3 SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION.docx

Notes

SOCIAL POLICY AND

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION

JOHN KAVIARASUHEAD OF THE DEPARTMENTDEPARTMENT OF OUTREACHLOYOLA COLLEGE, CHENNAI

Reviewed byT.Augustus Julian Lazmey

Assistant Professor Dept of Social Work

The American CollegeMadurai

UNIT – 11

NotesWELFARE STATE

PLAN OF STUDY

1.1 Objectives1.2 Introduction

1.2.1. Definition1.3 Concepts of Rights

1.3.1. Definition of rights1.3.2. Rights and Justice

1.4 The concept of Justice1.4.1. Perfect Justice1.4.2. Social justice

1.5. The concept of citizenship1.5.1. Concept of citizenship according to Roman1.5.2. Origin of citizenship1.5.3. Definition of citizenship

1.6. Civil Society1.6.1. Meaning of civil society1.6.2. Formal structure1.6.3. Examples of organization and their activities1.6.4. Role played by civil society1.6.5. Role of Civil Society Organizations1.6.6. Relationship between Civil Society and the State1.6.7. Relationship between Civil Society and the Governance1.6.8. Governance1.6.8.a. Governance according to Wikipedia1.6.8.b. Good Governance1.6.8.c. Aspects of Good Governance

1.7. Notion and Level of Welfare States1.7.1. Types of welfare states1.7.1.a. The ‘liberal’ welfare state1.7.1.b. The ‘corporatist’ welfare state1.7.1.c. The ‘Social Democratic’’ welfare state

1.8 Let Us Sum Up1.9 Check Your Progress1.10. Suggested Readings 1.11 Check Your Answers

1.1 OBJECTIVES

2

Notes

The aim of this lesson is to expose the students to the concepts of Welfare

State, Rights, Justice, Citizenship, and Relationship between Civil Society, State

and Governance. Also it would help the students to understand the theories of

Welfare States completely and the types of Welfare States.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

A welfare state is a "concept of government in which the state plays a key

role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its

citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable

distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail

themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. The general term may cover

a variety of forms of economic and social organization. The sociologist T.H.

Marshall identified the welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy,

welfare, and capitalism.

Modern welfare states include the Nordic countries, such as Iceland,

Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ a system known as the

Nordic model. The welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the

services provided (i.e. healthcare, education) as well as directly to individuals

(‘benefits’).

The welfare state is funded through redistributionist taxation and is often

referred to as a type of "mixed economy". Such taxation usually includes a larger

income tax for people with higher incomes, called a progressive tax. This helps to

reduce the income gap between the rich and poor. When income inequality is low,

aggregate demand will be relatively high, because more people who want ordinary

consumer goods and services will be able to afford them, while the labor force

will not be as relatively monopolized by the wealthy

3

Notes

1.2.1 DEFINITION

A welfare state is a state in which organized power is deliberately used

(through politics and administration) in an effort to modify the play of the market

forces in at least three directions

First, by guaranteeing individuals and families a minimum income

irrespective of the market value of their work or their property;

Second, by narrowing the extent of insecurity by enabling individuals and

families to meet certain “social contingencies” (for example, sickness, old

age and unemployment) which lead otherwise to individual and family

crisis; and

Third, by ensuring that all citizens without distinction of status or class are

offered the best standards available in relation to a certain agreed range of

social services.” (Briggs, 1961).

In short, the welfare state modifies the impact of the market, by providing

some sort of minimum guarantee (mitigating poverty); covering a range of social

risks (security), and providing certain services (health care, child and elder care,

etc.) – at the best standards available.

According to a narrow definition, the welfare state comprises two types of

government spending arrangements:

(i) Cash benefits to households (transfers, including mandatory income

insurance)

(ii) Subsidies or direct government provision of human services (such as

child care, pre-schooling, education, health care, and old-age care).

By broader definitions, the welfare state may also include price regulation

(such as rent control and agricultural price support), housing policies, and

regulation of the work environment, job-security legislation, and environmental

policies.

4

Notes

1.3 CONCEPT OF RIGHTS

According to Wikipedia, Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of

freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about

what is allowed of people or owed to people, according to some legal system,

social convention, or ethical theory. Rights are of essential importance in such

disciplines as law and ethics, especially theories of Justice and deontology.

Rights are often considered fundamental to civilization, being regarded as

established pillars of society and culture, and the history of social conflicts can be

found in the history of each right and its development. According to the Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "rights structure the form of governments, the

content of laws, and the shape of morality as it is currently perceived”. The

connection between rights and struggle cannot be overstated — rights are not as

much granted or endowed as they are fought for and claimed, and the essence of

struggles past and ancient are encoded in the spirit of current concept of rights and

their modern formulations.

One way to get an idea of the multiple understandings and senses of the

term is to consider different ways it is used. Many diverse things are claimed as

rights:

A right to life, a right to choose; a right to vote, to work, to strike; a right

to one phone call, to dissolve parliament, to operate a forklift, to asylum, to equal

treatment before the law, to feel proud of what one has done; a right to exist, to

sentence an offender to death, to launch a nuclear first strike, to carry a concealed

weapon, to a distinct genetic identity; a right to believe one's own eyes, to

pronounce the couple husband and wife, to be left alone, to go to hell in one’s own

way.

1.3.1 DEFINITION OF RIGHTS

5

NotesA right is said to be an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of

positive and (or) negative treatment from others, to assistance from others or non-

interference from others. The fundamental idea presented here is that of "rights."

It is rights-consciousness, more than anything else, that is being appealed to.

A "right" is not necessarily one that is actually obtainable under existing

conditions. In fact, the very idea of fighting to get rights implies that, at least in

some important respect, the rights people are entitled to cannot actually be had,

and a change must be attempted so that they may be able to actually enforce and

enjoy their rights.

A right, then, is something to which every individual in the community is

morally entitled, and for which that community is entitled to disregard or forcibly

remove anything that stands in the way of even a single individual getting it.

Rights belong to individuals, and no organisation has any rights not directly

derived from those of its members as individuals; and, just as an individual's

rights cannot extend to where they will trespass on another individual's rights,

similarly the rights of any organisation whatever must yield to those of a single

individual, whether inside or outside the organisation. And more than ever is this

true of a government (which includes any form of organisation claiming power to

control people or their means of living); for this form of organisation exists

exclusively to protect the rights of everyone, and has no rights unless it actually

does so. Rights―to sum up―primarily belong to individuals.

When an individual's rights are violated by a system of government, or

when the consent of the governed ceases to exist or cannot be freely discussed, the

government forfeits its rights to existence, and the whole question of authority

reverts to the people, to abolish the existing authority by any means available and

set up whatever new form of organisation will actually guarantee the rights of

everyone and hold the consent of the governed. It is the rights of every individual,

not those of a majority only, that must be guaranteed; the bare principle of

"majority rule" is emphatically rejected by the view of rights presented here.

6

NotesOrganisations have no more rights than their members. In particular,

governments (including every organisation or group claiming any sort of authority

over others) have no rights not directly derived from their duty to protect the

fundamental rights of the individual, and become offenders the moment they

attempt to overstep these limitations; if they actually violate the fundamental

rights of some individual, they forfeit their right to existence, and therefore to

such derivative rights as self-defense.

1.3.2 RIGHTS AND JUSTICE

Rights and justice are not really distinct issues, but the use of the term

"rights" emphasizes a different dimension from the use of the term "justice."

When we mention Justice we are usually concerned with how (according to what

pattern) valuable things (benefits) and their opposites (burdens) are distributed.

When we talk about rights, we think first of all of entities, usually human

individuals, who supposedly possess or bear those rights.

The link between rights and justice is duties. Principles of justice prescribe

the ways in which benefits and burdens should be distributed. At one level, these

are duties of public officials, but they also provide guidelines for laws, which the

rest of us have duties to obey.

1.4 THE CONCEPT OF JUSTICE

The concept of “justice” dates back to Aristotle, and in 533 CE it was

defined in Roman law as “the constant and perpetual wish to render everyone his

due”. The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology defines justice as “a concept

referring to fairness and to the process of people getting what they deserve” (p.

164). Although the definition has not changed appreciably over the centuries,

there are myriad viewpoints on social justice (for a good summary of theories,

perspectives, and approaches to social justice. Amid the competing perspectives,

state welfare schemes administer programs, dispense important goods and

services, and establish laws relevant to attaining social justice. A large component

7

Notesof the welfare state is social insurance, a mutually binding contract between a

legitimate state and its citizens for promised benefits in return for income taxes.

The concept of justice is based upon the rights and duties of the individual

person. The liberal concept of justice is an interpersonal one - resolution of

conflicts between individuals. Individuals can suffer or perpetrate wrong deeds.

Individuals can be punished, protected and granted restitution. Justice is an

interpersonal thing. It consists in upholding that which is right and due as between

persons. Social justice which involves society and groups is a concept which is

directly antagonistic to the liberal idea. It is a concept which is nebulous and non

achievable. Its proponents increase state power to effect it, with counterproductive

results.

Even between persons, absolute justice is frequently unattainable. The best

result which is practically and logically possible is not necessarily the perfect

result. For example, in motor accident cases where one person suffers brain

damage due to the negligence of a drunken driver, it is practically impossible to

grant full restitution to the injured person. He can be compensated for medical

expenses. He can be awarded a sum sufficient to improve his situation. He cannot

be restored to his pre-accident condition. His brain damage cannot be repaired. It

can only be ameliorated. It is not easy to determine a just punishment for the

drunken drivers.

1.4.1 PERFECT JUSTICE

In other cases, perfect justice is logically (rather than physically)

impossible. Such cases arise in situations where there are legitimate interests on

both sides but the interests are in conflict. Only one can prevail. Someone has to

lose. Justice requires that the better interest should prevail but that does not mean

that there is no merit in the inferior interest. The law of adverse possession

provides an illustration where the conflict is between an owner who has

abandoned his land and another, professing to be the owner, sells it to a person

who takes possession of it and improves it. There is merit (and possibly demerit)

8

Noteson both sides. The best that can be done is to develop rules to help ascertain which

side has the better right.

Between persons, justice consists in upholding right behaviour and the

courts can adjudicate between persons. Resort to the courts is only considered

when a problem (a conflict) exists. The role of the judicial process is, therefore,

the resolution of conflicts. Perfect justice cannot be dispensed by the state. The

role of the courts is to deal with injustice once it has already occurred.

The traditional emphasis upon adjudication and non-recognition of so-called

social welfare rights is evident in the protection which the law traditionally

afforded to private property. The idea of redistribution of wealth is completely

alien to the common law. A rich man cannot be sued by a poor man merely for

being rich.

1.4.2 SOCIAL JUSTICE

Concepts of social justice are at the very heart of the welfare state. From

the perspective of the history of institutions, the principles of justice underlie the

architecture of the social security systems in Great Britain and Germany and

analyses how they have changed since 1945. It turns out that in general, both

welfare states are based on mixtures of different concepts of justice. Parallels can

be found above all in the health care systems, which in both countries are based on

a combination of two principles – equality of access on the one side and treatment

according to one’s need on the other side. There are more significant differences,

in contrast, in regard to insuring against unemployment and to pension systems,

whereby the British welfare state entails a link between the norms of equality and

of neediness, whereas in Germany the principle of the equivalence between

contributions and benefits is deeply rooted. All path-dependencies

notwithstanding, a convergence in the institutional arrangements of both welfare

states can be traced over the last decades. In Britain as well as in Germany means-

tested benefits and thus the principle of neediness became increasingly important,

most notably in the field of unemployment benefits. At the same time, both

9

Noteswelfare states experienced the rise of new concepts of justice starting from non-

class groups like families, women or generations.

1.5 THE CONCEPT OF CITIZENSHIP

The concept of citizenship is composed of three main elements or

dimensions (Cohen 1999; Kymlicka and Norman 2000; Carens 2000). The first is

citizenship as legal status, defined by civil, political and social rights. Here, the

citizen is the legal person free to act according to the law and having the right to

claim the law's protection. It need not mean that the citizen takes part in the law's

formulation, nor does it require that rights be uniform between citizens. The

second considers citizens specifically as political agents, actively participating in a

society's political institutions. The third refers to citizenship as membership in a

political community that furnishes a distinct source of identity.

1.5.1 CONCEPT OF CITIZENSHIP ACCORDING TO ROMAN

The Romans further developed on the concept of citizenship to distinguish

their original citizens (Romans) from the citizens of their conquests. Roman

citizens enjoyed the right to vote, the right to serve in the civil service and the

right for military service. All who were born to Roman fathers, even if they had

foreign mothers, were acknowledged to be Roman citizens. Citizenship could also

be granted by generals and emperors.

The expansion of the Roman Empire eventually brought Roman

citizenship to extend over the people of their provinces as well. Those who lived

in autonomous regions could claim citizenship, but still lacked the right to vote.

Latin allies who moved to live in Rome permanently were also granted

citizenship. Citizenship brought about many benefits. Besides the right to vote,

citizens could also enjoy government grants, and sometimes, they could be

exempted from taxes and tribute payments and military service. Eventually

10

Notesthough, citizenship became less emphasized, especially when military service

became optional.

Today, citizenship, similarly, provides a list of opportunities to the

individual. So what does possessing citizenship mean to an individual? What are

the benefits one enjoys as a citizen? And in return, what are the responsibilities or

duties the citizen has to do? In your country, what would be the criteria for

citizenship, and why do you think this is so?

1.5.2 ORIGIN OF CITIZENSHIP

Today, being a citizen of a country entitles one to rights to vote and the

right to enjoy social privileges like pensions and health care subsidies. The rules

defining citizenship vary from country to country, but essentially, it is widely

acknowledged that when an individual is born in a country, he automatically

becomes a citizen. Yet the concept of citizenship, in ancient times was somewhat

more complex; living in a country for many years did not mean was a citizen, nor

could you become a citizen just by your birthplace. So, who was a citizen, who

was not? And what was the ancients' concept of citizenship?

Citizenship is being touted to have originated in Greece, which originated

from the concept of democracy. Greek citizenship, though, was strict. It was

granted by birth together with a double affirmation, one by the mother, another by

the Assembly member. If the latter opposed it, the infant was killed. 451 BC saw

the passing of even stricter citizenship laws, which proposed that offspring

between Greek male citizens and foreign women could not become citizens,

reason being that this move would help curb the numbers of the exploding

population numbers.

1.5.3 DEFINITION OF CITIZENSHIP

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Notesa) According to Greek philosopher Aristotle defines citizenship as

"He who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of

any state." Indeed, the Greeks enjoyed the privilege of being governed by

democracy; their government was made up of commoners, and they were allowed

freedom of speech to a large extent through public speaking rights. Thus, they

were able to participate in the governing of their country by creating their own

legislation and judiciary. The limiting of citizenship to selected numbers further

made the role of citizens more privileged, with the monopolization of land

ownership, sole rights to lease land for mining and the right to defend themselves

at law.

b) Courtesy of Grolier's New Book of Knowledge defines citizenship as

A citizen is a participatory member of a political community. Citizenship is

gained by meeting the legal requirements of a national, state, or local government.

A nation grants certain rights and privileges to its citizens. In return, citizens are

expected to obey their country's laws and defend it against its enemies.

The value of citizenship varies from nation to nation. In some countries,

citizenship can mean a citizen has the right to vote, the right to hold government

offices, and the right to collect unemployment insurance payments, to name a few

examples.

Living in a country does not mean that a person is necessarily a citizen of that

country. Citizens of one country who live in a foreign country are known as

aliens. Their rights and duties are determined by political treaties and by the laws

of the country in which they stay.

c) Oxford Dictionary of politics defines citizenship as

12

NotesThe status of being a citizen is usually determined by law. In the republican

tradition, qualifications for citizenship are associated with particular rights and

duties of citizens, and a commitment to equality between citizens is compatible

with considerable exclusivity in the qualifying conditions. For example, classical

republics excluded slaves, women, and certain classes of workmen from

citizenship. In general, qualifications for citizenship reflect a conception of the

purposes of the political community and a view about which persons are able to

contribute to, or enjoy the benefits of, the common good, or the freedom of the

city. Although the concept of citizenship may refer to a status conferred by law, it

may also be deployed to argue that persons have entitlements as a consequence of

their position within a community or polity. This approach suggests that since

individuals, as a matter of fact, participate in a common life, they have rights and

duties as a consequence. Hence, it has been argued, we have moral obligations to

one another because of that shared existence, whether what is shared be

characterized as economic activity, culture, or political obligation. There may,

then, be an uncertain connection between the ideas of membership of a

community and citizenship of a polity. Both membership and citizenship may be

construed as conferred statuses or as empirically determined positions;

membership of a community may be asserted as a qualification for citizenship; the

common good may be seen as what gives value to both community and political

organization. And both membership and citizenship may be valued partly because

they are not universally available.

1.6 CIVIL SOCIETY

1.6.1. Meaning of Civil Society

Dictionary.com's 21st Century Lexicon defines civil society as 1) the

aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest

interests and will of citizens or 2) individuals and organizations in a society which

are independent of the government. Sometimes the term is used in the more

general sense of "the elements such as freedom of speech, an independent

judiciary, etc, that makes up a democratic society" (Collins English Dictionary).

13

NotesVolunteering is often considered a defining characteristic of the

organizations that constitute civil society, which in turn are often called NGOs, or

NPOs. Most authorities have in mind the realm of public participation in

voluntary associations, trade unions and the like, but it is not necessary to belong

to all of these to be a part of civil society.

