, 418
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS),419–420
acute HIV infection, 418–419
clinical latency/chronic asymptomatic HIVinfection, 419
early HIV infection, 418–419early symptomatic infection, 419
continuum of care, 421antiretroviral therapy (ART), 423–424comprehensive HIV care, 421–422HIV counseling and testing, 422–423linking to care, 423viral suppression, CD4 count monitoring and
resistance testing, 424–425enteropathy, 452global epidemiology of, 420history, 414–415HIV-1, 417HIV-2, 417HIV wasting, 451malnutrition and, 348–349nutrition and, 667–668, 674–675overlapping epidemics, 427
anemia, 428food insecurity and undernutrition, 428hepatitis B virus (HBV), 427–428hepatitis C virus (HCV), 428schistosomiasis, 429TB/HIV coinfection, 427
prevention, 425, 426–427, 631treatment as, 425
testing, 672–673transmission, 418, 672tuberculosis risks, 388women and children, 429–430
HIV/AIDS movement, 669–672HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 449
background, 449–450cachexia in, 454food security in, 453impact of fully suppressed HIV viral load on
nutrition/metabolism, 458macronutrients
deficiencies in, 461interventions in, 455–456, 462
and malnutrition, 460–463micronutrients
deficiencies in, 454, 461–462interventions in, 456–457, 462–463
mortality and weight loss and, 451nutrition
and ART in, 457nutrition programs and, 457–458
nutritional assessment in, 455nutritional status in, 461outcomes in, 461protein energy malnutrition in, 453–454resting energy expenditure/metabolic abnormalities
in, 454vulnerable populations, 458
children, 458–460
Index 815
during pregnancy, 460weight loss in, 451–452
Home-fortification, 172, 568Home-fortification technical advisory group (HF-TAG),
169Home-processing methods, 167Homestead food production (HFP) program, 609, 610,
616Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 13, 14Household- or institutional-level fortification, 568Household food insecurity access scale (HHFIAS), 95Household penetration of adequately iodized salt (HHIS),
291Human milk, 337. See also Breastfeeding
benefitsfor child, 339–340for mother, 340
breastfeeding promotion and support, 340–341composition, 338–339, 341
fat, 343–344lactose, 342–343minerals, 343protein, 342
HIV and, 341lactose, 350–351recommended use of dairy ingredients, 351
cost-effectiveness of milk content, 352–353specific effects of whey in undernutrition, 349–350
Humanitarian crises, 647consequences and effects of crises, 650
access to services, 651displacement, 651food insecurity and market access, 651
definition of, 648–650factors affecting impact on nutrition.See Factors
affecting impact on nutritionnutrition response to, 656
food assistance and nutrition, 661prevention and treatment, 659–661thresholds for, 656–659
preparedness, 651–652types of crises/shocks, 650who and how, 653
Hydrocarbon carotenoids, 182Hydrogen peroxidases, 23625-Hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3), 299Hygiene, 3, 20, 21Hypertensive disorders, 508Hyperthyroidism, 290–291Hypocalcaemia, 307Hypothyroidism, 290Hypotonia, 307
IImmune function and morbidity, importance of zinc for,
274Impact evaluation, 61–63Implementation science, 34Inadequate nutrient intake, correcting, 170
fortification, 171–175
increasing contribution from nutrient-rich,unprocessed, foods, 170–171
supplementation, 175Individual capacity development, 77Industrial fortification of foods, 171–172Infant feeding after 12 months, 365Infant mortality history of social reform, 11Infectious diseases, 3, 10, 20
morbidity, 207Informal education, 79Informed consent, ethics in public health research,
796–798Institut Pasteur, 21Institutional capacity, developing, 81–82Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), 345Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), 569Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), 656Intelligence and cognition in children born SGA,
514–515Interferon-gamma (IFN-c), 403Interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs), 402–403INTERGROWTH-21st Project, 123, 505International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN), 367International Classification of Functioning Disability and
Health (ICF), 525International Classification of Functioning Disability and
Health for Children and Youth (ICF-CY), 526International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 609International Network of Food Data Systems
(INFOODS), 591International trade and local production, 699–700International Vitamin A Consultative Group (IVACG),
168Interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein (IRBP), 184Intervening to improve nutrition, 52Intrauterine growth restriction/retardation (IUGR), 98,
123, 503, 509, 538epidemiology, 123measures, 123
