The East, the West, and the

Appropriation of the Pastin Early Ottoman Architecture

Abstract As the Ottoman state emerged in the fourteenth and

fifteenth centuries, it encountered the contemporary, medieval cultures of Western Europe and Byzantium, as well as the past, classical cultures of northwest Asia Minor.

An examination of early Ottoman architecture, including the construction of new works, adaptation of existing buildings, and attitudes expressed toward older monuments, helps to clarify the nature of the encounter.

The Ottoman appropriation of the past may be understood as a part of their symbolic control of the land and as an attempt to position themselves within the larger context of world.

Three Points of abstract

This article is about the architecture of Ottomans in early years, especially until the reign of Mehmed II.

It discusses how Ottomans realized the construction of new buildings and adaptations of old ones.

It claims that the early Ottoman architecture represents their symbolic control and their attempt to position themselves within the larger world context.

Mehmed the Conqurer’s Visit to Troy

In 1463, a decade after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, when Mehmet the Conqueror was on expedition to Mitylene (Midilli), he diverted his army to visit Ilium, the site of ancient Troy.

At that time, there was a poor village on the site. But Mehmet the Conqurer wanted to see "its ruins

and the traces of the ancient city" as well as the tombs of the heroes such as Achilles and Ajax and the rest.

He praised and congratulated them.

What Mehmed II said in Troy

Then, according to his biographer Kritovoulos, He said, that

"God has reserved for me through so long a period of years the right to avenge this city and its inhabitants. For I have subdued their enemies and have plundered their cities and have made them the spoils of the Mysians. It was the Greeks and Macedonians and Thessalians and Peloponnesians who ravaged this place in the past, and whose descendants have now through my efforts paid the just penalty after a long period of years, for their injustices to us Asiatics at that time and so often in subsequent times.”

WHY MEHMED II VİSİTED TROY?

The main question?

Troy

In classical antiquity, Asia and the East were symbolized by Troy.

It was a city, both factual and legendary. Troy was a great civilization. It was located in northwest Turkey, near the

Dardenelles. It is famous with the Trojan war.

Trojan War The Trojan War always became a metaphor in times of conflict

between the East and the West. The Author of this story was Homer. Homer told many stories

but the Trojan War was one of his more popular ones. The Trojan War was the greatest conflict in the Greek

mythology. This war influenced people in literature and arts for centuries. The war was between the Greeks and Trojans in the city of

Troy (Ilium). The war lasted for ten years and it has been traditionally dated

from 1194 to 1184 BC.

Romans relations with Trojans

The Romans saw themselves as the descendants of the Trojans.

Following the Roman conquest of Asia Minor, they acknowledged Troy as Rome's mother city;

The pilgrimage to Troy became an ideological necessity for traveling Roman rulers.

Julius Caesar visited the site, and even it is claimed that Caesar had moved the capital there.

Why they remember Troy?

Troy became the symbol of the East. Historical figures like Mehmed II and Atatürk

remembred Troy and Trojan war in the times of conflict between East and West.

Atatürk said in 1922 that “I took the avenge of the Trojans.” like Mehmed II after the conquest of Istanbul.

East and West

The concept of East and West remains fundamental to our political, ideological and cultural framework.

These categories are linked to geography only superficially.

The fundamental difference is opposing viewpoints on government, economy, religion, and ethics.

Cultural Overlap

When Ottoman state established in the late thirteenth century, it was the period of cultural overlap.

They adopted the Greek administration, and the population remained largely mixed.

In the same way, their architecture was mixed of different cultures.

Mixture In the early years, the former nomads were building, in a

manner technically and stylistically distinct from the Muslim architecture in other parts of Anatolia.

Ottoman architecture is the mixture of Seljuk, Iranian, Byzantine and Islamic Mamluk architecture.

Overall, Ottoman architecture can be described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

Such a mixture of forms reflect the diverse background of the Ottomans.

The heterogeneous architecture became symbol of early Ottoman culture.

Confusion

The similarities in late Byzantine and early Ottoman construction techniques have led to numerous confusions.

Mosques frequently incorporated elements from ancient and Byzantine buildings such as columns.

For example, a nineteenth-century photograph introduced Haci Özbek Camii which was one of the earliest mosques in iznik as “Byzantine building”.

Integration, Cooperation and Continuity

How should we interpret the Byzantine construction techniques in these buildings?

The technical similarities and reuse of materials might be better viewed as an expression of integration, rather than domination.

The early Ottoman state was based on cooperation.

In sum, a new architecture of the new Ottoman state can be defined as cultural continuity.

Church Conversions

Church conversions are the best examples of cultural interchange.

In most instances, the physical transformation of the building was minimal.

Even they did not destruct its figural decoration. A minaret have been added on the exterior, a mihrab

and other necessary furnishings on the interior. This additional structures gave the building a sort of

transitional appearance. It is identifiable as both a church and a mosque.

Why Mehmed II so interested in Byzantine tradition

Mehmed II knew his classical history long before he arrived in Athens.

In fact, in addition to his Muslim instructors, Mehmed II had two European tutors, one trained in Greek, the other in Latin.

He read ancient history and was familiar with the life of Alexander the Great.

His actions and his concept of a world empire were modeled on those of Alexander.

Mehmed II and Machiavelli

In addition to his cultural interests, Mehmet II derived much of his political program from Western Europe.

Many scholars and historians compared Mehmed II with Machiavelli.

The greatest source of Machiavelli's reputation is, of course, Prince (1532). The main theme of this short book is that all means may be resorted to for the establishment and preservation of authority

“-- the end justifies the means –”

Turn back to first question?

Why did Mehmed II visit to Troy? Troy was more than simply a symbol of conquest. It also represented his ancestral home. Mehmet II and many others looked to antiquity to legitimize their positions. It was the common literary culture of the Mediterranean elite, both East and West. Ottoman as an Empire composed of hybrid culture. Especially, Istanbul was imagined as a cosmopolit city by Mehmed II. Mehmed II’s policy towards the reconstruction of Constantinople was very

different from the other newly conquered cities. As in the case of other newly acquired cities, Turks and other Muslim populations from different regions of Anatolia was forced to immigrate to newly conquest cities in order to provide security and convert them into Islamic cities.

In the case of Istanbul, Mehmed II forced Greek and different ethnic populations to settle in Istanbul as well as Muslim subjects.

Inevitably, this reflected to the architecture of Ottomans.