Perhaps the simplest way to see civil society is as a "third sector," distinct

from government and business. In this view, civil society refers essentially to the

so-called "intermediary institutions" such as professional associations, religious

groups, labour unions, citizen advocacy organizations that gives voice to various

sectors of society and enrich public participation in democracies.

Civil society is nothing but it is power to the people. In other words, it is a

citizen participation in political processes, arena of uncoerced collective action

around shared interests, purposes and values. In theory, its institutional forms are

distinct from those of the state, family and market. Civil society commonly

embraces a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in their

degree of formality, autonomy and power.

1.6.2 Formal Structure

There is a formal structure of organization which does the following role

o Articulation & aggregation of interests

o Acting within the political system

o Influencing external power

o Representation of political interests

o Lobbying e.g. building public pressure using media organizing

rallies.

o Forming alliances & coalitions

Non-membership organization formed normally are engaged in the following

activities

14

Notes Providing welfare and development services to the poor

Private, non-profit, legal, small, focused usually works with peoples’

organizations (Pos).

Fill a gap in the function of the government

Stimulating agent for community development

Creates opportunities for the politically marginalized to become active

participants in the socio-political processes of society.

Playing as an intermediary mechanism between those who have power &

those who have none

Plays as an alternative institutional setting to political parties, articulating

& aggregating socially relevant interests

Supplements government’s social delivery mechanisms

Privatizes policy implementation

1.6.3 Examples of organization and their activities

DJANGOs (Development, Justice and Advocacy NGOs) - commonly

called development NGOs - perform direct and indirect support service

functions with Pos.

FUNDANGOs (Funding agency NGOs or Philanthropic Foundations) -

grant-giving organizations linked to grassroots organizations through

providing financial and other forms of support.

MUNGOs (Mutant NGOs) - largely composed of government-run NGOs

that are essentially extensions of the state or personal interests of state

actors 4. COME N’GOs (Fly-by-Night or paper NGOs) - fly-by-night

organizations that package proposals to attract outside funding and

promptly disappear with the funds.

1.6.4 Role played by Civil Society

Civil society plays an essential role in the following ways.

15

Notes Democratizing politics and governance

Facilitate participation of the people in the policy-making and execution

process of government

“Key participant political force” role in enhancing democracy

Acts as an important institutional vehicles

Ability to influence

a) As organizers: Forming community & popular grassroots organization

b) As advocates: Mobilizing, articulating people’s interests, political

demands, and institutional reforms

c) As mediators: Linking the powerful and disempowered strata of the

society

d) As deliverers: Alternative mechanism for delivery of social services

1.6.5 Role of Civil Society Organizations

o Advocacy

o Education

o Monitoring

o Service delivery at national and local levels

Civil societies always look to the Future and accept the Challenges.

Society fails if the citizen is not engaged. “Setting an agenda for change is

not a burden. It’s a responsibility and an opportunity to change for good”

1.6.6 Relationship between Civil Society and the State

Civil society is the sphere apart from the state where citizens associate

themselves with their particular interests and aims and puts forward various

proposals that are not determined and introduced by the political system of

government.

1.6.7 Relationship between Civil Society and the Governance

16

NotesCivil Society and Government bring together an unprecedented array of

political, ethical, and religious perspectives to shed light on the complex and

much-debated relationship between civil society and the state. Some argue that

civil society is a bulwark against government; others see it as an indispensable

support for government. Civil society has been portrayed both as an independent

of the state and as dependent upon it.

1.6.8 Governance

Governance means how an organization controls its actions. Governance

describes the mechanisms an organization uses to ensure that its constituents

follow its established processes and policies. It is the primary means of

maintaining oversight and accountability in a loosely coupled organizational

structure. A proper governance strategy implements system to monitor and record

what is going on, takes steps to ensure compliance with agreed policies, and

provides for corrective action in cases where the rules have been ignored or

misconstrued.

1.6.8. a. Governance according to Wikipedia

Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define

expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate

process or part of decision-making or leadership processes. In modern nation-

states, these processes and systems are typically administered by the government.

When discussing governance in particular organisations, the quality of

governance within the organisation is often compared to a standard of good

governance.

In the case of a business or a non-profit organization, governance relates to

consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and decision-rights

17

Notesfor a given area of responsibility. For example, managing at a corporate level

might involve evolving policies on privacy, on internal investment, and on the use

of data.

1.6.8.b. Good Governance

Good governance as expressed through factors like reliability,

predictability and accountability is increasingly seen as a key factor in ensuring

national prosperity. However, many aspects of the relationship between good

governance and national prosperity are still poorly understood and may indeed

vary across countries.

Some basic questions include:

What is good governance and why is it important for economic and social

development?

What is the role of such factors as the rule of law, transparency,

accountability and public service ethics in promoting good governance?

How can good governance be promoted in transition to more open and

democratic societies?

Some issues:

What lessons have been learned from public management reforms about

the importance of good governance for the achievement of social and

economic objectives?

What potential weaknesses of governance have been exposed by the

current financial crises and how could governments respond to these

weaknesses?

What are the key aspects of good governance, and are these universal or

relative to individual countries? What is the role of such factors as the rule

of law, transparency, accountability, participation and public service ethics

in promoting good governance?

18

Notes How can good governance be promoted in transition to more open and

democratic societies?

1.6.8. c. Aspects of Good Governance

Good government depends on an ability to exercise power, and to make

good decisions over time, across a spectrum of economic, social, environmental

and other areas. This is linked with the government’s capacity for knowledge,

mediation, resource allocation, implementation and maintenance of key

relationships.

1.7 Notion and Level of Welfare States

Level of welfare state is determined by:

o The extent of state involvement

o The types of programs administered

o The level of citizen participation in welfare issues

o The commodification / decommodification mix/effect

1.7.1 Types of Welfare States

a) The liberal welfare state

b) The corporatist welfare state

c) The social democratic welfare state

1.7.1. a. The ‘liberal’ Welfare State

Its major programs being means-tested

Modest social insurance programs

Strict entitlement rules

Stigmatized means-tested programs

Widespread poverty

Minimal deco-modifying effect

19

Noteso Examples: The U.S. Canada and Australia

1.7.1. b. The ‘Corporatist’ Welfare State

Less emphasis on free market efficiency and co-modification

Rights are attached to class and status

Redistribution impact of this welfare state is minimal

The strong historical connection between the state and the church (often

the Catholic Church) makes welfare programs strongly committed to the

preservation of traditional family structures.

Examples: France, Germany, Austria and Italy

1.7.1.c. The ‘Social Democratic’’ Welfare State

Universal program

Deco modifying effect

Social policies are designed to achieve a high level of social equality

A model of this nature promotes a strong sense of solidarity and loyalty to

the welfare state

Examples: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland

1.8 LET US SUM UP

A welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key


citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable

distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail

themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

A right is said to be an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of positive

and (or) negative treatment from others, to assistance from others or non-

20

Notesinterference from others. A right is something to which every individual in the

community is morally entitled, and for which that community is entitled to

disregard or forcibly remove anything that stands in the way of even a single

individual getting it. Rights belong to individuals, and no organisation has any

rights not directly derived from those of its members as individuals.

The link between rights and justice are duties. Principles of justice

prescribe the ways in which benefits and burdens should be distributed. At one

level, these are the duties of public officials, but they also provide guidelines for

laws, which the rest of us have duties to obey. The concept of justice is based

upon the rights and duties of the individual person. Even between persons,

absolute justice is frequently unattainable.

The concept of citizenship is firstly, as legal status, defined by civil,

political and social rights. The second considers citizens specifically as political

agents, actively participating in a society's political institutions. The third refers to

citizenship as membership in a political community that furnishes a distinct source

of identity.

Civil society is defined as the aggregate of non-governmental

organizations and institutions that manifests interests and will of citizens or

individuals and organizations in a society which are independent of the

government. Volunteering is often considered a defining characteristic of the

organizations that constitute civil society, which in turn are often called NGOs, or

NPOs. Civil society is nothing but it is a power to the people. In other words, it is

a citizen participation in political processes, arena of uncoerced collective action

around shared interests, purposes and values.

The quality of governance within the organisation is often compared to a

standard of good governance. In the case of a business or of a non-profit

organization, governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies,

guidance, processes and decision-rights for a given area of responsibility. Good

21

Notesgovernance as expressed through factors like reliability, predictability and

accountability is increasingly seen as a key factor in ensuring national prosperity.

Types of welfare states are the liberal welfare state, the corporatist welfare

state and the social democratic welfare state.

1.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress – 1

a. Define Welfare State

b. Write the principles of welfare state

c. Name the countries of Modern Welfare States?

d. What is involved in the Welfare State?


a. What do you mean by right?

b. What is the link between rights and justice?


a. What is based upon the concept of justice?

b. What is the meaning of liberal concept of justice?

c. What does justice consist of between persons?

Check your progress – 4

a. Mention three elements or dimensions of citizenship.

b. When does someone become a citizen?

c. Define citizenship according to Greek philosopher Aristotle.

d. From which country is the citizenship being touted to have originated and

from which concept?

e. Define citizenship according to Oxford Dictionary of politics


22

Notesa. How the volunteering often is considered?

b. Mention any two roles played by civil society

c. What is the relationship between Civil Society and the Governance?

d. What is the simplest way to see civil society?

e. Mention any three intermediary institutions

f. List out the key factors in ensuring national prosperity?

g. Mention any two aspects of Good Governance


a. Mention the types of welfare states.

b. Mention any three countries which are the ‘Social Democratic’’ welfare

state.

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bader, V., 1995, “Citizenship and Exclusion. Radical Democracy,

Community, and Justice. Or, What Is Wrong with Communitarianism?”,

Political Theory, 23 (2): 211–246.

Banting, K., and W. Kymlicka (eds.) (2006), “Multiculturalism and the

Welfare State: Recognition and Redistribution in Contemporary

Democracies”, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1–45.

Benhabib, S., (2004), The Rights of Others. Aliens, Residents and Citizens,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

David Lewis and N. Ravichandran (Eds.), (2008), NGOs and Social Welfare –

New Research Approaches, Rawat publications.

Karen K. Kirst-Ashman (2010), Introduction to Social Work and Social

Welfare: Critical Thinking Perspectives, Edition- 3, Published by Cengage

Learning.

23

NotesWalter A. Friedlander (1961), Introduction to Social Welfare, Edition Two,

Publisher - Prentice-Hall.

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress – 1

a. Define welfare state

A welfare State is a concept of government in which the state plays a key


citizens.

b. Write the principles of welfare state

A welfare state is based on the principles of equality of opportunity,

equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail

themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

c. Name the countries of modern welfare states

Modern welfare states include the Nordic countries, such as Iceland,

Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ a system known as the

Nordic model.

d. What is involved in the welfare state?

The welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services

provided (i.e. healthcare, education) as well as directly to individuals (benefits).


a. What do you mean by right?

A right is something to which every individual in the community is morally

entitled, and for which that community is entitled to disregard or forcibly remove

anything that stands in the way of even a single individual getting it.

24

Notesb. What is the link between rights and justice?

The link between rights and justice is duties.


a. What is based upon concept of justice?

The concept of justice is based upon the rights and duties of the individual person.

b. What is the meaning of liberal concept of justice?

The liberal concept of justice is an interpersonal one - resolution of conflicts

between individuals.

c. What does justice consist of between persons?

Between persons, justice consists in upholding right behaviour and the courts can

adjudicate between persons.


a. Mention three elements or dimensions of citizenship.

i. The first is citizenship as legal status, defined by civil, political and social

rights.

ii. The second considers citizens specifically as political agents, actively

participating in a society's political institutions.

iii. The third refers to citizenship as membership in a political community that

furnishes a distinct source of identity.

b. When does someone become a citizen?

The rules defining citizenship vary from country to country, but essentially, it is

widely acknowledged that when an individual is born in a country, he

automatically becomes a citizen

25

Notesc. Define citizenship according to Greek philosopher Aristotle.

According to Greek philosopher Aristotle, citizenship defined as ‘he who has the

power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state.’

d. From which country is the citizenship being touted to have originated and

from which concept?

Citizenship is being touted to have originated in Greece, which originated from

the concept of democracy.

e. Define citizenship according to Oxford Dictionary of politics

According to Oxford Dictionary of politics citizenship is defined as, ‘the status of

being a citizen, usually determined by law.’


a. How is volunteering often considered?

Volunteering is often considered a defining characteristic of the organizations that

constitute civil society, which in turn are often called NGOs, or NPOs.

b. Mention any two roles played by civil society

i. Facilitate participation of the people in the policy-making and execution

process of government

ii. Ability to influence

c. What is the relationship between Civil Society and the Governance?

Civil Society and Government bring together an unprecedented array of political,

ethical, and religious perspectives to shed light on the complex and much-debated

relationship between civil society and the state.

d. What is the simplest way to see civil society?

26

NotesPerhaps the simplest way to see civil society is as a "third sector," distinct from

government and business. In this view, civil society refers essentially to the so-

called "intermediary institutions"

e. Mention any three intermediary institutions

Professional associations, religious groups and labor unions that give voice to

various sectors of society and enrich public participation in democracies.


Good governance as expressed through factors like reliability, predictability and


g. Mention any two aspects of Good Governance

Good government depends on an ability to exercise power, and to make good

decisions over time.


a. Mention the types of welfare states

The liberal welfare state

The corporatist welfare state

The social democratic welfare state

b. Mention any three countries which have the ‘Social Democratic’’ welfare

state

Sweden, Norway and Finland.


Good governance as expressed through factors like reliability, predictability and


27

Notesg. Mention any two aspects of Good Governance

Good government depends on an ability to exercise power, and to make good

decisions over time.

UNIT – 228

Notes

POLICY MAKING PROCESS AND STRUCTURE

PLAN OF STUDY

2.1 Objectives

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Role of Executive in Policy making

2.3.1 Meaning of Executive

2.3.2 The Role of Executive

2.3.3 Required knowledge to be possessed by an executive

2.3.4 Qualities of Executive

2.3.5 Skills necessary for an Executive

2.3.6 Responsibilities and functions of an Executive

2.4. Main functions of the Judiciary

2.4.a. Judicial Functions

2.4.b. Law-making Functions

2.4.c. Guardianship of the Constitution

2.4.d. Advisory Jurisdiction

2.4.e. Protector of the Fundamental Rights

2.4.f. Supervisory Function

2.4.g. Non-Judicial Function

2.4.1. The Role of Judiciary in India

2.4.2. Six essential functions of the Judiciary system of India

29

http://www.publishyourarticles.net/eng/articles/functions-of-judiciary.html

Notes2.4.3. Functions

2.5 Pressure groups

2.5.1. What are pressure groups?

2.5.2. What rights do pressure groups have?

2.5.3. What responsibilities do pressure groups have?

2.5.4. What methods do pressure groups use?

2.5.5. What are some pressure groups?

2.5.6. Functions of Pressure groups

2.5.7. The role of pressure group

2.5.8. Role and function of pressure groups in India

2.5.9. Difference between political party and pressure group

2.5.10. Pressure group in India

2.5.11. Role of pressure group in India

2.5.12. Features of Indian pressure group

2.5.13. Types of pressure groups

2.5.14. Major pressure groups in India

2.5.15. Media as pressure group

2.5.16. Benefits of pressure groups

2.6 Role of Mass Media Functions in Policy Making

2.6.1. Introduction

2.6.2. Functions of the Mass Media in the Policy Process

2.6.3. Role of media in policy making

2.6.4. Media Influence on Public Policy

2.6.5. Role of Media in Policy Formulation

30

Notes

2.7 Roles of NGOs

2.7.a. Development and Operation of Infrastructure

2.7.b. Supporting Innovation, Demonstration and Pilot Projects

2.7.c. Facilitating Communication

2.7.d. Technical Assistance and Training

2.7.e. Research, Monitoring and Evaluation

2.7.f. Advocacy for and with the Poor

2.8. Voluntary Organizations in policy making process

2.8.1. Role of the Indian NGO Sector in the Public Policy Making Process

2.8.2. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making

2.9. Problems in policy implementing process

2.9.1. Key issues in Scaling Up

2.10. Let Us Sum Up

2.11 Check Your Progress

2.12. Suggested Readings

2.13. Check Your Answers

31

Notes2.1 OBJECTIVES

The aim of this lesson is to make the students understand the role of

Executive, Legislative and Judiciary, Pressure Groups, NGOs and Mass Media

and how they are all playing an importance role in policy making processes and

structures. More so, students would know about how the policies are made and

implemented at different levels. Understanding this policy in detail would help the

students to learn the problems of policy implementation and analyse the policies

that are implemented at different levels by state and central.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Policy making is the most significant activity of the government as it

touches almost every facet of the life of the citizens and the nation as a whole.

Policy making is also one of the major functions of the political executive.

Broadly speaking, the structure of public policy making involves the entire

political system. The ultimate authority in policy making, planning and budgeting

rests with those who hold the power to legitimise policy. Legally, this power may

be in the hands of a single individual (a king or a dictator), in the hands of a group

of persons (a political party or military) or in the hands of the entire citizenry of a

country. Policy making is not one person's or one political group's job, the actual

formulation of policies is shared by political leaders of different political parties,

pressure and interest groups, policy making units and the people as a whole. The

U.N. publication on Development Administration (1975) says, "In view of the

magnitude and complexity of various policy questions today, a king or party alone

cannot make public policies and must, therefore, establish some central units to

assist in policy making. Similarly, the citizenry, who usually exercise their power

to legitimise policy through persons elected by them, directly or indirectly,

normally require some central units to initiate, examine and formulate policy

proposals. Sometimes such units may even take policy decisions explicitly or

implicitly in the name of those with the power to give policies legal authority.