Iodine, 165, 538absorption and transport, 288costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35. See also Iodine deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103excess, 294food sources, 288functions. See Iodine functions and brain
developmentintake requirements, 291–293iodized oil
injection, 294oral, 289, 290, 294
iodized salt, 288, 291, 292, 293potassium iodide administration, 294pregnancy and, 478prophylaxis and treatment, 293–294requirements and prevalence, 291–293thyroid hormones, 287
Iodine deficiencyassessment, 35
816 Index
goiter rate, 291thyroid-stimulating hormone level, 291urine concentrations, 288
and clinical manifestationscretinism, 290goiter, 289, 290, 294
effectsin adults, 290–291in childhood, 290on pregnancy and infancy, 289–290
history of study, 287, 288pathophysiology
goitrogens, 288intake, 289
public health significance, 292Iodine deficiency disorder (IDD), 287, 289, 541Iodine functions and brain development, 288, 292–293
growth and development, 287, 289metabolism, 288
Ironabsorption, 238–239biological functions, 235–240costs of interventions, 37deficiency. See Iron deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103functional, 237functions
cytochromes, 236enzymes, 236hemoglobin, 236myoglobin, 236
homeostasis, regulation of, 239–240metabolism and regulation of, 236–240overload, 256–257pregnancy and, 476–477storage, 237–238supplementation, 568transport, 237turnover and loss, 238
Iron and folic acid (IFA), 491, 493, 494, 495, 497,568–569
Iron deficiency, 35, 540clinical examination, 243control
fortification, 255–256helminth infection, 251–252nutrition education and promotion, 255supplementation, 252–255
definition, 235, 241delayed cord clamping, 256diagnosis of anemia, 243functional consequences
birth outcomes, 249–250child behavior and development, 250heavy metal absorption, 251infection, 251–252mortality, 249–250work performance and productivity, 250–251
hemoglobin field testing, 243overview of tests, 241pathogenesis
intake, 244, 247–248iron loss, 238iron requirement increase, 237, 247
prevalence, 244, 245–246prospects for study, 258risk factors, 244, 247
Iron deficiency anemia, 242assessment, 241–244definition, 241functional consequences
child behavior and development, 250heavy metal absorption, 251infection, 251–252work performance and productivity, 250–251
intervention strategies for prevention and treatmentof, 252
maternal mortality, 249prevalence, 244, 245–246, 248–249
Iron regulator proteins (IRPs), 239–240Isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT), 401, 404
JJoint United Nations Programme on AIDS (UNAIDS),
415, 667Joints, 101, 297, 582
fixed contractures of, 545swollen joints, 325and PTB, 392
Justice, ethical principles, 794, 796
KKaiser–Permanente (K-P) diet, 543Kangaroo method, 366–367Kaposi sarcoma, 414Keratomalacia, 209Kheth’Impilo, 642Kilimo Salama program, 779Koch, Robert, 10, 387Kwashiorkor, 15, 102
LLactase, 350–351Lactating women, 348Lactose, 342–343, 350–351Lancet estimates, 40Lancet Series on Maternal and Child Nutrition, 603Large for gestational age (LGA) infant, 98Last menstrual period (LMP), 504–505Latent TB infection (LTBI), 391, 397, 398Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), 438Life years saved (LYS), 35Linear growth
assessment, 132cow’s milk and, 344–345growth stimulating factors in milk, 165
Index 817
Linoleic acid (LA), 322Lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNS), 167, 491Lister Institute, 21Liver X receptor (LXR), 323Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk,
326–328Low birth weight (LBW), 98
epidemiology, 123iron deficiency, 237and small-for-gestational age, 108–109
Low birth weight (LBW) rate, 122Low dietary calcium intakes, 302–304Low-income and middle income countries (LMICs), 146
elders in. See Elders in low–middle-income countriesobesity trends in, 147–151, 153–154prevalence of
developmental disabilities in, 526–530obesity in, 146–147
Lunin, Nicholai Ivanovich, 13, 14
MMacronutrients
deficiencies, and HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 461interventions
in HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 455–456, 462and TB, 441–442
and risk of tuberculosis, 440Madsen’s Institute for Tribal and Rural Advancement
(MITRA), 777Magendie, François, 10Magnesium
deficiency signs and symptoms, 103pregnancy and, 478
Mainstreaming Nutrition Initiative, 73Malaria control, 629, 631Malnutrition, 91, 125, 127, 131, 136, 348–349, 450
burden of, 67–68causes of, 57community, household and individual measures, 92deficiency signs and symptoms, 103double-burden of, 92economics, productivity losses, 36global measures, 107
low birth weight and small-for-gestational age,108–109
micronutrient deficiencies, 110overweight/obesity, 110spectrum of malnutrition across regions, 111undernourishment, 108undernutrition, 109
HIV and HIV/TB co-infection and, 460–463and outcomes of tuberculosis, 439prevention and treatment, 629and risk of tuberculosis, 439specific indicators of nutritional status, 94
