__________________________________________________________

3 Research __________________________________________________________

Chapter Summary:

A scientific approach is important in the study of abnormal child psychology because of the many complexities that can obscure relationships between variables. The scientific approach requires empirical evidence from controlled studies. A multistage research process includes developing hypotheses, choosing a general approach to research, deciding on data-collection measures, choosing a population and sample, deciding on a research design, and collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data, from which future hypotheses may be developed. The nature and distribution of childhood disorders is a common research topic examined through epidemiological research. Other common research areas in abnormal child psychology include: correlated variables, risk and protective factors, causes of behaviors and disorders, moderating and mediating variables, and outcomes and interventions for children with disorders. Standardization, reliability, and validity are aspects of measures and procedures that are necessary for scientific research. Commonly used methods for collecting data from children and families include interviews, questionnaires, observations, psychophysiological recordings, and ratings and checklists. Researchers frequently use a multimethod approach in order to get a more accurate picture of the variable(s) of interest. The research sample can influence the validity of a study; thus, considerations must be given to appropriately identifying a sample. These considerations include: a careful definition of the sample, comorbidity, and random selection. The basis for the distinction between nonexperimental and experimental research is the degree to which the researcher manipulates the experimental variable. One common research design in abnormal child psychology is the case study; this design provides extensive and intensive information about a child from various sources. Other research designs include single-case experimental, between-group comparison, and cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Qualitative research is collected through observations and narrative accounts in order to describe, interpret and understand a phenomenon within its own context. Ethical standards such as informed consent and assent, voluntary participation, confidentiality and anonymity, and nonharmful procedures must be met in order to protect the participants involved in research.

Chapter Outline:

I. A Scientific ApproachA. Scientific research strategies provide systematic ways of investigating claims in

ways that improve on casual observations; requires that theories be backed up by empirical evidence from controlled studies, and that observations be checked and repeated before conclusions are drawn

B. Reasons for Skepticism about Research in Abnormal Child Psychology1. Experts on childhood disorders frequently disagree2. Research that appears in mainstream media are often oversimplified; the

way the findings are presented can make them less or more believable

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(e.g. people are more likely to agree with findings when the findings are presented with a brain image or bar graph)

3. Research findings are often in conflict with each other4. Research has led to different recommendations about the ways in which

children should be helped, and some treatments have been shown to have no effect

5. Conclusions are often qualified, with no definitive answers6. Findings are often dismissed because of exceptions or personal experience

to the contraryC. The accumulation of findings, not one study, are what advance the field (e.g. in

studying autism, findings from studies don’t always agree, but accumulation of research into various aspects of autism has advanced the understanding of the disorder and informed new ways to help these children)

D. Pseudoscience vs. Science1. Pseudoscience: demonstrations of benefit are based on anecdotes or

testimonials, the child’s baseline abilities and possibility of spontaneous improvement are ignored, related scientific procedures are disavowed

2. Science: Scientists are capable of making incorrect claims but they play by the rules of science, are prepared to admit when they are wrong, and are open to change

3. It is the quality of evidence, how it is obtained, and how it is presented that determines if the claims are scientifically believable

II. The Research ProcessA. Common Research Questions and Topics

1. Nature and Distribution of Childhood Disordersa. Epidemiological research addresses questions about the nature and

distribution of childhood disordersb. Incidence rates refer to the extent to which new cases of a disorder

appear over a specified time periodc. Prevalence rates refer to all cases, whether new or previously

existing, that are observed during a specified time periodd. Rate and expression of symptoms and disorders vary in relation to

SES, parent’s marital status, child’s age, gender, and cultural background

e. Evaluating mental health of children from different cultures is difficult due to cultural variations and the definitions of what constitutes abnormal behavior

2. Correlates, Risks, and Causesa. Correlated variables are associated at a particular point in time

with no clear proof that one precedes the otherb. A risk factor is a variable that precedes an outcome of interest and

increases the chances that the outcome will occurc. A protective factor is a variable that precedes an outcome of

interest and decreases the chances that the outcome will occur3. Moderating and Mediating Variables