32

NotesSuch central units for policy making are mostly located in the executive branch of

the government".

In a parliamentary democracy like India, the leadership of the government

is in the hands of the Prime Minister, who is the real executive, the nominal

executive being the President. Through the party system and the authority of

patronage which the Prime Minister enjoys, the Prime Minister has usurped the

authority of the Parliament, The ever increasing authority or influence of the

Prime Minister has changed the Cabinet government into 'Prime Ministerial

government'. Before we examine the role of the executive, let us first understand

the meaning of the term 'Executive'. J.W. Garner observes. "In a broad and

collective sense, the executive organ embraces the aggregate or totality of all the

functionaries and agencies which are concerned with the execution of the will of

the state as that will has been formulated and expressed in terms of law". In India,

it comprises the Prime Minister leaders of the different parties, the ministers of the

ruling party and the opposition, the Cabinet, its committees, Cabinet Secretariat

and the Prime Minister's Secretariat. Before dealing with their role separately, it

would be of relevance to discuss briefly, the broad functions of the executive

which are as follows:

1) Maintenance of internal peace and order is the major function of the

executive but maintaining external relations and saving the country from external

aggression is also an equally important responsibility. In other words, the

formulation of the national policy for domestic, as well as, external purpose is the

chief concern of the executive.

2) As already mentioned, the initiative for legislative work has also

become the responsibility of the executive. The bills are first approved by the

Cabinet, and the government does not face any difficulty in getting the approval of

the Parliament where, generally, it enjoys a majority. In the present context,

though we have a minority government yet its proposals are accepted, with or

without modification, by the Parliament as holding elections at short intervals

imposes financial and political pressures on the system.

33

Notes3) The executive proposes the budget and decides about the imposition or

abolition of taxes. It may increase or decrease the tax rates. The executive also

sees that provisions of the budget are implemented after the approval of the

Parliament. It is, therefore, clear that the executive has all pervasive authority over

the activities of the State.

2.3 ROLE OF EXECUTIVE IN POLICY MAKING

2. 3.1. Meaning of Executive

The responsibilities of an executive in a social agency are diversified like

those of a captain of a ship. By executive, we mean a person who executes the

programme. He may be designated as secretary, a manager, superintendent,

executive secretary, director, etc. In smaller agencies, an executive is both the

director and a direct service staff member but in bigger agencies in the west, there

are separate directors for business management, programmes and public relation

supervised by chief director. An executive, as the term implies, is one who

executes what the board plans. Whatever his designation may be, the executive

has to give a lead to the staff and necessary assistance to the board.

2.3.2. The Role of Executive

a) By virtue of his professional expertise and experience and the full time and

thought which he gives to the work of the organization, the executive

should be a leader and inspirer of his board and an initiator of policies. Yet,

on the other hand, he should welcome proposals and suggestions from the

board members and officers.

b) A wise executive will know much about the interests and hobbies of his

board members.

c) He will try to call on them individually, discuss with them the work of the

organizations and get their suggestions for its improvement.

d) He will have in mind the prejudices and blind sports of board members

and will attempt to inform them, in advance of board meeting, about

34

Notessubjects which require special interpretation. Yet, he will not “play

policies”, endeavour to secure acquiescence in a proposal merely because

he favours it, or try to put over a project which he fears may not survive

free discussion.

2.3.3. Required knowledge to be possessed by an executive

1. An executive should be a professionally trained person with experience of

working with people and should have knowledge of basic principles of

social work.

He should have knowledge of dynamics of human behavior

He should have knowledge of community resources

He should have knowledge of social work methods

He should have knowledge of processes of evaluation

2. He must be conversant with principles of administration

3. He should know methods and techniques of efficient administration

4. He should be familiar with local, state and central legislation and the legal

and philosophical basis of welfare programmes

5. He should be familiar with government structure at various levels.

6. He should understand basic principles of financial and business practices

7. He should have an idea of social and economic factors

8. He should have general idea of the functions and structure of other welfare

agencies.

9. He should have knowledge of personnel policies, principles and practices.

10. He should know effective methods of coordination and public relations.

2.3.4. Qualities of Executive

i. An executive must have an understanding of himself, beneficiaries, staff,

the board’s members and the community in which he is working.

35

Notesii. He must have ability to carry out complex responsibilities and ability to

work with different groups.

iii. He has to carry out orders of the board and implement the policy laid down

by it. He should, therefore, be a matured person with understanding of

human relationships.

iv. He must have intellectual capacity and ability to deal with complicated

problems.

v. He must have initiative, imagination and originality.

vi. He must be knowledgeable, realistic, courageous, accurate and frank.

vii. He should be able to maintain staff morale.

In short, he should be a good group worker so as to organize various groups of

people for constructive working. For example. Clientele, staff, board members and

other agencies in the community.

2.3.5. Skills necessary for an Executive

An executive should be able to see the job as a whole in relation to the

needs of the community and objectives of the agency he serves.

He should be able to plan and organize the units or divisions of work and

advise them effectively on democratic basis.

He should maintain good relationship with the staff of his agency.

He should know the art of interpreting his agency’s programmes to the

community and get funds for that.

2.3.6. Responsibilities and functions of an Executive

Although, by and large, the functions of chief executive in an agency are

performed by the elected president, secretary and the treasurer, individually and

jointly yet some of the organizations particularly those having bigger workload or

working at the national level are now appointing whole time paid and qualified

persons as chief executive. In some cases, even with the appointment of executive,

36

Notesthe executive functions of the organisatiosn are still retained by the elected bearers

mostly general secretary. This results in confusion and clashes and creates

problems for the organization. Normally, the paid executive should function as

secretary to the board also. In such cases, the traditional elected secretary will not

be necessary. If at all the office general secretary is considered essential, in large

national organizations, he should be responsible for organizational work

concerned with organization of departments, institutions and branches under the

control of the organization. However the role and functions of secretary viz-a-viz

the executive should be clearly laid down. The day-to-day work of the

organization should be the responsibility of the chief executive. Some of the roles

and functions of the chief executive are the following.

1. He works as a key-stone in the arch of an agency with the board and the

staff, on two sides of that arch.

2. He is responsible to the board for execution of policies laid down by it and

implementation of programmes, schemes and services planned by it.

3. He is responsible for direction, supervision, control; and operations of the

agency’s programmes.

4. He renders secretarial service to the board and develops methods and

procedures to fulfill agency’s objectives, policies and standard.

5. He secures and maintains office and field staff for implementing agency’s

purpose and convenes their meetings periodically.

6. He assists the board in policy making, programmes-planning, evaluation

and maintaining public relations.

7. He assists the elected office bearers in discharge of their functions

individually.

8. He prepares budget estimates, maintains accounts and arranges audit of

accounts under the overall supervisions of the treasurer and or president.

9. He submits periodical progress/evaluations reports and statement of

accounts to the board in order to keep them informed about agency’s

progress and difficulties.

37

Notes

2.4. MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE JUDICIARY

Administration of justice is the primary function of the judiciary.

However, the judiciary performs certain other function too. These functions may

be judicial in character but some of these functions are non-judicial in nature.

Following are some of the judicial and non-judicial functions performed by the

judiciary.

2.4.a. Judicial Functions

Firstly, when a dispute is brought before a court, it is the responsibility of

the court to 'determine the facts' involved. The usual manner in which the courts

determine the facts is through evidence given by the contestants. Once the facts

have been established, the court proceeds to decide what law is applicable to a

particular controversy or circumstance. Herein the judiciary becomes the

interpreter of laws, which is the prime function of the judiciary. So the major task

of the judiciary is to 'determine' the facts of laws and to apply them to particular

circumstance.

2.4. b. Law-making Functions

Secondly, the judiciary while interpreting the existing laws also performs

the role of lawmaker. It may sound surprising, but 'judge-made' laws are common

to all systems of jurisprudence. Such occasions arise when the provisions of the

existing laws may be ambiguous, or sometimes two or more laws of a particular

government appear to be in conflict under a given circumstance. Herein the

judiciary plays an important role in determining what the law is and when two

laws apparently conflict, which shall prevail. For instance, the enunciation of the

38

Notes'Doctrine of Implied Powers' by the U.S. Judiciary proved conducive to the

growth of the federal government's power. However, the phraseology of the

original U.S. Constitution did not provide such enormous power of the Federal

Government. In this context, we fully realize the prime importance of the judiciary

2.4.c. Guardianship of the Constitution

Thirdly, in federal States like India, the U.S.A. and Switzerland, the

judiciary is the guardian of the Constitution. Chief Justice Hughes of America

once said, "We are under a union but the Constitution is what the judges say it is".

In federal States conflict in jurisdiction and authority frequently occurs, as there

are several law making and executive authorities, each showing its power to the

Constitution. In the circumstances, the judiciary becomes the umpire and regulates

the legal actions of the States and Central governments. In case the laws made by

any of these law-making bodies conflict with the constitutional provisions, the

judiciary in the above mentioned States is empowered to declare the relevant

legislation illegal. Indian courts on several occasions have declared laws of the

Union as well as the State laws illegal.

2.4.d. Advisory Jurisdiction

Fourthly, some national judiciaries possess advisory jurisdiction. For

instance, the President of India may seek the advice of the Supreme Court of India

on any proposed legislation. However, there is no such provision in the U.S.A.

The Canadian Supreme Court is also obliged under constitutional provisions to

tender advice to the Governor General.

2.4.e. Protector of the Fundamental Rights

Fifthly, the judiciaries also act as the defenders of the individual's right.

Such role of the judiciary is important as it prevents the individual's rights from

being violated. An individual need not wait until harm is done to him. If he had,

39

Notessufficient reasons to believe that attempts would be made to violate his 'rights' he

could approach the courts for protection.

Then the courts would issue orders prohibiting such attempts until the

rights of the parties were determined. Judiciary is the watchdog of rights and

liberties of the people. In India, the Supreme Court is empowered to protect the

Fundamental Rights of the citizens.

2.4.f. Supervisory Function

Sixthly, higher courts are often assigned the task of supervision over the

lower courts. The High Court is responsible for the supervision of their respective

state judicial systems.

2.4.g. Non-Judicial Function

Lastly, the judiciary in some countries may perform a number of non-

judicial functions. Courts may undertake the administration of property in cases

where the ownership of property in question is in dispute. Courts also assume

responsibility for handling the affairs of minor children or lunatics. Courts may be

authorized to issue and cancel certain licenses. Courts also may be authorized to

grant citizenship to aliens.

2.4.1. The Role of Judiciary in India

In a democracy, the role of judiciary is crucial. Judiciary is a faithful keeper

of the constitutional assurances. An independent and impartial judiciary can make

the legal system vibrant. Our Indian judiciary can be regarded as a creative

judiciary. Credibility of judicial process ultimately depends on the manner of

doing administration of justice. Justice K. Subba Rao explains the function of the

judiciary as thus

It is a balancing wheel of the federation; 40

http://www.publishyourarticles.net/eng/articles/functions-of-judiciary.html

Notes It keeps equilibrium between fundamental rights and social justice;

It forms all forms of authorities within the bounds;

It controls the Administrative Tribunals.

Justice – Social, economic and political are clearly laid down in the

preamble as the guiding principle of the constitution. Social justice is the

main concept on which our constitution is built. Part III and IV of Indian

constitution are significant in the direction of Social Justice and economic

development of the citizens. Judiciary can promote social justice through its

judgments. In other sense, they are under an obligation to do so. While applying

judicial discretion in adjudication, judiciary should be so cautious. And prime

importance should be to promote social justice.

Supreme Court had itself suggested in one of the early and landmark case

(Bandhu Mukti Morcha Union of India 1984) I SCC 161, 234) that there is a great

merit in the court proceedings to decide an issue on the basis of strict legal

principle and avoiding carefully the influence of purely emotional appeal. This

gives the decision of the court a direction which is certain and unfaltering, and

that especial permanence in legal jurisprudence which makes it a base for the next

step forward in the further progress of the law. Indeed both certainty of substance

and certainty of direction are indispensable requirement in the development of the

law and invest it with credibility which commands public confidence in its

legitimacy.

The Court must take care to see that it does not overstep the limits of its

judicial function and trespass into areas which are reserved to the executive and

the legislature by the constitution. Clear violation of constitutional or statutory

provision must be interfered by the apex judiciary. If a considered policy decision

has been taken which is not in conflict with any law or is not malafide, it will not

be in Public Interest to require the court to go into and investigate those areas

which are the function of the executive. When two or more options or views are

possible and after considering them the government takes a policy decision it is

then not the function of the court to go into the matter a fresh and in a way, sit in

41

Notesappeal over such a policy decision (Balco v. Union of India (2002) 2 SCC

333) .whatever method adopted by judiciary in adjudication, it must be the

procedure known to the judicial tenets.

2.4.2. Six essential functions of the Judiciary system of India

Law and order within the state is maintained through the administration of

justice, which is considered as one of the greatest pillars of any government. The

securities of the citizens depend on the prompt, efficient and impartial

administration of justice. It is the judiciary which acts as the guardian of every

private, civil right and the judiciary consists of the magistrates and judges charged

with the function of administration of justice.

In early times, the function of the administration of justice was done by

some social associations like church, guild and panchayat or by influential

landlords etc. In modern times the administration of justice became an exclusive

function of the state. The chief functions of the judiciary are, to ascertain and

decide upon rights, to punish criminals and protect the innocent from injury and

usurpation. Thus the nature of judicial function demands that the judges ought to

possess great legal acumen, faithfulness to the Constitution, firmness of character

and above all honesty and independence.

In the judicial system of every country there are generally two sets of

courts namely civil and criminal. The civil courts have a Supreme Court at the

head and also criminal courts. Below the highest court there are lower courts with

definite jurisdiction.

2.4.3. Functions

a) The first and foremost function of the courts is administration of justice. The

judiciary is to hear and decide cases- civil, criminal and constitutional- in

which the parties involved in dispute present their arguments. In accordance

42

Noteswith the recognized procedure, namely, production of evidence,

examination of witnesses etc. the courts determine the facts of a case. Once

the facts are ascertained the courts are simply to apply the appropriate law

and give a decision.

b) Though legislation is the work of the legislatures, the- courts also legislate

in a different way. Very often the judges find it difficult to select the

appropriate law for application to a particular case. Owing to the ambiguity

of language, the meaning of law may not be very clear. The judges are then

called upon to decide what the original intention of the legislature was.

More importantly, a new situation may arise which is not covered by

existing laws. In such an event it is the duty of the judges to call for a

judicial legislation. Such judicial legislation is characteristic of common law

in states like Great Britain. They are called as case-laws in other countries.

c) In a federation the courts play the role of an independent and impartial

umpire between the central and state (regional) governments. As a fed-

eration involves division of powers between a central government and

number of state governments each of which is supreme within its own

sphere, the courts are charged with the work of interpreting the provisions of

the Constitution wherever there arises a dispute between the two

governments. The courts are to see that the governments work within their

constitutional limits and respect them.

d) The Judiciary in some countries also takes part in the administration of law

as it is called upon to give an authoritative interpretation of the law in the

absence of any actual dispute. Thus, in India and Canada, the Supreme

Court may give advisory opinions on constitutional questions which would

enable the executive to settle constitutional issues before administrative

enforcement of legislation starts.

43

Notese) The courts are also found to perform certain miscellaneous functions which

are strictly speaking non-judicial in character. Thus for instance the courts

sometimes grant licenses of deceased persons and appoint receivers.

f) The most controversial functions of the courts lies in their power of judicial

review. It refers to judicial competence to review executive orders and of

legislative enactments. This unique power of the courts originates in the

United States of America and has its best form there. It is also found in

lesser forms in countries like India, West Germany, Italy, Australia and

South Africa.

In India, the Constitution is supreme and all the governments operate under

the authority of the Constitution. Therefore if any institution transgresses the

limits set by the Constitution, the courts would have the power to examine such

acts. Any action either by the legislature or by the executive in contravention of

the provisions of the chapter on fundamental rights can be declared void. The

scope of judicial review in India is, however, limited. The Supreme Court of India

while interpreting a law will not itself legislate. It will not question the

reasonableness of any law except where the constitution has expressly authorised

the court to exercise the power. Normally, it works according to procedure

established by law.

2.5. PRESSURE GROUPS

A pressure group is a group of like-minded people who seek to influence

(put pressure on) government on a particular issue. They do not seek power

through being elected.