anthropometric measurements, 96–101biomarkers, 105–107clinical signs of malnutrition, 101–104diet, 95–96food and available energy, 94–95
functional outcomes, 107treatment of, 631–632
Malthus, Thomas Robert, 5Manicus, August Henrick, 8–9Mantoux tuberculin skin test, 402Marriage, postponing age at, 570–571Marten, Benjamin, 387Maternal, newborn and child health (MNCH) outcomes,
487Maternal death, 474Maternal employment and childcare, 721–722Maternal health, 506, 508
breastfeeding and, 364–365Maternal morbidity, 474Maternal mortality, 249, 473, 475, 476, 477–478Maternal newborn and child health, 679Maternal nutrition
assessment of, 488–490and birth outcomes, 487before conception, 495–496evidence from programs, 497–498nutrition interventions during pregnancy. See
Maternal nutrition interventions during pregnancyrole of intergenerational effects, 497
Maternal nutrition interventions during pregnancy, 490direct nutrition interventions, 490–495
preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495
nutrition-related factors during pregnancy, 495Maternal–infant bonding, 364Maternity waiting homes (MWHs), 630Matrix framework application to food and nutrition
assistance, 675key populations, focus on, 678maternal newborn and child health, focus on, 679role of food security and nutrition for adherence,
676–677social protection, focus on, 677–678
McKeown, Thomas, 20McNamara, Robert, 22Mean dietary energy requirements (MDER), 94Measles
case fatality rates over time, 22history of study, 8–9
Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF), 785Medical Police, 5, 21Mediterranean diet, 482Mellanby, Edward, 16, 17Men who had sex with men (MSM), 414, 667Menstrual cycle, 471
anorexia nervosa, 472female athlete triad, 472overnutrition and obesity, 473
Metabolomics, 1075,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR)
gene, 533Metropolis Water Act of 1852, 9mHealth (mobile-health) revolution, 81Miasma, history of concept, 8–9
818 Index
Microbiology, historical perspective, 10Microcytic anemia, 251Micronutrient deficiencies, 92, 110, 539
and anemia in adolescents in low- and middle-incomecountries, 567
in HIV, 454in HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 461–462
Micronutrient interventionsin HIV and HIV/TB co-infection, 456–457, 462–463in TB, 442–443
Micronutrient powders (MNPs), 47, 254, 779Micronutrients, 34, 35, 36, 254–255
and risk of tuberculosis, 440Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), 99–101, 125,
352, 353, 656Midday meal program, 173Milk protein, 342, 347Minerals, 165
in milk, 343Moderate acute malnutrition (MAM), 162, 353
cow’s milk in prevention and treatment of, 345–347Modern-to-traditional value chains, 758Morbidity
gynecologic, 479maternal, 474obstetric, 473–474reproductive, 473small for gestational age and, 512
long term, 512–513short term, 512
Mortality, 3child, 506, 548, 714HIV, 451maternal, 249, 473, 475, 476, 477–478perinatal, 495from severe malnutrition, 458small for gestational age and, 510trends in developed countries, 20–21, 23
Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV, 371Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS), 26, 126Multi-country nutrition initiatives, 72–73Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), 386,
404–405Multiple micronutrient powder (MNP), 607Multiple micronutrients (MMN), 478, 491, 494, 499Multiple (stunting), 35
costs of interventions, 37Murat, Joachim, 7Muscle accretion, 353
whey protein and, 350Mycobacterium africanum, 396Mycobacterium canettii, 396Mycobacterium caprae, 396Mycobacterium microti (voles), 396Mycobacterium orygis, 396Mycobacterium pinnipedii (seals), 396Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), 387, 437, 442
transmission of, 392–394
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), 396Myoglobin, function, 236Myopathy, 307
NN-3 and N-6 fatty acids, 321–323
effect in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy, 325–326N-3 and N-6 PUFA dietary intakes and disease,
associations between, 324asthma, 324noncommunicable diseases, 324
Naandi Foundation, 774NADH dehydrogenase, 236National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC), 794,
798, 804National Institutes of Health (NIH), historical
perspective, 21, 22National Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation
Programme, 569Neonatal care, 629Nestlé Foundation, 777Neural tube defect (NTD), 495, 540, 568Neurobehavioral development, importance of zinc for,
275Newman, George, 11, 19Night blindness, 208Non-Agricultural Rural Employment (NARE), 693Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), 68, 75, 324, 471,
585, 632, 675Non-transmissible disease epidemiology in low-income
country, 585Normative aging, 583Nuremberg code, ethics, 793Nutrient deficiencies, determining, 168–170Nutrient density, 167