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a. A moderator variable is a factor that influences the direction or strength of the relationship between other variables of interest

b. A mediator variable is the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome; it describes what happens at the psychological or neurobiological level to explain how one variable results from another

c. Randomized controlled trials (RCT) evaluate treatment outcomes in which children with a particular problem are randomly assigned to various treatment and control conditions

d. Controlled research findings indicate that children who receive treatment are better off then children who do not

4. Outcomes associated with childhood problems5. Interventions

a. Treatment efficacy refers to whether or not a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions

b. Treatment effectiveness refers to whether the treatment can be shown to work in actual clinical practice rather than in well-controlled laboratory conditions

III. Methods of Studying BehaviorA. Standardization, Reliability, and Validity

1. Standardization is the process by which a set of norms is specified for a measurement procedure so that it can be used consistently across different assessments of the construct of interest

2. Reliability refers to the consistency of measures, either across raters or time; it is essential for validity

3. Validity is the extent to which a method actually measures the construct of interest; it may be examined with respect to the measure’s content, correlation with similar and unrelated measures, predictive ability, and whether scores agree with what would be predicted by existing theory and past research

B. Measurement Methods1. Reporting

a. Reporting methods include unstructured clinical interviews, highly structured interviews, and questionnaires

b. Inaccuracies may occur because of inability to recall events, selective recall or bias, and intentional distortions

c. Requires a certain level of verbal ability, therefore not reliable with children under age 7 or 8

2. Psychophysiological and Neuroimaging Methodsa. Most common physiological responses recorded are measures of

autonomic nervous system activity, such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, and electrical conductance of the skin

b. Limitations of physiological measures include inconsistency across studies, high level of inference about why there are physiological differences, and the role of extraneous influences

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c. Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures electrical activity of the brain; different EEG waves may suggest sleep disturbances or various emotional states

d. Neuroimaging procedures examine the structure and/or function of the brain; structural-imaging procedures include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and coaxial tomographic (CT) scan, whereas functional-imaging techniques include positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

3. Observation Methodsa. May range from unstructured, naturalistic observations in the

child’s environment to highly structured observations in a clinic or laboratory

b. Structured observations are cost-effective, allow for focused attention on the phenomena of interest, are useful for studying infrequent child behaviors, and allow for greater control over the situation than do naturalistic observations

c. A major drawback of observational methods is that one cannot be sure if the observations are a representative sample of the behavior of interest. In the presence of an observer, children and parents may not behave as they normally would

IV. Research StrategiesA. Validity of Studies

1. Internal validity reflects the extent to which a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the results, changes, or group differences; internal validity may be threatened by maturation, the effects of testing, and subject selection biases

2. External validity reflects the extent to which findings can be generalized to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than the ones in a particular study; external validity may be threatened by characteristics and reactivity of the subjects participating in the research, the research setting, and the time at which measurements are made

B. Identifying the Sample1. A careful definition of the sample is critical for comparability of findings

across studies2. Possible comorbidities among the sample must also be considered3. Random selection is rare in child psychopathology studies; often need to use a

sample of convenienceC. General Research Strategies

1. Nonexperimental and Experimental Researcha. True experiments are those in which researchers have maximum

control over independent variables, subjects are randomly assigned to groups, and possible sources of bias are controlled (not typical in research in child psychopathology)

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b. Correlational studies allow researchers to examine relationships among variables; a correlation coefficient describes the degree of association between two variables; does not imply causality

c. Random assignment of participants to treatment groups increases the chance that other characteristics other than the independent variable will be equally distributed across treatment groups

d. Natural experiments involve comparisons between conditions that already exist; these are essentially correlational studies, but subjects are selected to ensure that their characteristics are as comparable as possible with the exception of the independent variable (common in child psychopathology research)

2. Prospective and Retrospective Researcha. In retrospective designs, a sample is identified and asked for

information relating to an earlier time period; retrospective designs are highly susceptible to recall bias and distortion

b. In real-time prospective designs, the sample is identified and followed longitudinally over time; prospective designs are time consuming and subject to loss of participants over time

3. Analogue Research - Evaluates a specific variable of interest under conditions that only resemble or approximate the situation to which one wishes to generalize; purpose is often to examine a specific process that would otherwise be difficult to study