2.5.1. What are pressure groups?

Organizations of people who believe in the same cause

They have strongly held views and wish to influence some aspect of

society44

Notes Groups of people working together usually have more effect than

individuals

2.5.2. What rights do pressure groups have?

They have the right to criticize the government

They have the right to hold meetings

They have the right to protest

They have the right to make their views known by using the media

2.5.3. What responsibilities do pressure groups have?

They have the responsibility to base their criticism on fact

Meetings should be peaceful and legal

They should inform the local authorities and the police when they are

making a protest

They have a responsibility not to intimidate

2.5.4. What methods do pressure groups use?

Internet - email and web sites

Letters

Lobbying

Petitions

Demonstrations

Mass media campaigns (T.V., radio and newspapers)

2.5.5. What are some pressure groups?

Shelter - aim to help homeless people

Amnesty international - defends human rights

Greenpeace - campaigns on environmental issues

CBI (Confederation of British Industry) - promotes business interests

TUC (Trade Unions) - promotes workers interests

ASH (Action on Smoking Health) - anti-smoking group

FORREST - pro smoking group

45

Notes

2.5.6. Functions of Pressure groups

Promote discussion and debate and mobilise public opinion on key issues

Perform a role in educating citizens about specific issues

Groups can enhance democratic participation, pluralism and diversity

Groups raise and articulate issues that political parties perhaps won't touch

because of their sensitivity

They provide an important access point for those seeking redress of

grievance

They represent minorities who cannot represent themselves

Groups can be an important and valuable source of specialist information /

expertise for an overloaded legislature and civil service

Many groups play an important role in implementing changes to public

policy

Pressure groups encourage a decentralization of power within the political

system.

They act as a check and balance to the power of executive government

2.5.7. The Role of Pressure Group

Pressure groups are organisations of people who all believe in the same

cause. Whether it is a sectional group, campaigning for personal gain, or a cause

group, working towards a specific cause, they all possess strongly held views and

wish to influence some aspect of society.

Pressure groups try to gain public support and sympathy for their cause in

the hope that they will influence people's decisions or lives, depending on the

issue they are focusing on, usually this is done via the media and especially

nowadays, the internet. Other than this, the most common methods they tend to

use involve carrying out petitions, distributing leaflets or information, and creating

newspaper articles or adverts.

46

NotesSome Pressure groups employ professional lobbyists to speak to MP's on

the groups behalf. Often pressure groups employ the heavy responsibility of

speaking out for and representing the less privileged in society, they listen to

people's problems and try to persuade the Government to solve these issues on

their behalf.

2.5.8. Role and function of Pressure Groups in India

Pressure groups are the interest groups which work to secure certain

interest by influencing the public policy. They are non-aligned with any political

party and work as indirect yet powerful group to influence the decision. Pressure

groups are the interest groups which try to secure their interests by influencing the

formulation and administration of public policy. They referred to as Civil Society

Organization (CSO). They are non-partisan organization which attempt to

influence some phases of public life. The role of pressure group is indirect,

ordinarily, invisible and intermittent yet very important part of administrative

system. The emergence of trusts and monopolies and the struggle over tariffs led

to the formation of pressure group. Pressure group is a living public behind the

parties. Pressure group role is as vital as that of political party existing in any

country.

From the views of the experts:

Finner has characterized pressure group as anonymous empire.

Richard.D.Lambert views it as an unofficial government.

V.O.Key has defined Pressure group as a private associations formed to

influence public policy. Pressure group act outside political party and there

is vast difference between the two.

2.5.9. Difference between political party and pressure group

47

NotesPolitical party and pressure group both very important in decision making

of the various policies and exists along with political parties in every nation but

there is vast difference between the two. The major difference between political

parties and pressure groups are as follows-

Pressure group is the public body acting behind the political party(outside

political party) where as political parties constitutes government

Pressure group act is indirect as well as intermittent. They try to influence

and pressurize the government to get their demand fulfilled. They do not

intervene directly where as Political parties act directly, they are legally

entitled to frame policies and take decision concerning the country.

Pressure groups pressurize executive and legislature to achieve its aim

where as Political-party bring co-ordination in the working of executive

and legislature.

pressure group uses both conventional and non-conventional means to

demonstrate their demands where as Political parties use only

constitutional means to execute its duties and functions

Pressure group works for self interest, they emerges and dissolves as per

the need of certain groups where as Political party works for national

interests and not merely for any certain group or objective.

Pressure group emerges and dissolves where as political parties are

recognized by election commission.

2.5.10. Pressure groups in India

In India Political parties and pressure groups together play a big role in the

struggle of power. In India pressure group arose even during the colonial period.

All India trade union congress was the first countrywide pressure group of

working class. India is developing country having scarcity of resources and acute

poverty promoting significant role of pressure group. The aim of this pressure

group was to secure economic and political concessions for themselves. Providing

crucial component of the structural equilibrium i.e. maintenance function

48

Notes

2.5.11. Role of pressure group in India

The capacity of pressure groups id determined by leadership, organizational

abilities, mass media, economic power base and mobilizations technique. Beside

this they are using lobbying method, strike, bandh, demonstration, funding

political parties, using party platform etc. Even pressure group role is indirect it

facilitates many vital roles in administration. The various role of pressure groups

are as follows-

1. Role in legislature -Pressure groups tries to introduce their chosen person

into legislature. They help political parties on the eve of election and

prepares election manifesto.

2. Role in executive -Pressure group tries to fill high executive posts with

men of their own choice i.e. selection of cabinet, distribution of portfolios

and P.M selection due to prevalence of collation government. And

henceforth influences policy implementation process.

3. Role in Bureaucracy - Bureaucrats are politically neutral and hence

pressure group tries to oblige them by putting good remarks that protect

their interests. Bureaucrats have long tenure and so they be in contact with

them to oblige.

4. Role in judiciary -appointment of judges in political affairs and here

pressure groups play important role in that high judicial offices are

occupied by them.

2.5.12. Features of Indian pressure group

The various features of Indian pressure group are as follows-

1. Based on certain interest -The basis on which each pressure group are

formed are the certain interest. Each pressure group organizes itself

keeping in view certain interests.

2. Lack of alignment with any party -Pressure group in India functions in

multi-party system environment. Hence they try to maintain relation with 49

Notesall of them. During 1947-89 pressure group tries to keep good relation

with congress as it was the ruling party in most part of India. Since mid

1990's pressure groups in India try to influence all major national party.

3. Pressure group uses party platform -pressure groups uses party platform to

seek their interest fulfilled. They try to maintain their relation with both

ruling and opposingparty.

4. Presence of political parties sponsored pressure group -In India political

parties always try to organize their own interest groups in various trade,

professions and industries. For example Congress-Youth congress,

Communist party-Student's federation of India, Bhartiya Janta party-Akhil

Bhartiya vidhjarthi Parisad etc.

5. Resulting out of increasing pressure and demand on resources -As

resources of developing country are usually scarce, there are claims and

counter claims on their resources from different and competing section of

society emerging as pressure group.

6. Use of traditional and modern means -Indian pressure group uses both

modern and traditional means. Modern method like lobbying, funding

political parties, introducing favorable person in the legislature, executive

and cultivate connections with bureaucratic officials, traditional loyalties,

caste loyalties, religious loyalties etc are traditional method.

7. Existence of several caste family and religion based groups -Several Indian

pressure groups have been formed for promoting the interest of certain

caste and religion. The All Indian Rajput sabha, The Jat organization, the

Jain Sabhas,Shiv Sena, Brahmin Sabha etc.

8. A counter check on political parties -India is having mixed economy and its

foremost goal is included in planned development. In this context the

pressure group plays vital role and act as a counter cheek to politics and

political parties. For example-acts like MRPT or land reforms.

9. Keep on emerging and dissolving -According to the interest the pressure

group formed and once interest attained the pressure groups may dissolve.

Pressure groups are temporary in nature which keep on emerging and

dissolving after some time. For example anti-sati group, anti-dowry etc.

50

Notes10. More dependent on means of direct action -Indian pressure group depends

more on methods of direct action such as bandh, strikes, gheraos etc.

11. Influence being shifted from negative to positive -In India pressure groups

initially influence negatively as preventing nationalization of rice trade,

food grain, increase in land tax etc. But now pressure groups have positive

influence, it assists government in forming rules. For example wheat

policy of government framed in March 1974 was outcome of positive

efforts and support of all-India food grain dealers association.

12. State acts as pressure group -Constitution under Article 262 and 263 makes

provision for central parliament to settle border disputes and inter-state

water disputes where in the members of every state maintain its liaison

officers in Delhi to maintain its contact and act as pressure group.

2.5.13. Types of pressure groups

Almond and Powell have divided interest groups into four parts-

Institutional pressure group -These groups are formally organized which

constitutes professionally employed persons. They are part of government

machinery and raises its protests with constitutional means. For example

Bureaucracy, army, central election committee etc.

Anomic pressure group -These are the group that have analogy with

individual self-representation. They may be constitutional or

unconstitutional, perpetual infiltration such as riots, demonstration etc. For

example ULFA. Naxalites, Kashmir liberal front etc.

Associations pressure group -These are organized specialized groups

formed for interest articulation but to pursue limited goal. For example

Trade union, student association, teachers association etc.

Non-Associations pressure group -These are the informal groups include

caste group, language group, syndicate, Ghanaian group etc.

51

Notes

2.5.14. Major pressure groups in India

The major pressure groups present in India are as follows-

1. The business group -They are independent of political parties and influence

planning licensing bodies and economic ministers. They help in budget

formulation. For example conference of Indian Industries (CII),

Association chamber of commerce, federation of Indian chamber of

Commerce industry (FICCI).

2. Peasant's organization -It gained power in 1960's. At Central level only one

All India Kisan Congress exists. On territorial basis All Kisan Kamgar,

Akil Bhartiya Kisan Sangh. The Bhartiya Kisan Party(BKP) in western

U.P is most significant.

3. Student's organizations -They pressurize the government on educational

issues and various critical issues. For example All Bengal Student

Association formed in 1928. The All India Student Federation(AISF) in

1936. Student's federation of India, National Union of India, The Akhil

Bhartiya Vidhyarti parishad etc.

4. Community association -They are in context to safeguard respective

religion. For example Schedule caste federation, Backward caste

federation, Vishwa Hindu parishad etc.

5. Linguistic groups -These pressure groups promote certain languages. For

example-Tamil Sangh, Hindi Protection Parishad, Punjabi Sahit sabhas

etc.

6. Tribal (regional groups) -There are several tribal interest groups have been

active in India. For example The United Mizo Federal organization, The

Tribal sang of Assam, The tribal League of Assam, Jharkhand Mukti

Morcha etc.

7. Professional groups -Several professional interest groups like India Bar

Association, All India Medical Council, College teachers etc

52

Notes2.5.15. Media as pressure group

Mass media plays vital role in reveling the various happening of politics

and life of common people all around. In countries such as India the mass media –

the radio, TV, the cinema and the press are very powerful means of social change

and act as pressure group for the interest of common people and reveals the all

deeds of the government. Mass media in its full swing of working can openly

criticize the government and have right to place their view on certain situation.

Further mass media help to generate a common platform which tries to focus on

core issues of the society and its need. So media role is as much important in

influencing activities of the political parties, as that of other pressure group

working to strive certain specific goals. In-fact in this contemporary world media

acts as agent of change focusing on social development of society and hence

media role of pressurizing government given it nature of pressure group which is

of vital importance.

2.5.16. Benefits of pressure groups

The many different interests in society cannot all be encompassed within

the two (or three or four) party system. Pressure groups enable sections of

society outside of the political parties to have their say.

Pressure groups can compensate for the inadequacies of the electoral

system: geographical representation is supplemented by functional

representation.

Pressure groups enable individuals to participate in the political process at

any time, not just every four or five years at elections.

Pressure groups enable specific interests to be identified and articulated

which the political parties may be unwilling or unable to promote.

53

Notes2.6. ROLE OF MASS MEDIA FUNCTIONS IN POLICY MAKING

2.6.1. Introduction

Sometimes called the "fourth branch of government," the mass media

serve a number of functions within the context of government policy making. As

indicated by Fletcher and Taras (1984, p. 208), "politicians need publicity to

promote themselves and their programs and reporters need information and quotes

for their stories." In addition, mass media coverage of policy meets a number of

other needs (Fletcher & Taras, 1984, pp. 194, 208). It gives citizens the necessary

information for "effective political participation" and provides a forum for "debate

on public issues." It helps governments circulate "vital information about public

services--and government accomplishments--while providing opportunities for

opposition parties to criticize government and propose alternative policies."

Governments will also often use the press "to test public opinion by leaking

proposals to a reporter who will value the "scoop."

2.6.2. Functions of the Mass Media in the Policy Process

A policy is a decision implying impending or intended action (Bauer,

1968, p. 21). In analyzing policies, two aspects are generally considered most

significant process (policy making) and content. The mass media are among the

external groups which influence the policy process at its various stages. For this

study six policy stages were identified from four works (Almond & Powell, 1978,

pp. 14-15, 180; Dunn, 1981, p. 48; Jones, 1977, p. 12; Wirt & Mitchell, 1982, pp.

6-7). These stages included:

a) Problem identification (articulation)

b) Policy recommendation (aggregation)

c) Policy decision (adoption)

d) Policy implementation

e) Policy evaluation

54

Notesf) Policy resolution or change.

Communications researchers have analyzed mass media political functions

which correspond to the stages in the policy process. In studying reporter

influence, Lambeth (1978, p. 12) used a five-part framework developed by Jones'

(1977) to structure 10 possible media functions in the policy process:

1. Anticipating problems in advance of public officials

2. Alerting the public to problems on the basis of official warnings

3. Informing the public of the stakes the competing groups had in solving

problems

4. Keeping various groups and the public abreast of competing proposals

5. Contributing to the content of policy

6. Deciding the tempo of decision making

7. helping lawmakers decide how to vote

8. Alerting the public to how policies are administered

9. Evaluating policy effectiveness

10. Stimulating policy reviews.

2.6.3. Role of media in policy making

The news media may be the most powerful entity in all of India. The fact

that the news media is responsible for educating people is what makes it so

powerful. The media can easily sway the opinions of the Indian public just by

choosing what it tells them. It is because of all this that the media plays an

important role in policy making in India.

Policy does not just magically happen. There are many steps to the policy

making process. In theory, there are six stages that a policy goes through before it

is enacted. These stages include

1. Problem formation

2. Agenda setting

55

Notes3. Policy formulation

4. Legitimation and adoption

5. implementation and administration

6. Policy evaluation.

The media is deeply involved in each of these policy stages. One should

note that not all policies follow these exact stages, and some policies do not go

through all the stages.

First of all, the media’s influence in the problem formulation stage is

enormous. The nature of the media is to report things to the public. Because of

this daily reporting the media can bring many types of things to the forefront of

the Indian conscious. This is crucial because when the media begins reporting on

the issues of importance to Indian people the policy makers tend to start listening.

This is what starts the ball rolling, so to speak. The media can also report on issues

that may not seem that critical, and by merely rousing interest it can make a non-

issue a major policy issue.

The next stage in the policy making process is the formulation stage. This

is the stage in which the policy makers decided what to do about the things on the

agenda. The media’s role in this stage is very important, and could be the most

noticeable. During this stage the policy makers try to appeal to the people through

the medium of the media. Politicians tell the media their ideas for a certain policy

and then the media reports it to the people. This relationship is crucial in the

process because it is how politicians tell if their policies are being well accepted

by the people or if they are ineffective or if they make them look bad. The way

things play in the media is of utmost importance to the media savvy politician.

During this stage of the process the media is also busy researching the intricacies

of policies put forth by policy makers. Then members of the media report these

findings in a way that the American people can understand what is going on.

Next is the legitimation and adoption stage of the policy making process.

This stage mainly happens in the legislature and determines what will happen to a

56

Notesproposed policy. Naturally, what happens to a policy is greatly determined by

what kind of media coverage it has generated. If a proposed policy generates

positive and steady publicity there is a good chance that policy will be enacted.

However, if a proposed issue generates negative publicity or if the coverage of

that issue decreases, that policy may not become enacted. Policy makers looking

to round up support or to build opposition, for a proposed policy during this stage

of the process may also choose to use the media. So politicians can use the media

to press their policies through or use it to hamper the efforts of their opponents.

The media can have another impact during this stage. For example, if a proposed

policy contains a provision that will only help a few people while hurting many

others, the media can report that and generate support for a change to the proposal.

During this stage the media’s influence can help gain support for policies, help to

kill policies, or help protect people by exposing negative provisions within a

propose policy.

The media’s role in the next step in the process is a little tricky. This step

is the implementation and administration stage of the policy making process.

This is the stage in which policies are put in to effect and used. The media’s role

here is one of a watchdog. Reporters often investigate how policies are being put

into effect and report to the public. The media’s role in this stage is fairly simple,

they make sure that the Indian people know what exactly the policy makers are

doing.

The final stage in the policy making process is the evaluation stage.

During this stage feedback is sought to determine the overall effectiveness of

newly enacted policies. The media’s role here can be very important by holding

the government accountable. The media is able to do this by showing what is

going on, by researching policies, reporting studies on the policy, and allowing

people to voice complaints about a policy. This is important because if it is found

that a policy is not being effectively employed it can be changed so that it does

work. Basically, in the evaluation stage the media provides the public and the

57

Notesactual policy makers with evidence regarding the effectiveness or ineffectiveness

of policies.

Through all this one can reasonably assume that the media is a very

powerful entity in Indian society. Without the media many people in this country

would not even know what is happening most of the time. In theory, the media

provides an objective view of the policies put forth by the government, and allows

people to formulate their own opinions. However, the media sometimes takes

advantage of the power that it has by skewing facts and sometimes fails to report

on both sides of an issue. Overall, the media does a fairly good job of presenting

both sides of an issue. But if one news source does not report one side of a story,

there is always another news source reporting the other side of the issue.