increasing, 167–168Nutrient needs, 159
ascertaining impact of measures to correct dietarydeficiencies, 175–176
determining (risk of) nutrient deficiencies, atpopulation level, 168–170
dietary reference intakes (DRI), 160adequate intake (AI) level, 161estimated average requirement (EAR), 160–161groups and circumstances with higher nutrient
needs, 162–163recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 160recommended nutrient intake (RNI), 160upper intake level (UL), 161–162
energy density, 166–167increasing, 167–168
high energy foods with low or high nutrient density,168
inadequate nutrient intake, correcting, 170fortification, 171–175increasing contribution from nutrient-rich,
unprocessed, foods, 170–171supplementation, 175
Index 819
Nutrient needs (cont.)meeting nutrient requirements from diet, 163
selecting foods that can meet nutrientrequirements, 164–166
single foods that meet all nutrient intakerecommendations, 164
nutrient density, 167increasing, 167–168
Nutrition Assessment and Counseling (NAC), 677Nutrition evidence in context, 47
evidence-based medicine (EBM), 48–51, 53–54evidence for nutrition-specific interventions and
programs, 53–60impact evaluation, 61–63trends and context, importance of, 60–61
Nutrition programs and HIV, 457–458Nutrition-related factors during
pregnancy, 495Nutrition science, 51–52Nutrition surveillance, 59Nutrition transition, 144Nutrition value chain actors, 762Nutritional assessment in HIV, 455Nutritional deficiencies, 15Nutritional effect of zinc fortification, 278Nutritional immunology, 15–16Nutritional problems in utero and during early life, 471Nutritional science, historical perspective, 10–11“Nutritious Agriculture by Design” tool, 763
OObesity, 106
in children and women, 710–712overnutrition and, 473overweight and. See Overweight and obesitypubertal onset, 471
Obstetric morbidity, 473–474OneHealth, 39Open innovation, 780Opportunistic infections (OI), 449, 675Oral rehydration solution (ORS), 361Orr, John Boyd, 19Osteomalacia, rickets, 298Ovarian cancer, 480–481
micronutrients, 481obesity, 480–481
Overnutrition, 91, 92diagnosing, 594–595and obesity, 473, 479
Overweight and obesity, 92, 110, 124, 143in children and women, 710–712comparative approach, 145–146epidemiologic transition, 143implications for public health, 150
genetic component, 154interactions of obesity and activity, 152–154physical activity, 152
lower and middle income countries (LMICs), 146
obesity trends in, 147–151, 153–154prevalence in, 146–147
measures, 144–145research and policy implications, 155survey design and sample, 145
Ovulation and menstruation. See Menstrual cycleOxytocin, external administration of, 364
PPanum, Peter Ludwig, 8–9Pasteur Institute, historical perspective, 21Pasteur, Louis, 10PDCAAS method (protein digestibility corrected amino
acid score), 342Pediatric TB, 400–401Peer-reviewed research studies, 49Pellagra, 15PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief),
415, 416–417Peptide YY, 440Performance-based incentives, 81Perinatal mortality, still birth and, 495Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR), 323Pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs), 529Pharmaceutical companies, 780Physical activity, 454, 714–715
overweight and obesity, 152Phytate:zinc molar ratio, 267Plasma and serum zinc concentration, 268–269Plausibility, 608Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), 414Point-of-use fortification, 172, 568Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 323, 327, 491
in milk, 343Population growth, mortality decline, 20Porter, Michael, 754, 756
value chain, 754Potassium iodate, 293Poverty, 706–707
and development dimension, 743–744integrating food and health dimension with, 744–747
Poverty and hunger index, 94Pre-ART care, 673Preconception, 496Preeclampsia, 474, 508Pregnancy, 473
adolescent growth and nutritional status in relation to,565–567
calcium, 476energy and protein, 474and HIV, 460iodine, 478iron and vitamin B, 476–477magnesium, 478multiple micronutrients, 478nutrition interventions during. See Pregnancy,
nutrition interventions duringoptimizing interval between pregnancies, 571
820 Index
overnutrition and obesity, 479postponing age at marriage and first pregnancy,
570–571and TB, 444vitamin A, 475vitamin D, 475–476vitamins C and E, 475weight gain during, 99zinc, 274–275, 477–478
Pregnancy, nutrition interventions during, 490direct nutrition interventions, 490–495
preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493small for gestational age and birth size, 493–494still birth and perinatal mortality, 495
nutrition-related factors during pregnancy, 495Pregnant adolescents, nutrition of, 570Pregnant and lactating women, 348Prelacteal feeding practices, 366Premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 473Premenstrual tension (PMT). See Premenstrual syndrome