D. Research Designs1. Case Studies

a. Involve intensive and usually anecdotal observations and analyses of an individual child

b. Rich sources of descriptive information; provide basis for developing and trying treatment techniques

c. Drawbacks include uncontrolled methods and selective biases, as well as the inherent difficulties associated with integrating observations, drawing valid inferences among variables, and generalizing from one child to other children

2. Single-Case Experimental Designsa. Used frequently to evaluate the impact of clinical treatmentsb. Involve repeated assessment of behavior over time, the replication

of treatment effects within the same subject, and the subject serving as his or her own control

c. Two common examples are the A-B-A-B (reversal) design and the multiple-baseline design across behaviors, situations, or individuals

d. Advantages include personal quality of the case study and objective evaluation of alternative and combined forms of treatment

e. Weaknesses include the possibility of interactions between treatments and subject characteristics, limited generality of

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findings, and subjectivity and inconsistency of visual inspection of the data

3. Between-Group Comparison Designs - Involve comparisons between experimental and control groups; differences between groups can be attributed to the experimental condition

4. Cross-Sectional Studiesa. Individuals at different ages or stages of development are studied

at the same point in timeb. Although efficient and less susceptible to attrition and practice

effects, they do not allow for inferences about change in the individual and are susceptible to cohort effects

5. Longitudinal Studiesa. The same individuals are studied at different ages or stages of

developmentb. Populations of interest are often children who are at risk for

developmental problems due to a risk factor; allows for identification of patterns that are common to all children and for tracking differences in developmental paths

c. Disadvantages include time commitment, increased costs, aging effects, cohort effects, period effects, and practice effects

E. Qualitative Research1. Focuses on narrative accounts, description, interpretation, context, and

meaning; strives to understand the phenomenon from the participant’s perspective and in the context in which it is experienced

2. Provides an intensive and intimate understanding of a situation, however, may be biased by the researcher’s values and preferences; findings are not easily generalized to individuals and situations other than the ones studied

3. Qualitative and quantitative methods can be used together; qualitative data can be used to identify dimensions and theories that can be tested quantitatively, to illuminate meaning of quantitative findings, and can be analyzed quantitatively if data, such as, word counts or frequency counts of themes are numerically collected

III. Ethical and Pragmatic IssuesA. Informed Consent and Assent

1. Informed consent involves fully informing participants of the nature of the research, risks, benefits, expected outcomes, and alternatives, as well as giving the option to withdraw from the study; parents need to give consent for children

2. Assent (meaning that the child shows some form of agreement to participate without necessarily understanding the full significance of the research) must be obtained when the child is around the age of 7 or older

3. When research is carried out in institutions (such as schools, day cares, or medical settings) consent must also be obtained from individuals appointed to act on children’s behalf

B. Voluntary Participation1. Participation in research must be voluntary

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2. May be compromised by subtle pressure and coercion3. Volunteerism may itself be a biasing factor in research

C. Confidentiality and Anonymity1. Disclosed information must be kept confidential; individuals must be

advised about any exceptions to confidentiality2. Confidentiality may become problematic when a child or parent reveals

past abuse or the possibility of future abuseD. Nonharmful Procedures - No research procedures may be used that may harm a

child physically or psychologicallyE. Other Ethical and Pragmatic Concerns - May arise when research involves

potentially invasive procedures, deception, the use of punishment, and/or the use of incentives; final responsibility of the ethical integrity is with the investigator

Learning Objectives:

1. To explain why a scientific approach is important to the study of abnormal child psychology

2. To consider why there may be some skepticism in abnormal child psychology research

3. To describe the multistage process involved in research and questions of focus in abnormal child psychology

4. To identify some of the methods used to study children’s behavior and provide advantages and disadvantages of each method

5. To consider the importance of both internal and external validity in developing research studies

6. To describe approaches used in abnormal child psychology research, including advantages and disadvantages of each approach

7. To compare and contrast single-case and between-group designs

8. To compare and contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal research

9. To discuss the importance of informed consent and assent when doing research in abnormal child psychology

10. To identify ways to ensure that research meets ethical standards

Key Terms and Concepts:

A-B-A-B reversal designanalogue researchassent

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case studycohortcomorbiditycorrelation coefficientcross-sectional researchelectroencephalogram (EEG)epidemiological researchexternal validityincidence ratesinformed consentinternal validitylongitudinal researchmediator variablesmoderator variablesmultiple-baseline designnatural experimentsnaturalistic observationneuroimagingprevalence ratesqualitative researchrandom assignmentrandomized controlled trials (RCTs)real-time prospective designsreliabilityresearchresearch designsretrospective designsingle-case experimental designsstandardizationstructured observationtreatment effectivenesstreatment efficacytrue experimentvalidity

Test Items:

1. Skepticism exists regarding research in abnormal child psychology because: a. experts on childhood disorders frequently disagreeb. research findings in abnormal child psychology are often in conflict with one anotherc. many conclusions from research with children are qualified with no definitive answersd. all of these

ANS: D REF: p.56 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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2. The ______ of research findings are what advance the field of psychology.a. reliabilityb. standardizationc. accumulationd. validity

ANS: C REF: p.57 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

3. Research presented in the media is typically:a. clearly presented and discussed by medical doctorsb. oversimplifiedc. overly detailed and confusingd. adequately reported

ANS: B REF: p.56 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

4. In research terms, predictions about behavior that follow from a theory are called: a. speculationsb. hypothesesc. assumptionsd. proposals

ANS: B REF: p.59 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

5. Since there is no one correct approach to research, most problems in abnormal child psychology are best studied by using _______________________.e. utilizing rigorous experimentsf. using case studiesg. only one strategyh. multiple methods and strategies

ANS: D REF: p.59 Diff: Easy COG: Factual

6. Evaluating the mental health of children can be difficult due to:a. cultural variations of what constitutes abnormal behaviorb. the difference in psychological theoriesc. the limited amount of assessment tools available for childrend. vague information often given by children

ANS: A REF: p.61 Diff: Moderate COG: Factual

7. Factors such as SES, child’s age, and cultural background affect the ______of symptoms and disorders.a. rate and expressionb. pervasivenessc. outcomed. termination

ANS: A REF: p.61 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

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8. Questions about the nature and distribution of childhood disorders are frequently addressed through: a. epidemiological researchb. regression analysisc. correlation studiesd. efficacy studies

ANS: A REF: p.60 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

9. Isabella appears sad and is having difficulty academically and with her peer group. Isabella has a close relationship with her mother. This relationship with her mother can be considered a:a. mediating variableb. protective factorc. moderator variabled. risk factor

ANS: B REF: p.61 DIF: ModerateCOG: Applied

10. __________ rates refer to the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period. a. Comorbidityb. Comortality c. Incidenced. Prevalence

ANS: C REF: p.60 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

11. __________ rates refer to all cases of a disorder, whether new or previously existing, that are observed during a specified time period. a. Comorbidityb. Comortalityc. Incidenced. Prevalence

ANS: D REF: p.60 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

12. Variables that are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other are said to be: a. predictiveb. moderatingc. correlatedd. comorbid

ANS: C REF: p.61 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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13. A variable that precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances that the negative outcome will occur is a(n): a. risk factorb. protective factorc. predictive factord. epidemiological factor

ANS: A REF: p.61 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

14. A variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances that the outcome will occur is a(n): a. predictive factorb. risk factorc. epidemiological factord. protective factor

ANS: D REF: p.61 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

15. Research into risk and protective factors requires large samples of children be studied and multiple areas of functioning be assessed over long periods of time because: a. the areas of child functioning that will be affected are not known in advanceb. only a small amount of children who are at risk will actually develop the disorderc. when a disorder may occur or reoccur is not known in advanced. all of the above

ANS: D REF: p.61 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

16. _________ evaluate treatment outcomes for children who are randomly assigned to treatment and control conditions.a. Efficacy studiesb. Case studiesc. Randomized controlled trialsd. Correlational studies

ANS: C REF: p.64 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

17. Factors that influence the direction or strength of a relationship of variables of interest are called: a. correlated variablesb. mediator variablesc. risk variablesd. moderator variables

ANS: D REF: p.63 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

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18. If a study of the effect of divorce found a more negative impact for girls than for boys, sex would be a: a. protective factorb. risk factorc. mediating variabled. moderating variable