2.6.4. Media Influence on Public Policy

Policymaking is a political process which is affected by various social and

economic factors (Hofferbert, 1974) and media systems play an integral role in

shaping the social context in which policies are developed. Through the media,

citizens learn how government policies will affect them, and governments gain

feedback on their policies and programs. Media systems act as the primary

channels between those who might want to influence policy and the policymakers

controlling the scope of political discourse and regulating the flow of information.

Textbook policymaking follows an orderly sequence where problems are

identified, solutions devised, policies adopted, implemented, and lastly evaluated

(Mazamanian & Sabatier, 1989). In reality, the policy process is more fluid, where

policies are formed through the struggle of ideas of various advocacy coalitions

(Sabatier, 1991) in what has been described as a policy primeval soup (Kingdon,

1995). The policies, on which the media focuses can, and often does, play an

important part in determining the focal issues for policymakers.

58

Notes2.6.5. Role of Media in Policy Formulation

'Information explosion' as the transformation on the media landscape has

come to be known worldwide has caught the world unawares. It is now globally

recognized as a fourth pillar of state along with parliament, judiciary and

executive.

Gone are the days when governments could hide information from its

consumers i.e. common people and (mis)lead people up the garden path. Now

policy formulation processes are bound to be transparent as media keeps a

continuous vigil. The rise of investigative journalism has added to the strength of

media as a fourth pillar of state. Following points could be instructive in this

regard.

Policies were manipulated in the past to the benefit of the elites because no

information reached people because channels of dissemination of information did

not exist. Whatever sources of information were there were under the direct or

indirect control of these ruling elites. With mushroom growth of media both print

and electronic, information has become easily available for the people. It is not

easier any more for the vested interests to hide information. Thus this has resulted

in transparency in the policy formulation.

The role of media is not just confined to make information available. It is

also to educate people on the key national issues, which are concerned with lives

of common people. Media conducts in-depth critiques, analyses and appraisals by

discussing pros and cons of a given policy of government or any issue in an

impartial and fair manner. In the process, it brings out what is good or harmful for

people. Thus it informs people to oppose or support a given policy. That is how

media performs the role of an opinion-maker. The aggregate result of such

approach is that the governments have to be very meticulous in the formulation of

policies.

59

NotesSince media undertakes critical appraisals of policies in a threadbare

manner, therefore, it performs the role of a national watchdog. If a government

adopts a policy, which is collectively not beneficial, the media can criticize this

policy so severely as to arouse people's opposition towards this policy. So

powerful is this role of media as a watchdog that the governments have to

sometimes withdraw themselves from their stated positions. Therefore this role of

media as a protector of public rights is very important for fair and beneficial

policy formulation.

This role of media as a representative of masses emerges from the above-

mentioned role as a national watchdog. Through a number of methods and

techniques like the columns, interviews, seminars and public forums etc, the

media serves to convey the aspirations of people to the top policy makers who

may otherwise not know them by other available channels.

Media is also a unifier of diverse viewpoints. At a time when a national

policy may not be in accordance with popular appeal but it is in the larger interest

of the country, it does educate the populace about the benefits accruing from

adoption of such and such policy for the country. Such situations often arise on

issues of diplomacy and foreign policy where policy has to be worked out keeping

in view country's strengths and weaknesses not emotionally.

2.7. ROLES OF NGOS

Among the wide variety of roles that NGOs play, the following six can be

identified as important, at the risk of generalization:

2.7.a. Development and Operation of Infrastructure

Community-based organizations and cooperatives can acquire, subdivide

and develop land, construct housing, provide infrastructure and operate and

maintain infrastructure such as wells or public toilets and solid waste collection

services. They can also develop building material supply centres and other

60

Notescommunity-based economic enterprises. In many cases, they will need technical

assistance or advice from governmental agencies or higher-level NGOs

2.7.b. Supporting Innovation, Demonstration and Pilot Projects:

NGO have the advantage of selecting particular places for innovative

projects and specify in advance the length of time which they will be supporting

the project - overcoming some of the shortcomings that governments face in this

respect. NGOs can also be pilots for larger government projects by virtue of their

ability to act more quickly than the government bureaucracy.

2.7.c. Facilitating Communication:

NGOs use interpersonal methods of communication, and study the right

entry points whereby they gain the trust of the community they seek to benefit.

They would also have a good idea of the feasibility of the projects they take up.

The significance of this role to the government is that NGOs can communicate to

the policy-making levels of government, information bout the lives, capabilities,

attitudes and cultural characteristics of people at the local level.

NGOs can facilitate communication upward from people to the

government and downward from the government to the people. Communication

upward involves informing government about what local people are thinking,

doing and feeling while communication downward involves informing local

people about what the government is planning and doing. NGOs are also in a

unique position to share information horizontally, networking between other

organizations doing similar work.

2.7. d. Technical Assistance and Training:

Training institutions and NGOs can develop a technical assistance and

training capacity and use this to assist both CBOs and governments.

61

Notes2.7. e. Research, Monitoring and Evaluation:

Innovative activities need to be carefully documented and shared -

effective participatory monitoring would permit the sharing of results with the

people themselves as well as with the project staff.

2.7. f. Advocacy for and with the Poor:

In some cases, NGOs become spokespersons or ombudsmen for the poor

and attempt to influence government policies and programmes on their behalf.

This may be done through a variety of means ranging from demonstration and

pilot projects to participation in public forums and the formulation of government

policy and plans, to publicizing research results and case studies of the poor. Thus

NGOs play roles from advocates for the poor to implementers of government

programmes; from agitators and critics to partners and advisors; from sponsors of

pilot projects to mediators.

2.8. VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS IN POLICY MAKING PROCESS

In independent India, the initial role played by the voluntary organizations

started by Gandhi and his disciples was to fill in the gaps left by the

government in the development process.

The volunteers organized handloom weavers in villages to form

cooperatives through which they could market their products directly in

the cities, and thus get a better price.

Similar cooperatives were later set up in areas like marketing of dairy

products and fish. In almost all these cases, the volunteers helped in other

areas of development - running literacy classes for adults at night, for

example.

Traditional development NGOs, who went into a village or a group of

villages and ran literacy programmes, crèches for children and clinics,

encouraged farmers to experiment with new crops and livestock breeds

62

Notesthat would bring more money, helped the weavers and other village

artisans market their products and so on.

Research / Advocacy / Legal: The second group of NGOs were those who

researched a particular subject in depth, and then lobbied with the

government or with industry or petitioned the courts for improvements in

the lives of the citizens, as far as that particular subject was concerned. Eg:

CSE

Activists: In the third group were those volunteers who saw themselves

more as activists than other NGOs did. For example,

o They petitioned the bureaucrats

o They alerted the media whenever they found something wrong and

so on. Eg: NBA

2.8.1. Role of the Indian NGO Sector in the Public Policy Making Process

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play a vital role in the

development of Indian society. The NGO sector’s extensive grassroots connection

and involvement in various social service provisions make it a potential ally for

the governments in reforming out-dated public policies. In India, unfortunately the

public policy making process essentially excludes the ‘public’ and is carried out

by politicians in power with the assistance of elite bureaucrats. The NGO sector,

representing various classes of people and interests, plays a surrogate role by

engaging in public policy making.

While it is hard to predict the total number of NGOs operating in the

country due to the lack of systematic records, according to estimates there are

between 1.2 million – 1.5 million NGOs operating currently . A great majority of

the NGOs are small and about three-fourths of all NGOs are run entirely by

volunteers or a few part time employees. About 13% of the NGOs have between 2

– 5 employees; about 5% have between 6 – 10 employees and only about 8.5%

(one in every 12) NGOs employ more than 10 people.

63

NotesIn spite of the limitations in their size and resources, NGOs in the area of

environment, health, education, peace, human rights, consumer rights and

women's rights provide convincing examples of the power of the sector’s action in

social change. NGOs are registered as trusts, societies, or as private limited non

profit companies, under Section-25 of Indian Companies Act, 1956. Section 2(15)

of the Income Tax Act gives them tax exemption. Foreign contributions to non-

profits are governed by Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA, 1976)

regulations and the Home Ministry.

Government Relations: In the initial years after independence, there was

some attention given towards the NGO sector by the Central Government mainly

because most of the NGOs were Gandhian in nature. It was not until 1980 (Sixth

Five Year Plan 1980-1985), the government identified new areas in which NGOs

as new actors could participate in social development. During the next five FYPs,

the government has increasingly recognized the NGO sector’s vital role and has

provided increasing levels of funding. In the past two decades, all levels of the

government have increased their engagements with the sector .

2.8.2. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making

Since the late 1970s, the NGO sector has been playing a steadily

increasing and active role in influencing government policies that affect the

society. Poverty Alleviation Of the nation’s nearly 1.1 billion inhabitants, an

estimated 350-400 million live below the poverty line mainly due to illiteracy and

poor health. Since 1980, many NGO groups across the country have taken an

alternative ‘social action’ approach by politicizing the issue of poverty, directly

challenging many of the social programs established by the government and

eventually shifting the policy base.

2.8.2. a. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making Women’s Movement

64

NotesThe worst of all social injustices and inequalities had been the way Indian

women were subjected to multiple forms and contexts of domination. Since 1970s

women’s movement began to take shape, gradually shifting emphasis from the

critique of gender inequality to issues like gender discrimination at the work

place, unequal wages and the domestic labor. NGOs such as SEWA have played

dominant roles in women’s economic independence. Among the most significant

policy development that these NGOs were able to achieve was the introduction of

33% reservation for women in local, village-level elections.

2.8.2.b. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making Environmental Conservation

The major and most visible effort, till date, of the NGO sector in

influencing environmental policy in the country has been “Narmada Bachao

Andolan” Spearheaded by a few NGOs, this became a genuine people’s

movement and gained support from environmental NGOs from around the world.

The success of the movement resulted in the creation of new policies on

environmental conservation, resettlement and rehabilitation.

2.8.2.c. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making AIDS Prevention

In the last two decades, the spread of HIV/AIDS has taken on an epidemic

proportion. Yet, the Indian government allocated only $38.8 million between 1999

and 2005 for HIV/AIDS prevention programs. Numerous dedicated NGOs have

emerged to provide excellent services in HIV/AIDS awareness education,

prevention and research. Realizing the critical need for these NGOs and their

services, the government invited them to participate in developing health policies

related to HIV/AIDS. Currently these NGOs play an active role by providing

policy guidelines as well as delivering government funded services to HIV/AIDS

patients.

2.8.2. d. Role of NGOs in Public Policy Making Disaster Management

65

NotesThe NGO sector has always been in the forefront in providing recovery,

relief and rehabilitation after natural calamities and disasters such as floods,

droughts, earthquakes and epidemics. The government considered this role of

NGOs as secondary to the public sector’s disaster management policies and

procedures. The sector’s enormous response in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian

Ocean tsunami convinced the government to seek assistance from NGO groups in

developing, coordinating and implementing new disaster management policies.

2.9. Problems in policy implementing process

Integrating NGO activities and government action essentially involves the

"sclaing up" of innovative approaches. Some of the key problems include:

The input of financial and human resources in pilot projects is often too

high to be widely replicable within existing resources. Any single standard

package may not have enough flexibility to be adapted to a wide variety of

specific local institutions and cultural contexts. Often voluntary organizations

have initiated projects with no involvement or low involvement of government;

thus they have not had to deal with the real-life constraints of government

bureaucracy, and therefore, have less credibility. Sometimes there is not enough

community involvement in all the stages to assure appropriateness, cost-

effectiveness, coverage, and continuity. Sometimes the innovative are in too much

of a hurry to establish a large program and to go to scale nationally. Government

officials are often skeptical or suspicious of voluntary agencies.

2.9.1. Key issues in Scaling Up:

1. Getting the attention of policymakers and convincing them of the

usefulness, practicality, affordability and replicability of the approach.

2. Scaling up calls for a different kind of managerial capacity which will be

less personal and informal at the top.

3. Selection and maintenance of staff with requisite attitudes, skills and

motivation.

66

Notes4. Training a sufficiently large cadre of field workers and project officers for

participatory projects.

5. Maintenance of an emphasis on participatory process, rather than the result

alone.

6. Maintenance of accountability to the people at the grass roots by alllevels

of planners and administrators.

2.10. LET US SUM UP


those of a captain of a ship. The executive should be a leader and inspirer of his

broad and an initiator of policies. An executive will try to call the board members

individually, discuss with them the work of the organizations and get their

suggestions for improvement. The two skills of necessary for an executive are a)

He should be able to plan and organize the units or divisions of work and advise

them effectively on democratic basis. b) He should maintain good relationship

with the staff of his agency.

Administration of justice is the primary function of the judiciary. In India,

the Constitution is supreme and all the governments operate under the authority of

the Constitution. In a democracy, the role of judiciary is crucial. Our Indian

judiciary can be regarded as a creative judiciary. Credibility of judicial process

ultimately depends on the manner of doing administration of justice. Social justice

is the main concept on which our constitution is built. Part III and IV of Indian


development of the citizens. Judiciary in India is a balancing wheel of the

federation. It keeps equilibrium between fundamental rights and social justice. It

forms all forms of authorities within the bounds and finally it controls the

Administrative Tribunals. Law and order within the state is maintained through

the administration of justice, which is considered as one of the greatest pillars of

any government. Six essential functions of the Judiciary system of India are a)

Administration of justice. b) Judicial legislation c) An independent and impartial

67

Notesumpire between the central and state governments d).The Judiciary also takes part

in the administration of law. e). Perform certain miscellaneous functions which

are strictly speaking non-judicial in character and power of judicial review.

Pressure groups are organizations of people who believe in the same cause.

They have strongly held views and wish to influence some aspect of society.

Groups of people working together usually have more effect than individuals. The

main rights of pressure groups are the right to criticise the government and the

right to make their views known by using the media. The methods which the

pressure groups normally use are a) Internet - email and web sites b) Letters c)

Lobbying d) Petitions e) Demonstrations. The types of pressure groups a)

Institutional pressure group b) Anomic pressure group c) Associations pressure

group and d) Non-Associations pressure group

The five possible media functions in the policy process are a) Alerting the

public to problems on the basis of official warnings b) Keeping various groups

and the public abreast of competing proposals c) Deciding the tempo of decision

making d) Helping lawmakers decide how to vote e) Evaluating policy

effectiveness. The stages that a policy goes through before it is enacted are a)

Problem formation b) Agenda setting c) Policy formulation d) Legitimation and

adoption e) implementation and administration and f) Policy evaluation.

NGOs play a vital role in the development of Indian society. The NGO

sector, representing various classes of people and interests, plays a surrogate role

by engaging in public policy making. In spite of the limitations in their size and

resources, NGOs in the area of environment, health, education, peace, human

rights, consumer rights and women's rights provide convincing examples of the

power of the sector’s action in social change. The government identified new

areas in which NGOs as new actors could participate in social development. The

areas in which NGOs played a major role in Public Policy Making are a)

Women’s Movement b) Environmental Conservation c) HIV/AIDS Prevention d)

Disaster Management

68

NotesOften voluntary organizations have initiated projects with no involvement

or low involvement of government; thus they have not had to deal with the real-

life constraints of government bureaucracy, and therefore, have less credibility.

Sometimes there is not enough community involvement in all the stages to assure

appropriateness, cost-effectiveness, coverage, and continuity. Sometimes the

innovative are in too much of a hurry to establish a large program and to go to

scale nationally. Government officials are often skeptical or suspicious of

voluntary agencies.



a. How the responsibility of an executive is diversified in a social agency?

b. Mention any two roles of an executive?

c. Mention any four required knowledge to be possessed by an executive

d. List out any two skills necessary for an executive.

e. Mention any three functions of the Chief Executive.


a) What is the primary function of the judiciary?

b) With regard to Judiciary, what is supreme in India?

c) Briefly mention the role of judiciary in India

d) What is considered as one of the greatest pillars of any government?

e) Name the sets of courts in the judicial system of every country.

f) Mention six essential functions of the Judiciary system of India.

g) What are the functions of the Judiciary?


a. What are pressure groups?

b. Mention any two rights of pressure groups

c. Specify any two responsibilities of pressure groups?

d. Point out any five methods which the pressure groups normally use.

e. Name any three pressure groups?

69

Notesf. Write any two functions of pressure groups

g. Mention the Types of pressure groups


a. List out any three stages of policy making process by mass media

b. Mention any five possible media function in the policy process

c. List out the stages that a policy goes through before it is enacted.

d. With regard to media in policy formulation, how is the media globally

recognized?


Mention the Roles of NGOs

Check your progress – 6

a. Briefly bring out the role of the Indian NGO Sector in the Public Policy

Making Process

b. List out the areas in which NGOs played a major role in Public Policy

Making

Check Your Progress - 7

Enumerate the problems encountered by voluntary organizations in policy

implementing process.

2.12. SUGGESTED READINGS

Bauer, R. A., & Gergen, K. J. (Eds.). (1968), The study of policy formation.

New York: Free Press.

Dunn, W. N. (1981), Public policy analysis: An introduction. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

70

NotesElizabeth A.Segal (2010), Social Welfare Policy and Social Programs: A

Values Perspective, Edition 2, Publisher - Cengage Learning.

Hofferbert, R. I. (1974), The study of public policy. Indianapolis: Bobbs-

Merrill.

Joel Blau (2004), The Dynamics of Social Welfare Policy, Oxford University

Press, New York.