(PMS)Preterm birth (PTB), 491, 493Preterm milk, 363Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV
(PMTCT) programs, 429, 459, 666Preventive health and nutrition programs, 59Preventive medicine, historical perspective, 6, 7Private sector, 771
driving innovation and novel approaches, 778–782proliferation of public private partnerships, 782–785provision of goods and financial and in-kind
resources, 773–775public health advocacy, 775–778standards for private sector involvement, 785–786
Probability, 6Program effectiveness trials, 608Program managers, 77, 78Program theory framework and program impact
pathways analysis, 608designing, 609using, 610
Programs, nutrition-sensitive, 603comprehensive evaluation framework, 610
challenge of finding valid counterfactual, 612choosing indicators, 615ensuring appropriate sample size, 615importance of time, duration, and timing, 614–615selecting evaluation design, 612–613
cost of program, 619differences in priorities, expectations, and
incentives, 620differences in time constraints and time frames,
620–621evaluation and program implementation toward
common goal, 619independence of evaluators, 621–622
defined, 603designing process evaluation, 616drawing sample, 618evaluation research, using results from, 622key challenges in evaluating, 604
assessing benefits beyond targeted beneficiaries,606–607
complexity, 605differing points among program implementers and
evaluators, 606efficacy trials, 607–608long impact pathways and time frames, 605program effectiveness trials, 608trade-offs between implementation constraints and
evaluation rigor, 605–606probability, 608, 613program theory framework and program impact
pathways, 608designing, 609using, 610
selecting data collection methods and tools, 617–618sharing and feeding results to program implementers,
618–619summarizing results from process evaluation, 618timing and time frames, importance of, 616–617understanding pathways to impact, 615–616
Progressive Era regulations, 22Propensity score matching (PSM), 613Prostate cancer, 325, 481–482Protein, 165
in breast milk, 342Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score
(PDCAAS), 165Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), 102
in HIV, 453–454risk for TB, 440
Protein malnutrition, 15Proteomics, 106Provider-initiated counseling and testing (PICT), 422Pubertal onset, 470
nutritional problems in utero and during early life,471
obesity, 471vitamin D deficiency, 471
Puberty, defined, 564Public health, historical perspective, 257
graduate education, 21idea of progress, 4–5international organizations, 21–23statistics, 6–7, 8
Public health advocacy, 775–778Public–private partnerships (PPPs), 773
proliferation of, 782–785Pulmonary TB (PTB), 392, 396, 398–404Purified protein derivative (PPD), 402Pyrazinamide, 404
Index 821
QQuaker Service Team, 100Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) saved, 35Quetelet, Adolphe, 6
RReady-to-use foods (RUF), 659Ready-to-use supplementary foods (RUSF), 278, 352Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF), 163, 168, 278,
346–347, 352, 631Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), 160, 586Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI), 56, 160, 174, 188,
586RNI/RDA, 160
Reproductive and maternal health, 631Reproductive health, 469
menstrual cycle, 471anorexia nervosa, 472female athlete triad, 472overnutrition and obesity, 473
pregnancy, 473calcium, 476energy and protein, 474iodine, 478iron and vitamin B, 476–477magnesium, 478multiple micronutrients, 478overnutrition and obesity, 479vitamin A, 475vitamin D, 475–476vitamins C and E, 475zinc, 477–478
premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 473pubertal onset, 470
nutritional problems in utero and during early life,471
obesity, 471vitamin D deficiency, 471
reproductive organ cancers, 479breast cancer, 479–480cervical cancer, 480ovarian cancer, 480–481prostate cancer, 481–482uterus cancer, 481
reproductive well-being, 470sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 479
Reproductive morbidity, 473Resistin, 440Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS), 107Respect for persons, ethical principles, 795, 796–797Respiratory transmission, 392Resting energy expenditure/metabolic abnormalities in
HIV, 454Retinoic acid response element (RARE), 185Retinoids, 182Retinol activity equivalent (RAE), 186
Retinol-binding protein (RBP), function, 184, 189Retinol in urine, 207Rickets
bony deformities associated with, 307, 308causes, 297, 298clinical features, 307definition, 298diagnosis, 308–309epidemiology
geographic distribution, 302–304vitamin D synthesis, 299–304
historical background, 298–299osteomalacia, 298pathogenesis, 303pathophysiology, 307prevention, 310–312prospects for study, 312–313public health importance, 305–307treatment, 310