ANS: D REF: p.63 DIF: ModerateCOG: Applied

19. The process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome is known as a _________ variable. a. comorbidb. correlatedc. mediatingd. moderating

ANS: C REF: p.63 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

20. Children who receive treatment are:a. at the same level of functioning as those who are not treatedb. less likely to discuss problems with their parentsc. less likely to progress then children who are not in treatmentd. better off then children who do not receive treatment

ANS: D REF: p.62 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

21. A researcher investigating the relationship between maternal distress and child conduct problems found that maternal distress was related to disciplinary strategies towards the child, which in turn were related to child conduct problems. In this study, disciplinary strategies are a: a. comorbid variableb. correlated variablec. mediator variabled. moderator variable

ANS: C REF: p.63 DIF: ModerateCOG: Applied

22. Treatment ____________ refers to whether or not a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions. a. efficacyb. effectivenessc. reliabilityd. validity

ANS: A REF: p.64 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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23. To know if a treatment would truly be useful in community settings, researchers should focus on treatment _____________. a. efficacyb. effectivenessc. reliabilityd. validity

ANS: B REF: p.64 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

24. Ideally, a measure of psychopathology should be: a. reliableb. validc. standardizedd. all of these

ANS: D REF: p.64-65 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

25. A ____________ assessment measure allows for the scores of one child to be compared to the scores of other similar children. a. reliableb. validc. standardizedd. reliable and standardized

ANS: C REF: p.64 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

26. Emily’s mother was asked to complete a behavior checklist on two separate occasions several weeks apart. The results yielded from both occasions were very similar. The behavior checklist can be said to be: a. reliableb. validc. standardizedd. effective

ANS: A REF: p.65 DIF: ModerateCOG: Applied

27. An assessment tool that actually measures the construct it is intended to measure can be considered: a. reliableb. validc. standardizedd. effective

ANS: B REF: p.65 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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28. ___________ validity refers to whether scores on a measure behave as predicted by theory or past research. a. Faceb. Convergentc. Constructd. Discriminant

ANS: C REF: p.65 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

29. ___________ validity refers to the degree of correlation between measures that are expected to be related to one another. a. Convergentb. Constructc. Criteriond. Discriminant

ANS: A REF: p.65 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

30. Amy was observed by a researcher both at home and at school. This kind of research method is a:a. Clinical observationb. Structured observationc. Situational observationd. Naturalistic observation

ANS: D REF: p.67 DIF: Easy COG: Applied 31. ___________ validity refers to the degree of correlation between measures that are not

expected to be related to one another. a. Convergentb. Constructc. Criteriond. Discriminant

ANS: D REF: p.65 DIF: Easy COG: Applied

32. A limitation of psychophysiological measures is: a. deception by the childb. poor inter-rater reliabilityc. high level of inference for interpretationd. inappropriateness with young children

ANS: C REF: p.66 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

33. To record electrical activity of the brain, one would want to use a(n): a. EEGb. PET scanc. CT scand. MRI

ANS: A REF: p.66 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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34. ___________ are used to examine the gross structure of the brain. a. EEGsb. PET scansc. CT scansd. MRIs

ANS: C REF: p.67 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

35. ___________ are used to study cerebral glucose metabolism. a. PET scansb. EEGsc. CT scansd. MRIs

ANS: A REF: p.67 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

36. What do neuroimaging techniques not provide us with? a. gross and fine analyses of brain structureb. changes in blood flow in the brainc. rate of glucose metabolism in the braind. the cause of structural or functional changes in the brain

ANS: D REF: p.67 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

37. One of the major limitations of observational research methods is that: a. they are not cost effectiveb. behavior may be altered as a function of participants’ awareness of being observedc. results tend to be invalidd. all of these

ANS: B REF: p.68 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

38. Maturation is a threat to ________________.a. external validityb. internal validityc. convergent validityd. inter-rater reliability

ANS: B REF: p.68 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

39. The degree to which findings can be generalized to children, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than the one in a particular study is referred to as: a. external validityb. internal validityc. face validityd. generalized validity