John Hudson and Stuart Lowe (2007), Understanding the Policy Process,

Rawat Publications.

Jones, C. O. (1977), An introduction to the study of public policy (2nd ed.).

Boston: Duxbury.

Key, V. O. (1958), Politics, parties, and pressure groups. New York: Crowell.

Paletz, D. L. & R. M. Entman (1981), Media, power, politics. New York: The

Free Press.

Wheeler, M. C. (1997), Politics and the mass media. Cambridge, Mass.:

Blackwell Press.

2.13 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS


a. How the responsibility of an executive is diversified in a social agency?


those of a captain of a ship.

b. Mention any two roles of an executive?

i. The executive should be a leader and inspirer of his broad and an

initiator of policies.

71

Notesii. An executive will try to call the board members individually, discuss

with them the work of the organizations and get their suggestions for

improvement.

c. Mention any four required knowledge to be possessed by an executive

i. An executive should be a professionally trained person with

experience of working with people and should have knowledge of

basic principles of social work.

ii. He should have knowledge of community resources.

iii. He should have knowledge of processes of evaluation

iv. He must be conversant with principles of administration

d. List out any two skills necessary for an executive

i. He should be able to plan and organize the units or divisions of

work and advise them effectively on democratic basis.

ii. He should maintain good relationship with the staff of his agency.

e. Mention any three functions of the Chief Executive

i. He secures and maintains office and field staff for implementing

agency’s purpose and convenes their meetings periodically.

ii. He assists the board in policy making, programmes-planning,

evaluation and maintaining public relations

iii. He assists the elected office bearers in discharge of their functions

individually.


a. What is the primary function of the judiciary?

Administration of justice is the primary function of the judiciary.

b. With regard to Judiciary, what is supreme in India?

72

NotesIn India, the Constitution is supreme and all the governments operate under

the authority of the Constitution.

c. Briefly mention the role of judiciary in India?

In a democracy, the role of judiciary is crucial. Our Indian judiciary can be

regarded as a creative judiciary. Credibility of judicial process ultimately

depends on the manner of doing administration of justice. Social justice is

the main concept on which our constitution is built. Part III and IV of Indian


development of the citizens. Judiciary in India is a balancing wheel of the

federation. It keeps equilibrium between fundamental rights and social

justice. It forms all forms of authorities within the bounds and finally it

controls the Administrative Tribunals.

d. What is considered as one of the greatest pillars of any government?

Law and order within the state is maintained through the administration of

justice, which is considered as one of the greatest pillars of any government.

e. Name the sets of courts in the judicial system of every country.

In the judicial system of every country there are generally two sets of courts

namely civil and criminal.

f. Mention Six essential functions of the Judiciary system of India

i. Administration of justice

ii. Judicial legislation

iii. An independent and impartial umpire between the central and state

governments.

iv. The Judiciary also takes part in the administration of law

v. Perform certain miscellaneous functions which are strictly speaking

non-judicial in character.

vi. Power of judicial review.

73

Notesg. What are the functions of the Judiciary?

i. Judicial Functions

ii. Law-making Functions

iii. Guardianship of the Constitution

iv. Advisory Jurisdiction

v. Protector of the Fundamental Rights

vi. Supervisory Function

vii. Non-Judicial Function


h. What are pressure groups?

Organizations of people who believe in the same cause. They have

strongly held views and wish to influence some aspect of society . Groups

of people working together usually have more effect than individuals

i. Mention any two rights of pressure groups

i. They have the right to criticise the government

ii. They have the right to make their views known by using the media

j. Specify any two responsibilities of pressure groups?

i. They have the responsibility to base their criticism on fact

ii. They should inform the local authorities and the police when they

are making a protest

k. Point out any five methods which the pressure groups normally use.

i. Internet - email and web sites

ii. Letters

iii. Lobbying

iv. Petitions

v. Demonstrations

74

Notesl. Name any three pressure groups?

i. Shelter - aim to help homeless people

ii. Amnesty international - defends human rights

iii. Greenpeace - campaigns on environmental issues

m. Write any two functions of pressure groups

i. Promote discussion and debate and mobilise public opinion on key

issues

ii. Perform a role in educating citizens about specific issues

n. Mention the Types of pressure groups

i. Institutional pressure group

ii. Anomic pressure group

iii. Associations pressure group

iv. Non-Associations pressure group


e. List out any three stages of policy making process by mass media

i. Problem identification (articulation)

ii. Policy recommendation (aggregation)

iii. Policy decision (adoption)

f. Mention any five possible media function in the policy process

i. Alerting the public to problems on the basis of official warnings

ii. Keeping various groups and the public abreast of competing

proposals

iii. Deciding the tempo of decision making

iv. Helping lawmakers decide how to vote

v. Evaluating policy effectiveness

75

Notesg. List out the stages that a policy goes through before it is enacted.

i. Problem formation

ii. Agenda setting

iii. Policy formulation

iv. Legitimation and adoption

v. implementation and administration

vi. Policy evaluation.

h. With regard to media in policy formulation, how is the media globally

recognized?

It is now globally recognized as a fourth pillar of state along with

parliament, judiciary and executive.


Mention the Roles of NGOs

i. Development and Operation of Infrastructure

ii. Supporting Innovation, Demonstration and Pilot Projects

iii. Facilitating Communication

iv. Technical Assistance and Training:

v. Research, Monitoring and Evaluation

vi. Advocacy for and with the Poor


a. Briefly bring out the role of the Indian NGO Sector in the Public Policy

Making Process

NGOs play a vital role in the development of Indian society. The NGO

sector, representing various classes of people and interests, plays a

surrogate role by engaging in public policy making. In spite of the

limitations in their size and resources, NGOs in the area of environment,

health, education, peace, human rights, consumer rights and women's rights

76

Notesprovide convincing examples of the power of the sector’s action in social

change. The government identified new areas in which NGOs as new actors

could participate in social development.

b. List out the areas in which NGOs played a major role in Public Policy

Making

i. Women’s Movement

ii. Environmental Conservation

iii. AIDS Prevention

iv. Disaster Management

Answers to Check Your Progress - 7

Enumerate the problems encountered by voluntary organizations in policy

implementing process

Often voluntary organizations have initiated projects with no involvement or low

involvement of government; thus they have not had to deal with the real-life

constraints of government bureaucracy, and therefore, have less credibility.

Sometimes there is not enough community involvement in all the stages to assure

appropriateness, cost-effectiveness, coverage, and continuity. Sometimes the

innovative are in too much of a hurry to establish a large program and to go to

scale nationally. Government officials are often skeptical or suspicious of

voluntary agencies.

77

Notes

UNIT – 3

SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION

PLAN OF STUDY

3.1 Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Concepts of Social Welfare

3.3.1 Definitions of Social Welfare Administration

3.3.2. Definition of Social Work Administration

3.3.3. Nature /Aims / Scope of Social Work Administration

3.3.4. Definitions of Social Welfare

3.3.5. Social Welfare is centered on two basic concepts

3.4. Characteristics of Social Welfare Administration

3.4.1. Principles of Social Work Administration

3.4.2. Functions and Scope of Social Welfare Administration

3.5. Organizational structure

3.5.1. Introduction

3.5.2. Board Functions

3.5.3. Mandate and working methods of NGO board members

3.5.4. Qualifications and criteria for selection of NGO board member

3.5.5. Composition of a Board

3.5.6. NGO Board member

3.5.7. Board’s responsibilities

3.6. Planning

3.6.1. The need for planning

3.6.2. Planning after analyzing

78

Notes3.6.3. Key lessons for strategic planning in an NGO

3.7. Decision Making

3.8. Coordination

3.8.1. Introduction and the rationale of Coordination

3.8.2. Definition

3.8.3. Principles of coordination

3.8.4. Objects of coordination

3.8.5. Levels of coordination

3.8.6. Methods and procedures of Coordination

3.8.7. Coordination councils

3.8.8. Constitution

3.8.9. Functions

3.9. Communications

3.9.1. The Importance of Communication in Social Work Administration

3.9.2. Effective Communication

3.9.3. Kinds of Communication

3.9.4. Non-verbal communication

3.9.5. Channels of non-verbal communication

3.9.6. Verbal communication

3.9.7. The role of communication

3.10. Let Us Sum Up

3.11. Check Your Progress


3.13 Check your Answers

79

Notes3.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the students will be able to understand Social

Work Administration, its meaning and purpose, organizational structure, functions

and qualities and finally students would be enabled to understand thoroughly how

an administration works in a group process after learning the administrative

process such as policy formation, planning, decision making, coordination and

communication in non-governmental organizations.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

During early times, social welfare functions were performed by a few

individuals or groups of individuals motivated by compassion and concern for the

poor, the needy and the destitute. These people were laymen, embodied with the

qualities of humanism and selfless service to the community. But in modern times,

most of the countries have adopted the concept of a welfare state instead of a

police state. The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences describes a welfare state as a

state which takes up the responsibility to provide a minimum standard of

subsistence to its citizens. Prof. Kent remarked that by a welfare state we mean a

state which provides extensive services to the people. Thus, in a welfare state, the

administration enters into economic, political, social and educational life of

individuals. And it provides services to individuals, right from an individual’s

birth to death. The state is to serve the old, sick, orphans, widows, helpless,

oppressed and the disabled people whenever they are in need of services.

In the context of the present day social problems, the size of welfare

services provided by an increasingly large number of organisations make

administration very important. Social welfare services, schemes, projects and

programmes, are becoming increasingly complex. Since it is no longer accepted

that any normally intelligent person with good intentions can administer the

welfare work, a sound administration is vital. It is increasingly realized that social

80

Noteswelfare programmes require qualified and trained social welfare personnel to

perform social welfare functions efficiently.

For serving the people effectively it is necessary to professionalize, as

professionalization can increase the ability of social welfare personnel to solve the

pressing social problems confronting our society.

To achieve the aims and objectives of social welfare, the government

formulates social policies and programmes and in pursuance thereof enacts social

legislation, allocates financial assistance and provides organisational and

administrative linkages in the form of ministries and departments. It also seeks the

partnership of non-governmental organisations for the effective implementation of

various social welfare programmes. Administration of all these activities being

undertaken in the sphere of social services and social welfare is considered as

falling in the realm of social welfare administration.

3.3. CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL WELFARE: UNITED NATIONS 1967:

“Social welfare as an organized function is regarded as a body of activities

designed to enable individuals, families, groups and communities to cope with the

social problems of changing conditions. But in addition to and extending beyond

the range of its responsibilities for specific services, social welfare has a further

function within the broad area of a country's social development. In this larger

sense, social welfare should play a major role in contributing to the effective

mobilization and deployment of human and material resources of the country to

deal successfully with the social requirements of change, thereby participating in

nation-building.”

3.3.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION

Social Welfare administration is aimed at, comprising policies and laws,

that are operational by organized activities of voluntary (private) and / or govern

81

Notesmeant (public)agencies, by which a defined minimum of social services, money

and other consumption rights are distributed to individuals, families and groups,

by criteria other than those of their place or those prevailing in the family system,

for the purpose of preventing, alleviating or contributing to solution of recognized

social problems so as to improve the well being of the individuals, groups and

communities directly.

3.3.2. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION

Social Work is a professional and academic discipline committed to the

pursuit of social justice and human rights. The field works towards research and

practice to improve the quality of life and to the development of the potential of

each individual, group and community of a society. Social workers perform

interventions through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice and

teaching. Research is often focused on areas such as human development, social

policy, public administration, program evaluation and international and

community development.

3.3.3. NATURE /AIMS / SCOPE OF SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION

Social Work Administration is a highly respected which has provided

timely, relevant information to human services administrators and

educators.

The practice and research, with special attention given to the relationship

between social administration and social policy planning.

As totally dedicated to this part of the field, Administration in Social Work

delivers suggestions for improving management in social agencies

including program development, positive action, employment and

personnel policies, finances and accounting, quality improvement/control,

monitoring.

Special social services in the workplace

Human services integration

Organizational change and development in human service organizations

82

Notes Community organization and social administration,

Efficiency and the social services,

Administrative leadership in the social services,

Alternative social agencies,

Managing for service effectiveness in social welfare organizations,

Practical issues in social welfare administration are policy and planning,

applying computers in social service and mental health agencies - a guide to

selecting equipment procedures, and strategies, guide to ethical decisions and

actions for social service administration.

3.3.4. DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL WELFARE:

Social Welfare is an institution, comprising policies and laws, that are

operationalized by organized activities of voluntary (private) and / or

government (public) agencies, by which a defined minimum of social

services, money and other consumption rights are distributed to

individuals, families and groups, by criteria other than those of the market

place or those prevailing in the family system, for the purpose of

preventing, alleviating or contributing to solution of recognized social

problems so as to improve the well being of the individuals, groups and

communities directly.

Social Welfare …. Organized provision of resources and services for the

society to deal with social problems.

Social Welfare: All social interventions that are intended to enhance or

maintain the social functioning of human beings may be defined as social

welfare—Ralph Dolgoff.

83

Notes All collective interventions to meet certain needs of the individual and / or

to serve the wider interests of society is called as social welfare -Richard

Titmuss.

In a narrow sense, social welfare includes those non-profit functions of

society, public or voluntary, that are clearly aimed at alleviating distress

and poverty or ameliorating the conditions of causalities of society.

Social Welfare includes all programs whose explicit purpose is to protect

adults and children from the degradation and insecurity of ignorance,

illness, disability, unemployment and poverty --Amy Gutmann

Social Welfare generally denotes the full range of organized activities of

voluntary and governmental organizations that seek to prevent, alleviate or

contribute to the solution of recognized social problems or to improve the

well being of individuals, groups and communities. –NASW

Social Welfare is a system of laws, Programs, benefits and services which

strengthen or assure provision for meeting social needs recognized as basic

for the welfare of the population and for functioning of the social order -

Elizabeth

3.3.5. Social Welfare is centered on two basic concepts

a) Social Problem

b) Ways in which the Society responds to its problem (Related to policy,

legislation, procedure etc).

Social Welfare/Work Administration is the process of transforming

social polices into social services.

84

Notes

Social Welfare Administration is the process of efficiently providing

resources and services to meet the needs of the individuals, families,

groups and communities to facilitate social relationship and adjustment

necessary to social functioning.

Social Welfare/work Administration may be thought of as the action of

staff members who utilize social processes to transform social policies of

agencies into the delivery of social services.

3.4. Characteristics of Social Welfare Administration

1. Social Welfare Managers are routinely confronted with moral dilemmas

that require ethically defensible decisions.

2. Management practice in the human services requires attention to

mediation, reconciling, and influencing the preferences and expectations of

external constituencies.

3. Social Welfare Mangers advocate for stigmatized, disvalued groups to

mobilize public sentiment and resources.

4. Social Welfare Managers collaborate with other agencies to mobilize and

focus resources on a common clientele to achieve the benefits of an

enlarged pool of specialists and improve cooperation.

5. Social Welfare Managers articulate values and goals that inspire the moral

commitment of supporters, staff and volunteers.

6. Social Work Managers seek measures of organizational performance that

are responsive to standards of accountability imposed by funding and

policy bodies while attempting to reconcile these with available resources,

85

Notesthe unpredictable efficacy of service technologies, and the preferences of

service providers and consumers.

7. Social Welfare Managers seek to develop supportive and empowering

processes in the agency to build commitment and ownership and to

maintain a climate conducive to psychological and physical health.

8. Social Welfare Managers must maintain some control of their programs

even while they can’t be in control of them.

9. Because consumers of human services are active participants in the service

experience and are largely responsible for the changes that are sought, the

social welfare manager must attend to how they can be directly engaged in

the choice or means and outcomes of service delivery.

3.4.1. Principles of Social Work Administration

a) Acceptance: Leaders and staff members are encouraged to accept one

another and to act accordingly. This does not rule out criticism and

evaluation and suggestions for improvement but does mean that all staff

members feel a basic security as individuals, with rights as well as

responsibilities.

b) Democratic involvement in formulation of agency polices and

procedures: This implies participative management to perform better.

c) Open communication: This indicates sharing of ideas and feelings within

the agency; acting and reacting with honesty and integrity.

86

NotesPrinciples as explained by Trecker

a) The Principle of Social Work Values: The values of the profession are

the foundation upon which services are developed and made available to

persons who need them.

b) The Principle of community and client needs: The need of the

community and the individuals within it are always the basis for the

existence of social agencies and the provision of programs.

c) The Principle of agency purpose: The social purpose of the agency must

be clearly formulated, stated, understood and utilized.

d) The principle of cultural setting: The culture of the community must be

understood in as much as it influences the way needs are expressed and the

way services are authorized, supported, and utilized by the people who

need them.

e) The Principle of purposeful relationship: Effective purposeful working

relationship must be established between the administrator, the board, the

staff and the constituency.

f) The Principle of agency totality: The agency must be understood in its

totality and wholeness.

g) The Principle of professional responsibility: The administrator is

responsible for the provision of high quality professional services based on

standards of professional practice.