Rifampicin, 404Risk–benefit analyses, 52Roads and traffic, 698–699Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 772Rockefeller Foundation, 21, 772, 780Rowe, John, 583
SSABLA, 570Safe water and good sanitation, access to, 724–726Safety nets, formal and informal, 722–723Sanitary movement, historical perspective, 7–8Sanitation, water and, 698Saturated fatty acids (SFAs), 343Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Business Network, 773,
776–777Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement, 73, 81, 668, 698,
767Schistosomiasis, 429School-based platforms, for adolescents, 571–572School milk programs for prevention of undernutrition,
348Sedgwick, William, 10Selenium deficiency signs and symptoms, 103Selenium toxicity, 106Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA),
70Severe acute malnutrition (SAM), 34, 162, 353
community management of, 41cow’s milk in prevention and treatment of, 345–347
Sexually transmitted disease (STD), 479Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 479Shattuck, Lemuel, 8Sheep milk, 339, 341, 342Shock, Nathan, 581Sickle cell anemia, 565Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), 777
822 Index
Small for gestational age (SGA), 98, 108, 122–123, 503assessing, 504–506and birth size, 493–494and development, 513
child development, 513–515long-term performance, 516
epidemiology and determinants, 506fetal factors, 510maternal factors. See Small for gestational age
(SGA) maternal factorsplacental factors, 509
and morbidity, 512long term, 512–513short term, 512
and mortality, 510symmetric and asymmetric, 510
Small for gestational age (SGA) maternal factorsanemia, 508gestational diabetes (GD), 508preeclampsia, 508toxins, 509undernutrition, 508–509
Small intestine, absorption of zinc from, 268Small-quantity LNS (LNS-SQ), 172, 174Snow, John, 9Social behavior change communication (SBCC), 59Social investment bond (SIB), 780Social medicine, 5Social protection, 677–678Social safety nets/social protection programs, for
adolescents, 572–573Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior (SNEB),
78Socioeconomic status (SES), 91, 366, 564
as barrier to HIV testing, 673breastfeeding promotion, 372indicators of, 390nutrient interventions, 177stunting correlation, 120, 124unprotected transactional sex, 672vitamin A deficiency, 201, 203
Sodium–iodide symporter (NIS), 288Southern African urban food security and consumption
trends, 691Spina bifida, 546
growth deviants, 547Standard deviation, 6Standards of care, ethics in public health research,
800–802State Medicine, 21Statistics, historical perspective in public health, 6–7, 8Stein-Leventhal syndrome, 470Still birth and perinatal mortality, 495Stockholm Birth Cohort, 516Street foods, 717–718Streptomycin, 387
Stunted and plump, 92Stunting, 33, 56, 59–60, 120, 125, 269–270, 497, 708Sub-Saharan Africa, HIV in, 420Suboptimal breastfeeding, 35, 37
costs of interventions, 37Successful aging, 583Succinate dehydrogenase, 236Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 134Super Cereal Plus, 62Supermarkets, on nutrition and nutritional knowledge,
737, 757challenge to food security from modern supply
chains, 742economic growth and policy issues, 747–749food and health dimension, 742–743modern supply chains and marketing sector, 738–740poverty and development dimension, 743–744
integrating food and health dimension with,744–747
rise of supermarkets, 740–742Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 69, 84, 107,
634–635, 643, 649, 665, 666, 685, 686–687, 776applying matrix framework to food and nutrition
assistance, 675food security and nutrition for adherence, role of,
676–677key populations, focus on, 678maternal newborn and child health, focus on, 679social protection, focus on, 677–678
HIVand AIDS movement, 669–672current context for, 667–668
matrix framework, application of, 672ART initiation and adherence, 674HIV testing, 672–673HIV transmission, 672pre-ART care, 673
nutritionand ART, 675current context for, 668and HIV infection, 674–675
opportunities ahead, 669Symmetric and asymmetric SGA, 510–511Syngenta Foundation’s Kilimo Salama program, 779Systematic review, 49, 53Systemic capacity, developing, 82Systemic iron homeostasis, 240
TTakaki, Kanehiro, 12, 13Targeted fortification, 568TB/HIV coinfection, 427, 463
burden countries, 405macronutrients
deficiencies in, 461interventions in, 462
Index 823
TB/HIV coinfection (cont.)and malnutrition, 460–461micronutrients
deficiencies in, 461–462interventions in, 462–463
nutritional status in, 461outcomes in, 461
TBXpert Project, 403Testing before use/consumption, 52Thames, contamination of, 9Thames Water, 9Therapeutic zinc supplementation, 277Thrifty phenotype, 512Thyroid hormones, 287, 288, 289, 290–291Thyrotropin (TSH), 289Tolerable Upper Intake Level, 587Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 305, 323Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), 454Trade-offs between implementation constraints and