ANS: A REF: p.69 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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40. The overlapping or co-occurrence of disorders is called: a. multifinalityb. comortalityc. multidiagnosisd. comorbidity

ANS: D REF: p.69 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

41. The use of ___________________ is rare in studies of child psychopathology. a. randomly selected samplesb. samples of conveniencec. reliable measuresd. valid measures

ANS: A REF: p.69 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

42. The greater the degree of control that a researcher has over the _____________, the more a study approximates a true experiment. a. subjects in the sampleb. moderator variablesc. independent variabled. dependent variable

ANS: C REF: p.70 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

43. A correlation of -.75 between age and amount of time spent in REM sleep means that: a. older people spend more time in REM sleepb. younger people spend less time in REM sleepc. older people spend less time in REM sleepd. the relationship between age and time spent in REM sleep is weak

ANS: C REF: p.70 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

44. ________________ increases the chance that characteristics other than the independent variable will be equally distributed across treatment groups. a. Random sampleb. Equal distributionc. Natural assignmentd. Random assignment

ANS: D REF: p.71 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

45. Asking college students to describe their childhood relationships with peers is an example of a ________________ design. a. longitudinalb. cohortc. prospectived. retrospective

ANS: D REF: p.71 DIF: ModerateCOG: Applied

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46. Recall bias and distortion are potential limitations of ___________ studies. a. analogueb. casec. retrospectived. cohort

ANS: C REF: p.71 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

47. ___________ research focuses on a specific research question under conditions that only resemble or approximate the situation to which the researcher wishes to generalize. a. Cohortb. Retrospectivec. Circumscribedd. Analogue

ANS: D REF: p.72 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

48. When the conditions of a study only resemble or approximate the conditions of interest, questions may be raised about the ___________ of the study. a. external validityb. internal validityc. standardizationd. randomization

ANS: A REF: p.69 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

49. Which of the following statements about case studies is false? a. involve intensive observation and analysis of an individual childb. use controlled methods without biasesc. are rich in detail and provide valuable insightsd. usually study rare childhood disorders

ANS: B REF: p.72 DIF: Moderate COG: Factual 50. Qualitative research ________.

a. provides a numerical approach to understanding researchb. provides an intensive and intimate understanding of a situationc. uses normed assessment toolsd. uses statistical analysis

ANS: B REF: p.76 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

51. In an A-B-A-B design, the “B” stands for: a. interventionb. baselinec. behaviord. observation

ANS: A REF: p.73 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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52. In ____________ research, the same individuals are studied at different ages/stages of development. a. cross-sectionalb. longitudinalc. between groupsd. cohort

ANS: B REF: p. 75 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

53. In ____________ research, different individuals at different ages or stages of development are studied at the same point in time. a. analogueb. within groupc. cross-sectionald. between group

ANS: C REF: p.75 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

54. Aging effects and cohort effects are some of the potential disadvantages of __________ research designs. a. longitudinalb. cross-sectionalc. experimentald. between group

ANS: A REF: p.75 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

55. Qualitative research is characterized by: a. operational definitionsb. isolation of variables of interestc. careful control of subject matterd. none of the above

ANS: D REF: p.76 DIF: ModerateCOG: Factual

56. Qualitative data are typically collected by: a. open-ended interviewing and observationsb. already developed observational and assessment toolsc. controlled and structured interviewingd. all of the above

ANS: A REF: p.76 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

57. __________ means that the child shows some form of agreement to participate in research without necessarily understanding the full significance of the research. a. Uninformed consentb. Partial consentc. Assentd. Voluntary participation

ANS: C REF: p.78 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

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58. The final responsibility for ethical integrity of a research project is with: a. the parentsb. the ethics boardc. the governmentd. the investigator

ANS: D REF: p.79 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

59. Research procedures that may harm a child physically or psychologically should be used: a. only when necessaryb. when a parent gives consentc. neverd. when the researcher is very careful

ANS: C REF: p.79 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

60. Participation in research is to be voluntary, except with: a. childrenb. vulnerable populationsc. high-risk populationsd. none of the above

ANS: D REF: p.78 DIF: Easy COG: Factual

Short Answer/Essay Questions:

1. Why is it important to study developmental psychopathology in children who are not referred to clinics?

2. When would qualitative research be preferred over quantitative research?3. Why is it difficult to use true experimentation to study child psychopathology?4. Distinguish between moderating and mediating variables.5. Why is it important for research to be both reliable and valid?6. Distinguish between correlational and true experimental research.7. Describe a study in which you would use a qualitative approach. Be sure to indicate why

it would be beneficial to use a qualitative approach in your study.8. What ethical and pragmatic issues must be considered when conducting research with

children?9. Describe two neuroimaging techniques used to examine the brain.10. Explain the benefits and limitations of the case study. Why is the case study important in

abnormal child psychology?11. Describe the limitations of longitudinal studies.12. How can qualitative and quantitative research methods be used in complimentary ways?13. What are the primary differences between pseudoscience and science?14. Discuss how cultural differences can impact data collection and research outcomes for

childhood disorders.15. Why is it important to derive knowledge of psychological disorders from cumulative

research findings versus individual studies? Provide an example of how this has impacted information regarding autism.

16. Why is it important to use randomized controlled trials in research?

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Questions and Issues for Discussion:

1. How do we account for differing expert opinions and research findings in the field of abnormal child psychology? Whom do we believe?

2. Is it ethical to assign children who may benefit from psychological help to a control (no treatment) group? (see the March, 1997 article “But is it ethical to withhold to which some children respond?” in The Brown University Child and Adolescent Behavior Newsletter.)

3. Do children have the ability to give informed consent to participate in research studies? Is it ethical to include children in studies if they are not able to give informed consent?

4. Consider some of the difficulties that may arise when conducting research with children. 5. When should deception be used, or should it not be used at all with children? How should

deception be used when it is necessary? 6. What factors need to be taken into account when obtaining assent from children and

informed consent from parents? If a child does not assent but the parent gives consent, is it ethical to perform the research?

7. Is it ethical to test children in medical treatment trials? 8. Consider the pros and cons of the media presenting and discussing research findings of

psychological disorders with the public.9. What cultural factors need to be taken into consideration when speaking to caregivers

regarding their children and psychological symptoms? Account for both cultural sensitivities and the accuracy of collecting data.

10. Is it possible for researchers conducting qualitative studies to remain free from bias? What steps can researchers take to try and ensure their biases are not reflected in the data?

Website Suggestions:

http://www.socialpsychology.org/methods.htm A “Research Methods and Stats Links” page maintained by the Social Psychology Network. Good links to research tips and tools, methodology, ethics, statistics, web-based research, and on-line textbooks.

http://www.psychologicalscience.org The homepage for the Association for Psychological Science, which includes links to research resources and research on the internet.

http://www.kenstange.com/psycsite A master website that describes itself as “The Internet Resource for the Science of Psychology Since 1995.” Has a research center where students can volunteer for research projects (as participants) conducted by professionals.

Video Suggestions:

Grief: A Peril in Infancy (1940s). Available through the University of Akron. (24 minutes; $25 purchase price)

A videotape prepared from Renee Spitz’s original footage of children in institutional environments. The 1940s study highlights how grief impacted the physical and emotional life of

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children. This would be good for discussion of ethical issues in research with children and problems in researching certain types of issues. It also provides a historical perspective.

Experimental Investigation of Babies: Little Albert (John B. Watson) Available through the University of Akron. (length unavailable; $25 purchase price)

A videotape prepared from John B. Watson’s original film.

Understanding Research (1990). Annenberg/CPB. (30 minutes; price unavailable)Part of the “Discovering Psychology Series.” This video discusses the scientific method

in the context of psychological research and the value of critical thinking.

Ben and Damien: Observing Child Development (1999). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (40 minutes, $149.95 purchase price)

Part of the “Talking Cure: Case studies in Psychotherapy Series.” Follows two families undergoing observation of their infants.

How We Study Children: Observation and Experimentation (1994). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (25 minutes; $89.95 purchase price)

Asserts that the testing of a hypothesis involving cognitive development is best done through a combination of observational and experimental methods.

Scientific Method (1999). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (25 minutes, $79.95 purchase price)

Examines the basic elements of the scientific method and its practical applications.

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