87

Notesh) The Principle of participation: Appropriate contributions of board, staff

and constituency are sought and utilized through the continuous process of

dynamic participation.

i) The Principle of Communication: Open channels of communication are

essential to the complete functioning of people.

j) The Principle of leadership: The administrator must carry major

responsibility for the leadership of the agency in terms of goal attainment

and the provision of professional services.

k) The Principle of planning: The Process of continuous planning is

fundamental to the development of meaningful services.

l) The Principle of organization: The work of many people must be

arranged in an organized manner and must be structured so that

responsibilities and relationships are clearly defined.

m) The Principle of delegation: The Delegation of responsibility and

authority to other professional persons is essential.

n) The Principle of co-ordination: The work delegated to many people must

be properly coordinated.

o) The Principle of resource utilization: the resources of money facilities

and personnel must be carefully fostered, conserved and utilized in

keeping with the trust granted to the agency by society.

p) The Principle of change: The Process of change is continuous, both

within the community and within the agency.

88

Notes

q) The Principle of evaluation: Continuous evaluation of processes and

programs is essential to the fulfillment of the agency’s objectives.

r) The Principle of growth: The growth and development of all participants

is furthered by the administrator who provides challenging work

assignments, thoughtful supervision, and opportunities for individual and

group learning.

3.4.2. Functions and Scope of Social Welfare Administration

Social welfare Administration, like any other administration

(Government / business) requires clear objectives and policies and an efficient

organizational structure with precise staff organization, sound methods of

selection, recruitment and promotion of personnel, decent working conditions, and

fiscal accounting and control to guarantee for responsible management.

Nevertheless, there are important differences between social service

administration and other types of government administration.

Social Welfare Administration requires:

Faith in the Philosophy and methods of Social Welfare

Knowledge about social legislation

Familiarity with social work practice.

According to Warham, Social Welfare administrators are supposed to perform

the following functions.

1. Formulating the Agency’s objectives

2. The Provision of a Formal structure

3. The promotion of co-operative Efforts

89

Notes4. Finding and Deploying Resources

5. Supervision and Evaluation

3.5. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

3.5.1. Introduction

For constituting an NGO board, there is a growing need for nonprofit and

non-governmental organizations (NGOs) throughout the world to be more

effective and productive. One of the many ways they are achieving this is by

broadening and strengthening the constitution of their Boards. An increase in the

effectiveness of NGO board itself has been achieved by bringing together

organizations and leaders with a shared interest in the work of boards; building

capacity by training; and developing management and governance tools.

Having a good and effective NGO Board provides a basis for successful

management of its organization; familiarizes its target constituents with the

activities of the NGO; help in better understanding the organizational structure of

the NGO, and also assists in distributing responsibilities among the team members

within the NGO organization.

An NGO Board may be called by different names - 'Board of Directors;

'Steering Committee' 'Advisory Group' etc. The term 'Board' is used collectively

and interchangeably to mean all these names.

3.5.2. Board Functions

How does an NGO board function? What does it do? It first of all, sets

policies and strategies for the NGO, in line with the agreed purposes, principles

and scope of the NGO. It also sets operational guidelines, work plans and budgets

for the NGO and policy and programme support. Many times, it is also called on

to make funding decisions.

90

NotesIt assists the internal workings of the NGO by setting criteria for

membership of, and appointing, review panels and/or support groups. It may also

establish a framework for monitoring and periodic independent evaluation of

performance and financial accountability of activities supported by the NGO.

One of its main roles is representation of the NGO in the larger

community. It represents views of the NGO in various constituencies, or within

the NGO community in relation to outside organizations. It is frequently asked to

coordinate with outside agencies, as well as advocate for the NGO, and mobilize

resources.

Often, the Board is the first contact that an NGO's target audience have,

and in some cases it is the first contact where peoples' concerns are actually heard

- due to the high standing of Board members in the community. The Board's

presence in the field sometimes forces decision-makers to listen to affected

peoples' concerns, and can help to open up alternative solutions.

Within the board set-up itself, an NGO board selects and appoints

chairpersons for the Board, and also participates on committees and working

groups of the NGO.

3.5.3. Mandate and working methods of NGO board members

What is the mandate and working methods of an NGO board member? They

participate fully in all meetings of the Board (including study all relevant

documents in order to provide input in the decision-making process). Many NGO

Board Members are also expected to participate in teleconferences and other

virtual means of communications among Board members, the NGO community,

networks and with the other NGO Board members - especially due to their work

schedules etc.

NGO Board Members advocate the participation of community

representatives in the design, implementation and evaluation of policies and

programmes at all levels of the NGO. They provide input into equitable and

91

Notesappropriate allocation of resources and maintain a focus on issues of importance

to the community and NGO movements in general. Board members also seek

input from the community on key issues related to relevant documents and consult

with and report to the broader community of NGOs and CBOs and people and

communities, as well as appoint advisors for the NGO's programmes and projects.

3.5.4. Qualifications and criteria for selection of NGO board member

Who should become an NGO's Board Member? What criterion is

necessary to select Board members? Based on the Board's functions, including

representing the various constituencies, the process of selection of Board members

(and their designated Alternates) takes several criteria into consideration.

Board members should possesses an understanding of the scope of work of the

NGP/NPO and opportunities it presents; the ability to strengthen the Board's

understanding of NGO and other issues; have experience and responsibility to

carry out tasks and roles of the Board; represent issues related to NGO

involvement in its target issue/area; and represent issues related to the NGO's

target community.

They should also have a minimum number of years in front-line NGO work, and

an ability and capacity to communicate and network effectively and broadly (for

example, they must have functioning communications linkages such as telephone,

fax, computer and email).

Board Members are expected to have the ability to represent and promote the

NGO publicly, as a Board member representing the NGO community; ability to

act within a team setting; be gender sensitive; possess diplomatic and strategic

political skills, including capacity to think and work strategically; possess the

ability to work in international and local languages; and also have linkages to an

organization that can facilitate communication and liaison; and provide

consultation and support.

92

Notes3.5.5. Composition of a Board

An NGO Board usually has 10 to 15 members, with a President, a

Treasurer and other positions designated to specific tasks/issues related to the

NGO's programme areas. The member positions could be rotating and/or

renewable.

3.5.5.a) Length of terms

The length of terms for NGO Board Members and Alternates varies from

organization to organization, but usually ranges from one to three years.

3.5.5.b)Cessation of Appointment

Due to the nature of the work and contribution to the workings of an NGO

board, criteria for cessation of appointment is also usually set out. An NGO Board

Member could cease to be a Member if he/she resigns, he/she no longer has an

employer who is supportive of the time commitment required or he/she no longer

has links to the organizations that secured his/her nomination and/or selection to

the Board; he/she is unable to perform the agreed upon tasks; he/she is unable to

work with the other NGO Board Members as part of a team; or if a conflict of

interest is declared.

3.5.6. NGO Board member

Each Board is made up of a group of individuals who, as Board members,

operate collectively in the interests of the NGO. One of the most vital roles of the

NGO Board is the appointment, training and evaluation of its members, both

individually and as a group.

93

NotesThere are four characteristics of an “ideal” Board member:

a) A team player, but able to maintain independence of thought in critically

analysing business options

b) Prepared to make the commitment of time and effort required to properly

fulfil his or her duties and responsibilities as a Board member

c) Inspires ethical behaviour in others, and whose presence on the Board

enhances the reputation of the NGO

d) Takes a strategic but flexible approach to key issues.

3.5.7. Board’s responsibilities

a) As a group, the Board members have collective legal responsibility for the

governance of the NGO.

b) The Board members are responsible for the oversight of the NGO – the

NGO’s management operates under the direction of the Board, not the

reverse. This does not mean that Board members become involved in

micro management of the NGO. On the other hand, the Board has a

responsibility to set the parameters within which the NGO’s management

will operate, the results that are expected, and the necessary reporting

required for the Board to effectively monitor and meet its responsibilities

to the NGO.

c) A Board member should keep himself/herself fully informed of the legal

responsibilities and types of liability they may face. It is a matter of good

practice for the Boards to ensure appropriate indemnity insurance for their

Board members. However, indemnity coverage is only effective if Board

members act in good faith and with reasonable diligence and probity.

94

Notesd) Specific legal responsibilities will arise from the ordinance under which

the NGO is established. However, there are three broad principles of

conduct that are applicable to all Board members. These are–

i. Duty of care – Board member must attend meetings, be prepared

to make informed decisions by reading the information provided

and requesting additional information if required, and carry out

duties in a reasonable and responsible manner.

ii. Duty of loyalty – Board member must make decisions in the best

interests of the NGO solely, not any group he/she represents, and

never for personal gain.

iii. Duty of obedience – Board member must be faithful to the NGO’s

mission and is not permitted to act in ways that are inconsistent

with the central goals of the NGO.

3.6. PLANNING

3.6.1. The need for planning

NGOs should develop activity plans in discussion with local people and

other collaborators, identifying who would have to do what to achieve specific

goals. In order to contribute to other people’s efforts, NGOs’ activities and

operational goals have to respond to their priorities. Activity plans are only as

good as the dialogue and insight that generate them.

Plans should identify who has a significant influence on achieving goals,

both allies and opponents, and what they are expected to do to achieve them.

Various planning tools provide practical ways of doing this. They all focus on

people, relationships and behaviours.

The tools generate a theory of change – describing how the NGO expects

that its actions will contribute to other people’s efforts. Common theories of

change include NGOs:

95

Notes Providing services that improve welfare,

Building the capacity of organisations to represent people’s interests,

Developing technologies that poor people will use to improve welfare,

Lobbying decision makers to implement policies that benefit the poor.

In each case, results depend on what other people, outside the NGO,

decide to do. They are ‘theories’ as people’s intentions and interactions cannot be

fully predicted. Almost all NGO activities generate unintended results. Plans set

out an initial analysis to be reviewed and improved, not taken as definitive.

The main assumptions and links in a theory of change may be supported

by existing evidence. NGOs can also generate new evidence to test them, for

instance through impact evaluations.

3.6.2. Planning after analyzing

A plan based on analysing ‘who does what’ creates a good basis for

collaborating with different stakeholders on complicated social issues. It can be

used to assess whether stakeholders have the incentives and commitment to

support the plan – a crucial factor for success – as well as for on-going analysis

and accountability.

Analysing a situation is part of the development process itself, helping

people consider the factors that govern their lives and imagine how things could

be done differently. Planning may also include identifying compromises between

different interest groups, such as women and men, different castes, or people

working in different industries.

NGOs also have to develop detailed implementation plans and budgets,

setting out how they expect to achieve the goals agreed in dialogue with others.

Implementation plans are likely to be adapted during the course of a project in the

light of feedback and other new circumstances.

96

NotesPlanning by Logical Framework Analysis: A growing body of research

criticizes how well ‘logical frameworks’ work for planning development

activities. They focus a lot of attention on long term changes, which are out of an

NGO’s control, and tend to be aspirational. They tend to discourage analysis of

different stakeholders’ interests and assume social change is linear and

predictable. They have not proved very effective guides for action and

collaboration, or good bases for accountability.

3.6.3. Key lessons for strategic planning in an NGO:

a) Learn from others: Look widely at the strategic plans of organisations of

a similar size, with similar work or with a similar geographical focus.

b) Consult widely: First with the Board, then partners and then staff

c) Regularly review the plan: Ensure that during the course of the plan,

regular views take place to ensure it remains relevant.

d) Should be practical: Enough to work out an operational plan from it.

e) Publishing and sharing the plan: Once developed, the plan should be

published and shared beyond the board and donors.

f) Process is as important and product

g) It should be succinct and easy to remember

h) It should be contextualized, including to the funding environment

i) Aligned: Making clear choices and priorities

3.7. DECISION MAKING

Before planning and organizing welfare services, the objectives of a

service must be kept in mind. In other words, all welfare services are to be

planned and structured according to the policy of the agency responsible for a

particular service. Therefore, the planning process is closed and related to policy.

In order that services are organized in a particular outline for a group of people on

certain cost for achieving certain goals, those responsible for planning and

implementing services should not only understand, but also associate themselves 97

Noteswith policy making. “In fact four ‘Ps’- Purpose, Policy, Programme and the

Procedure – constitute a series of processes, each dependent on the other and all

dependent on the fifth ‘p’ namely planning. Purposes without programmes are

meaningless. Programmes without policies are undirected. Policy is a support for

a programme.

3.8. COORDINATION

3.8.1. Introduction and the rationale of Coordination

The social welfare activities in India though have a long history, yet

because of large size of the country with changing needs, a number of complex

problems and inadequacy of resources to solve these, it has not been possible to

plan out scientifically social welfare services, even as part of Five-Year Plans.

Since for social welfare services, the country largely depend on the effort of

voluntary agencies, with comparatively smaller volume of services in the state

sector, uneven development of services was inevitable as by its very nature,

voluntary effort is spontaneous and cannot be directed to be channelized in any

specific field or area. Although services in some areas are still inadequate, this has

created problems of overlapping in other areas. Moreover, voluntary effort being

democratic in nature, any attempt of its coordination would have involved external

control, which is the negation of voluntary effort. Cooperation and coordination

involve mutual consent of the agencies. Therefore, though coordination between

voluntary agencies and state agencies is easier, coordination among the voluntary

agencies and the state agencies themselves present some problems. Although there

has been a talk in the county about coordination, yet there has not been much

attempt at coordination.

3.8.2. Definition

98

NotesA process of bringing into logical and organic relationship. It means

adjustment, harmony and cooperation to achieve certain ends. Even the human

body will be in abnormality if all the organs do not function in a coordinated

manner in any normal action. Similarly, in any social organism, lack of proper

coordination between social groups and communities means social maladjustment.

Without social cooperation, a community cannot serve since society implies inter-

dependence. Therefore, if social work aims at proper social adjustment, it is all the

more necessary that there should be proper coordination between various agencies

– public and private, which are providing social services in a community. The new

term given for this concept is networking of agencies.

3.8.3. Principles of coordination

The following are some of the principles of coordination:

1. There must be agreement on the nature of the problem and goal towards

which the agency’s work is to be directed.

2. There must be mutual awareness of underlying principles that is central to

all groups.

3. There must be some kind of procedure and methods to be followed in the

solution of various problems.

4. The degree of responsibility of each unit, pattern of work and assignments

of jobs to each should be decided.

5. There must be an agreement on the time schedule, so that work is

completed to plan at the right time.

6. There must be regularly constituted and regularly utilized channels for

relating and clearing the work of several groups, so that at any given time

each group knows of what other group has given.

99

Notes7. There should be effective inter-group communication in every agency.

There should be good team spirit among the staff and perfect

understanding between the Board and executive director.

3.8.4. Objects of coordination

Some of the broad objects of coordination in social welfare and

development projects are as under:

1) Coordination prevents duplication and overlapping

2) It helps in removing some of the handicaps and bottlenecks in running

programmes and projects

3) It helps in economizing on personnel – both voluntary and paid. It

pools manpower and resources to enrich the programmes. It facilitates

better programmes performance and greater administrative efficiency.

4) Coordination help in economizing on expenditure in meeting social

problems, e.g., multi-purpose buildings, utilizing medical facility in the

community for institutions for children or aged.

5) Coordination also makes it possible for organizations to employ skilled

techniques.

6) It helps in preventing competitive fund-raising, which does not get the

best from the contributing citizens.

7) Coordination also facilitates study of common problems and joint

efforts at their solution including creating public opinion and working

for social legislation

8) In short, coordination improves general efficiency of work in the

organizations.

Coordination is, therefore, a very important factor in social work

administration. A community which spends substantial amounts on social

services, requires an effective method of coordination among various units and

100

Notespersons in the agency and between various agencies in the community, in order to

avoid administrative difficulties, waste and overlapping.

Coordination can be achieved by

i. Instilling dominant objectives among the social welfare workers

ii. Promoting standard of work

iii. Establishing formal and informal contacts

iv. Using groups methods for exchange of ideas and views

3.8.5. Levels of coordination

Coordination is of two types:

a) Coordination within an agency

b) Coordination between various agencies in the community

3.8.5. a. Coordination within an agency

We should first take up the process of coordination within an agency itself.

The meaning of coordination is to bring into common action, movement or

condition, or relate and combine various parts in harmonious balance and

adjustments.

There are various forms of coordination:

i. Between various departments of the agency

ii. Between various sub-committees of the board

iii. Between various sub-committees of the Board

iv. Between the board and the staff

v. Between headquarters and its branches

101

Notes3.8.5.b. Coordination among agencies

Coordination between agencies working in the community are of two types:

i. Functional and

ii. Geographical

i. Functional coordination: Coordination among the voluntary agencies has been

attempted on functional basis, in the entire fields of social welfare. Among the

national functional agencies, a mention may be made of the Indian Council of

Social Welfare and Balkanji Bari, devoted to plan and execute child welfare

programmes through their state branches and affiliated units. In the field of

women’s welfare, All-India Women’s Conference, Bharatiya Grameen Mahila

Sangha, National Council of Women in India and Kasturba Gandhi National

Memorial Trust are working, although, they also run composite programmes for

women and children. Though these agencies claim coordiantion as one of their

functions, they can hardly achieve this, since have no control over their afflicted

units and no hold over organizations other than their branches working in the

field. Hence there is a need for an effective machinery for coordination on

functional basis.

The relationship between the parent body and the branches will be more formal

and based on the rules and regulations framed by the parent body. The

programmes, organisations, techniques, methods and procedure of the branches

are on the lines indicated by the parent’s body. Therefore, there is very little to do

in the sphere of coordination in a relationship like this. The method of

coordination among the affiliated units will, however, be different. In such

category of agencies the relationship between the units themselves and between

the unit and national council will be more formal and based on mutual

understanding and respect for each other’s existence. There will be more of

guidance and suggestions than directions in the affiliated units and uniformity of

methods and procedure among the branches.