evaluation rigor, 605–606Traditional birth attendants (TBAs), 629Traditional-to-modern FVCs, 758Traffic, roads and, 698–6997-Transdomain chemokine receptor, 418Transthyretin, function, 184Trends and context, importance of, 60–61Tres Cantos Open Lab Foundation, 780Trisomy 21, 546
growth deviants, 546Tuberculin skin test (TST), 402–403Tuberculosis (TB), 385, 631
control strategy, 401–402convergence model, 387diagnosis, 402–403epidemiology, 388
geographic distribution, 388global drug resistance, 389global tuberculosis, 388Mycobacterium tuberculosis, transmission of,
392–394risk factors, 390, 394–395risk groups, HIV infection, 388
factors contributing to global tuberculosis burden, 386global incidence of, 389global threat, 385–386historical perspective, 386–388
Bacilli Calmette-Guérin vaccine, 387cod liver oil therapy, 438treatment, 387, 438
in HIV-positive individuals, 399malnutrition and, 348–349pathogen, 396–397pathogenesis and clinical manifestations, 397pediatric TB, 400–401prevention, through vaccination, 405–406seasonal dependence of, 396symptoms and stages of, 399therapy, 404–405vulnerable populations, 389
children, 390diabetes, 392disparities in other settings, 391high-risk populations, 391–392indigenous peoples, 390race and ethnicity, 389–390role of migration, 391urban and rural disparities, 390
Tuberculosis (TB) infection, 437and cachexia, 440–441food insecurity and, 439–440history, 438macronutrients
interventions and, 441–442and risk of, 440
malnutritionand outcomes of, 439and risk of, 439
micronutrientsinterventions in, 442–443and risk of, 440
treatment, 443vulnerable populations, 443
children, nutrition and TB, 443–444pregnancy, nutrition and TB, 444
UUltraviolet (UV) light, 393
B radiation, 299Under-five mortality rate (U5MR), 169Undernourishment, 92, 108Undernutrition, 33, 92, 109, 163
and benefit–cost of interventions, 41–43costs of, 34–38
interventions to reduce, 38–41maternal, 488school milk programs for prevention of, 348small for gestational age and, 508–509specific effects of whey in, 349–350SUN estimates, 39
Underweight in children, 708United Nations AIDS (UNAIDS) Fast Track approach,
666United Nations Children’s Fund, 81United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), historical perspective, 22United Nations Multiple Micronutrient Preparation
(UNIMMAP), 444United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), 647United Nations REACH program, 73United States Public Health Service, 22United States Special Supplemental Nutrition Program
for Women Infants and Children, 375–376Universal fortification, 568Upper intake level (UL), 161–162Urbanization, food security and nutrition, 635, 637, 705
disparities in child nutrition within urban and ruralareas, 708–709
824 Index
food access, 719cash and food purchases, importance of, 719food price shocks, 720formal and informal safety nets, 722–723maternal employment and childcare, 721–722to safe water and good sanitation, 724–726urban employment, 720
food availability, 715food retailing and food environment, 715foreign direct investment and globalization, 717street foods, 717–718traditional and modern supply chains, 715–717urban agriculture, 718–719
food safety, 726–727food security, 707food systems, nutrition transition and urban diets, 712
changing demand for food, 714changing role of women, 713physical activity, 714–715urban diets, 714urban structure, technology and society, 713
global urbanization trends, 705–706implications for policy, programming and research,
727–729overweight and obesity in children and women,
710–712poverty, 706–707stunting and underweight in children, 708
Urbanization patterns, 685, 688cities, nutrition analysis of, 688
consumption trends in cities, 690–691global nutrition status, 688–689global urban nutrition status, 689–690
infrastructure and its relationship with urban nutritionstatus, 697food waste and cold chains, 697–698roads and traffic, 698–699water and sanitation, 698
international trade and local production, 699–700sustainable development goals, achieving, 686–687urban development, 691
history, 692medium-sized cities, 694–695megacities, 694primate cities, 692–693secondary towns, 693–694
urban size, infrastructure and food systems, 696Urinary iodine concentrations (UICs), 291Uterus cancer, 481
obesity, 481
VVaccines, 405–406, 785, 802
Bacilli Calmette-Guérin vaccine, 387Value chain, 754–755, 760
contribution of food value chains to nutrition, 760entry and exit points, 762–763
food value chainactors across, 755–756private sector, role of, 756–757types of, 757–758
global context of food systems and evolution ofnutrition, 759diet shifts and value chains, 759–760
nutrition-focused food value chains, 764nutrition value chain actors, 762primary activities, 764
inbound logistics, 764–765marketing and sales, 766operations, 765outbound logistics, 766
secondary activities, 767Value Chains Knowledge Clearing House, 763Value for nutrition, 761–762Very low birth weight (VLBW) infants, 98Villermé, Louis René, 7Virtual communities, 626Vision, vitamin A role, 184, 185Vitamin A, 614
absorption and transport, 183–184in breast milk, 363costs of interventions, 37deficiency. See Vitamin A deficiencydeficiency signs and symptoms, 103food sources, 186–188functions
gene regulation, 184–185overview, 182visual cycle, 184, 185
history of study, 10, 11, 13, 14, 197–200intake recommendations, 186–188metabolism, 184newborn dosing, 195–196pregnancy and, 475structure and nomenclature, 182–183supplementation, historical perspective, 15–18
Vitamin A deficiency, 35, 181, 541–542anemia, 209–210breastfeeding studies, 205, 206child morbidity and mortality impact, 193–195complementary feeding, 206–207growth retardation, 209–210infant morbidity and mortality impact, 195–196infectious disease morbidity, 207, 209maternal morbidity and mortality impact, 197
risk for TB, 440prevalence
geographic distribution, 192neonates, 191–192overview, 181–182preschool children, 190–191school-aged children, 192women, 192–193
prevention
Index 825
dietary diversification, 212–213fortification, 215, 216overview, 212supplementation, 213–214
risk factorsage, 202–203gender, 203location, 202periodicity in risk, 203–204socioeconomic status, 203
xerophthalmia, 208conjunctival xerosis with Bitot’s spots, 208, 209corneal xerosis, ulceration, and necrosis, 208–209night blindness, 208treatment, 211–212
Vitamin A deficiency disorders (VADD), 188–189, 190Vitamin B complex
deficiency signs and symptoms, 103–104pregnancy and, 476–477
Vitamin B1, 363, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103EAR for, 161function and maternal deficiency, 539
Vitamin B2, 103, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103function and maternal deficiency, 539
Vitamin B3, 278, 444, 456deficiency signs and symptoms, 103
Vitamin B6, 103, 110, 279, 363, 444deficiency signs and symptoms, 103function and maternal deficiency, 539
Vitamin B9, 104, 594deficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 105
Vitamin B12, 444, 476, 595in breast milk, 363deficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 105function and maternal deficiency, 539
Vitamin Cdeficiency signs and symptoms, 104, 457pregnancy and, 475
Vitamin D, 493in breast milk, 363deficiency, 592
breast-feeding, 299, 302, 304genetic predisposition, 312–313geographic distribution, 302–304and puberty, 471risk for TB, 440
deficiency signs and symptoms, 103non-skeletal actions of, 311pregnancy and, 475–476synthesis and metabolism, 299–304
Vitamin D binding protein (DBP), 299Vitamin E
deficiency, risk for TB, 440pregnancy and, 475
Vitamin K deficiency signs and symptoms, 103
Vitamins, 165. See also individual vitaminsfunctions, 539history of study, 11–14
Vocational training of nutrition workforce, 79Voluntary counseling and testing (VCT), 422Von Liebig, Justus, 10Von Voit, Carl, 10
WWald, George, 201Wallerstein, Immanuel, 693Wasting, 109, 125, 134
HIV wasting, 451Water and sanitation, 698Weight-for-age z-scores (WAZ), 99Weight-for-height/length z-scores (WHZ), 99Weight gain during pregnancy, 99Weight loss, 364
etiology, 451–452and HIV, 451
Whey protein, 349–350Whistler, Daniel, 299Williams, Cicely, 15W.K. Kellogg Foundation, 772Workforce requirements in nutrition sector, estimating,
71demand-based approach, 72service-target approach, 72worker-to-population ratio, 72
World Bank, historical perspective, 22World Breastfeeding Trends Initiative (WBTi), 72, 367World Food Programme, 81World Health Assembly (WHA), 368World Health Organisation (WHO), 22WPC80, 352
XXerophthalmia, 185, 208
conjunctival xerosis with Bitot’s spots, 208, 209corneal xerosis, ulceration, and necrosis, 208–209night blindness, 208treatment, 211–212
Xpert MTB/RIF assays, 402, 403
YYunus, Muhammad, 638
ZZ-score, growth data interpretation, 127Zidovudine (AZT), 415Zinc
costs of interventions, 37deficiency, 35, 103. See also Zinc deficiencypregnancy and, 477–478
Zinc deficiency, 265assessment of, 268
dietary intake, 269
826 Index
plasma and serum concentration, 268–269stunting, 269–270
causes of, 266absorption from small intestine, 268inadequate dietary intake, 267physiological requirements, conditions increasing,
267estimates of requirements, 265–266importance of, 273
for child growth, 274for immune function and morbidity, 274
for neurobehavioral development, 275for pregnancy outcome, 274–275
intervention strategies, 275biofortification, 280dietary diversification and modification, 279–280food fortification with, 278–279preventive supplementation in children, 275–276preventive supplementation in pregnant women,
276–277therapeutic supplementation, 277
prevalence of, 270–273
Index 827