102

Notesii. Geographical coordination: Coordination is also necessary among the various

agencies working in different fields in one community or a geographical area. As

it is not possible to earmark a well-defined area to an agency and if there is no

effective method of coordination, some overlapping is bound to arise. Therefore,

there is a need to have coordiantion among all the welfare agencies in one

community, so that existence of one agency is helpful to another in making its

programmes more useful to the community. For instance, a home for children

could get services of a dispensary or a hospital in the neighbourhood instead of

organizing medical services for the inmates. Similarly, a home for unmarried

mothers could utilize a founding home in the community for placing children.

With the development of public welfare in India, coordination is now also

necessary between public and voluntary agencies doing work in the same field or

in same area of operation

3.8.6. Methods and procedures of Coordination

Social agencies also need effective working relationship with other similar

organizations if they are to supplement their own services when needed and if

they are to help supplement the services of other agencies. The inter-change of

experience among agencies has also an important influence on the standard of

services. Adequate planning and coordination of services, whereby better

balanced and more satisfactory distribution of services is achieved, also depends

upon effective interagency relationships.

All the aspects of community planning, fact-finding, programme-

development, establishment and improving standards, coordinating, facilitating

inter-group relationships, education, and public relations enlisting adequate public

support and participation are responsibilities of the agencies which provide as well

as of the persons directly related to welfare councils.

No social agency can live for itself alone. Social agency is successful only when it

considers itself an effective part of the community. In cases, where the agencies

103

Notesare unable to provide services to the community, the services of their agencies

could be made use of. For this purpose, it is very necessary for social welfare

agencies to consult the directory of other social welfare agencies working in the

community or in that particular field, so that it could supplement its service of

other agencies.

Another important step towards achieving is to plan contacts with other

agencies. This may be done by arranging conferences, joint committee meetings

and important gatherings and parties.

3.8.7. Coordination councils

In the western countries, there is a diversity of social problems and variety

of agencies, both public and private. This coordination is achieved by forming

coordinating councils of welfare agencies. A coordinating council consists of a

group of persons representing various agencies in the community and other

members of the community who come together for joint planning, discussion and

common action on common problems.

In India where welfare services – both in public and private fields are

developing rapidly, such coordination is very necessary. All-India functional

agencies and the machinery set up under the central social welfare board are

achieving functional coordination at the national level and state level but there is

no coordination at the local level.

3.8.8. Constitution

A coordinating council has to be independent organization registered

separately with a Board consisting of persons with influence, contacts and who

like to work with the people. The membership to the coordinating councils for

federations should be from among:

104

Notes1. Federating agencies – one from Managing Committee and one staff

member

2. Individuals with skills and qualities of working in cooperative basis

Each affiliated agency should pay some membership fee to the

coordinating council for financing its staff and research projects. Every agency

will remain autonomous without interference in its day-to-day working. Grant-

giving bodies should also give financial assistance for research projects, joint

consultation programmes, and technical and administrative staff of a council.

Coordination pre-supposes certain amount of freedom of work by the member

agency. The agencies have to come together for meeting certain ends. E.g

- Economy

- Running services effectively

- Supplement each other’s work

- Avoid overlapping and duplication

- Pool experience

The process of coming together for some of these ends will be very slow

and full of difficulties. There will be some degrees of suspicion in the minds of the

agencies about the usefulness of coordination. A coordinating council, therefore,

works on smaller and easier items which can show some results and create

confidence among the units and then proceed to achiever bigger projects.

3.8.9. Functions

The following are the areas or fields where coordination could be achieved

by such councils in India too:

105

Notes3.8.9.a. Research Programme

i. Arrangements for research and survey with a view to deciding as to what

types of new services should be set up for solving certain problems.

ii. Referral of clients and groups to other agencies in the community

iii. Studying and evaluating programmes of various agencies to suggest ways

and means of coordination and to avoid over-lapping and duplication.

3.8.9.b. Improvement of standard of services

i. Working out minimum standards of services

ii. Arranging meetings and conferences with experts

iii. Starting some model/pilot projects

iv. Arranging training and orientation courses for the workers of the agencies

v. Providing expert services to the agencies like these of nutritionist,

accountant, social scientist, legal support or engineer

vi. Developing literature and information services for the agencies in the

community

vii. Developing joint-recruitment of staff

3.8.9. c. Fund-raising

In western countries with longer record of welfare administration, there are

different sets of agencies for raising funds and for bringing about coordination in a

community. But these ideas are still new to India. To begin with, we should,

therefore, have only one set for agencies which should work in both the fields of

coordination and fund-raising.

Coordinating councils will pay a very important role in fund-raising distribution

for funds and control over the expenditure or member agencies.

106

Notes3.8.9.d. Business practices

i. Joint budgeting, for the purpose of raising money through community

chests

ii. Helping smaller agencies in maintaining their accounts centrally and

charging nominal fees. This is possible only in case of several agencies

working in the same place

iii. Arranging audit of the accounts of agencies which cannot afford to pay

exhorbitant rate of fees of the auditors

iv. Helping agencies in adopting sound business and administrative practices

and using effective methods

3.8.9.e. Volunteer’s bureau

A coordinating council could also set up central volunteer bureau, enlist

public support and provide volunteers to welfare services in the community.

3.8.9.f. Social legislation

The council could prepare drafts of new pieces of legislations and suggest

amendments to the existing legislation after careful study and revision.

3.9. COMMUNICATIONS

3.9.1. The Importance of Communication in Social Work Administration

Social work also focuses on issues of social policy, social administration

and social justice and the betterment of society as a whole‟ (IASW, 1995: 1).

Effective social work requires a multitude of interconnecting knowledge and skills

backed up by the values, which underpin good social work practice. To be able to

107

Notesprovide a good service the social worker needs to be able to refer to, or call upon a

wide body of knowledge. This knowledge base is quite extensive and detailed, as

Thompson (2000,p73) points out, “practitioners are not realistically expected to

know all of this knowledge base.” However a certain level of knowledge is

essential, for example knowledge of the basics, things such as relevant legislation,

theories and techniques involved in a particular case. Knowledge of society and

the social processes and institutions is also crucial to the role of a social worker, as

these are the very fabric of the profession. No amount of knowledge, on its own,

at least, can be effective without the possession of skills to act upon it.

Community social work requires the social worker to develop a more flexible

approach requiring such skills as recognising and validating skills and

interventions. Traditional social work skills may need to be adapted to fit into the

community context. Network building can also be a part of the process for a social

worker, for example, to bring a group of people together who have similar

concerns but are not in a position to facilitate this formation themselves. 7 In each

of the above scenarios, the social worker must adapt to the different settings and

the number of individuals that may be present and therefore use the most effective

form of communication and tools necessary to communicate at different levels,

whether that involves one person, several people or a large group.

3.9.2. Effective Communication

Effective communication is an essential component of traditional social

work activities e.g. providing basic care, giving advice, making assessments,

counselling, writing reports and acting as client’s advocates. It is equally

necessary for social workers to have effective communication skills if they are to

promote self-help and empowerment.

Verbal communication is what we say and includes questioning, reflection,

focusing, summarising, challenging and confrontation. Verbal communication

involves the use of language. The skills involved in engaging, listening,

negotiating and challenging are equally relevant to communication in work groups

108

Notesand multi-disciplinary teams. Any commitment to the empowerment of social

work clients is meaningless if their views are neither sought nor taken into

account. Silverman (1969) emphasises the importance of a non-judgemental

approach. There are three main areas of knowledge and experience were valued

by clients are outlined by Rees and Wallace (1982), cited in Lishman (1994)

Client’s valued workers who had enough experience of life to listen non-

judgmentally to what they had to say, Client’s valued workers who had enough

life experience to understand client’s problems from their own experience, Clients

appreciated specialized knowledge and training.

3.9.3. Kinds of Communication

Symbolic communication involves behaviour, actions or communications,

which represent or denote something else. As social workers we need to be aware

of the potential meaning of 9 our representation, actions and aspects of our

working environment. For example, punctuality, dress and layout of the

consultation room are all important aspects of symbolic communication.

Proximity needs to be considered in relation to orientation. Sommer and Cook

(1968) explored different seating positions and found evidence which suggested

that sitting alongside a person implies cooperation, opposite a person competition

and at right angles to each other equality of status. Thus sitting behind a desk

directly opposite a client, has distancing and power implications but also may be

confrontational. Although, there are no fixed rules about posture; being too

relaxed may convey power and inattentiveness, being too rigid, tension, anxiety

and authority. As social workers we need to be aware of such subliminal

reinforcement and to use it discriminatingly.

3.9.4. Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication outlined by Sutton (1979) suggests that while

spoken communication is concerned mainly with information giving, non-verbal

communication is the ‘music behind the words’ conveying feelings or attitudes.

109

NotesUnderstanding people or social perception is concerned with the way in which

people form impressions of others and make inferences about the causes of their

behaviour to enable them to predict and control their own social reality,

understanding the causes and motives behind behaviour is Nonverbal

Communication or NVB.

Nonverbal communication or (NVB) is the way in which people

communicate intentionally or unintentionally without the use of words.

Expressions, gestures, posture, touch, personal space, eye contact and tone of

voice are used to express emotions, convey attitudes, regulate and control speech

and communicate personal characteristics. NVB are examined in two ways:

Information processing – how do people interpret nonverbal cues? What kinds of

inferences do we make about people’s intentions based on these cues, Impression

management?

Michael Argyle (1988) suggested that NVB is important for:

a) Expressing emotion

b) Conveying attitudes

c) Communicating one’s personality traits

d) Facilitating verbal communications.

Patterson (1983) suggests that NVB serve a number of particular functions in

social interactions including: Expressing intimacy, regulating the course of

interactions, Exercising social control and dominance.

Druckman (1982) outlined five principal uses to which NVB is usually put:

a) To communicate pre-articulated feelings, feelings that cannot be put into

words

b) To provide clues to information processing enabling us to guess at what

another person is thinking or feeling

c) To serve as emphases in persuasive appeals to enhance our success at

persuading others

110

Notesd) To facilitate deception

e) To convey subtle messages.

3.9.5. Channels of nonverbal communication

Channels of nonverbal communication include facial expression, eye

contact, gestures, touch, paralanguage or nonverbal elements of speech and spatial

behaviour. A number of channels are used simultaneously to send a particular

emotional message. Behaviours sent are intentionally controlled while behaviours

may be received with different levels of awareness. Some messages are received

in full awareness and as intended by the sender, whereas other messages are

deliberately kept out of full awareness and may distort the intention of the sender.

Mehrabian (1972) suggested that NVB’s were important for indicating a person’s

social orientation. Social orientation can be summarized in terms of dimensions;

each dimension reveals some aspect of a person’s intention and motivation for

interacting.

According to Cook (1968) NVB are used to gain fuller descriptions of

individuals when little information is available which we use to fill in the missing

information about people, and guide our behaviour while interacting. One further

way of determining what people think and feel is to try to provide explanations for

why they behave in particular ways to reveal the motives and intentions behind

their actions. This process is referred to as ‘Casual Attribution’ and is concerned

with understanding the reasons behind the behaviour of others.

NVB are intended to provide us with clues to how a person feels, enabling

us to predict and control our interactions with them. When information is missing

implicit personality theories are used to fill in the gaps in our knowledge about a

person.

111

Notes3.9.6. Verbal communication

Language consists of symbols that convey meaning, rules for combining

those symbols that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. People

use spoken sound and written words to represent objects, actions, events and

ideas, and can be combined in an infinite variety of ways to generate an endless

array of novel messages.

3.9.6.a. Written reports and records.

According to Lishman (1994) skilled are learned in action, with practise

and feedback, written reports and concise record keeping enable the

aforementioned to happen. Hargie (1986) acknowledges criticism that social work

records and reports are often ‘lengthy, rambling and anecdotal’ and suggests

‘written reports should be clear, concise and concentrate’ on the important

features of the case. O’Hagan (1986) calls recording ‘a crucial learning tool’. He

argues that after a crisis, detailed scrutiny is essential. Such recoding facilitates

learning and self-awareness by a review of the behaviour, feelings, and

interactions of all participants including the worker. Doel and Lawson (1986)

found that once workers had developed ‘an interactive recording style, using

interview time to record the work, the quantity of written material was reduced

because it becomes more focused.

According to the United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery

and Health visiting (1993) the purpose of written records is to:

a) To provide an accurate, current, comprehensive and concise information

on the client from the initial assessment onwards including a record of any

factors (physical, psychological or social) that appear to affect the client

b) To facilitate continuity

c) To provide a record of any problems that may arise and the response taken

112

Notesd) To provide evidence of continuing assessments

e) To record the chronology of events and the reasons for any decisions may

f) To provide a baseline record against which improvement can be judged

g) To improve communication between all members of the healthcare team

Lishman (1994) suggests that statements made by the client during

interview and subsequent assessments should include the client’s statements.

There is also a legal obligation by social workers to maintain written records, the

onus being on good practice by practitioners.

3.9.7. The role of communication

Communication is a crucial aspect of organizing; each and every

interaction between the people who constitute the organisation is communication.

Communication will be more likely to be good if it has been worked at constantly

and not only in emergencies. McKenna (1991) suggests that communication is not

simply a matter of sending messages to and from between individuals and groups.

It involves being aware of and understanding the experience of other people. This

means knowing about the work they do and their perception of their situation.

According to McKenna (1991) good horizontal communication between managers

and vertical communication between managers and their work force are essential

if role and job conflicts are to be avoided. It therefore appears that while managers

at top and line management levels sees themselves as doing a good job in

communicating with their immediate subordinates, those subordinates do not feel

this is the case.

Effective communication must be two-way. It must run from top to bottom

and bottom to top – vertical communication, and it must flow to and from between

people at the same level within the organisation – horizontal communication. The

so-called ordinary members control much of what happens to horizontal

113

Notescommunication. This is communication between people on the same hierarchical

level in an organisation and involves communication between colleague such has

team leaders, or team members.

Dutfield and Eling (1990) note that effective communication between people

involves skills in:

a) Eliciting information

b) Presenting information

c) Managing the emotional content of the encounters

3.9.7.a. Skills in eliciting information

Questions are the most obvious way of eliciting information in any

situation but they may be formulated in a number of ways: Open questions – give

the other person an opportunity to put forward their point of view without

constraints. Closed questions are more focused and usually allow a simple yes or

no type answers. Specific questions – focus on facts.

3.9.7.b. skills in presenting information

The second step in effective presentation of information involves checking

that the information has been received and understood, an opportunity is given to

ask questions, having a discussion, feedback and asking questions.

3.9.7.c. skills in managing the emotional content of the encounters

Dutfield and Eling suggest that managing the emotional reactions of

people in formal or informal interviews and at meetings. Emotions enter in when

the person gets personally involved. This means that the core part of our self-

concept appears to be under attack. We react defensively. Emotional reactions are

themselves information and as such they take up part of our information

114

Notesprocessing capacity. For these reasons the skilful handling of the emotional

content of communication is important in order to ensure that conflict and ill will

does not result through misunderstandings.

The main skills in managing the emotional content of face-to-face meetings are:

i. Preparing well in advance for interviews

ii. Being aware of one’s opinions and prejudices

iii. Clarifying the nature of the problem in behavioural terms. This involves

the following:

- Separating fact from opinion

- Setting up a suitable place and sufficient time for the interview

- Using skills in eliciting information to get the other person’s views

- Acknowledge the other person’s emotional investment in the situation,

- Stay task focused

- Decide a plan of action for the future with the person once the

emotional content has been dealt with

- Follow up the meeting with a memo summarising the agreement

reached

- Arrange a follow up meeting to review the situation.

3.10. LET US SUM UP

Social administration is concerned with the study of the welfare system

and particularly the government – sponsored social services. Administration is the

process of supporting for facilitating activities which are necessary and incidental

to the giving of direct service by a social agency. Administrative process is also

applied to achieve certain results through professional skills and competitions.

Therefore in various professional and fields like medicine, education, law,

industry etc administration is well maintained.

In administrative process, planning is merely introduction of organized

thinking into the areas of the areas of life which have hitherto been rules by

unconsidered judgments. Planning is a continuous process, planning should not

115

Notescome from top; it should be done at all levels. The success of the various welfare

programmes should, however, depend on how effectively and efficiently these are

implemented, executed by the personnel who are entrusted with the task of

administering them.

The purpose of social welfare administration is to smooth the progress of

combined efforts of a group of persons to achieve some common objectives. An

complete variety of social welfare services directed towards meeting the special

needs of people who because of their weaker and vulnerable position in society.

The agency shall be properly organized, it should have a clear cut distinction

between policy making and execution unity of command. Finally, the agency shall

out itself to the test of self-appraised at regular intervals to take of its success and

failures in the past, its present status and programmes, its performance as

measured by objectives and established criteria, its strength and weaknesses, its

current problems and the next steps it ought to take achieve better performance in

the service of its clientele.


Check Your Progress – 1a. Specify the Concepts of Social Welfareb. Mention any five scope of Social Work Administration

c. Define: Social Welfare according to NASW

d. What do mean by the process of social welfare administration


a. Mention any two characteristics of Social Welfare Administration

b. Write any three principles of Social Work Administration

c. What is required for the social welfare administration?

Check Your Progress - 3a) What are the different names by which An NGO Board may be called?

b) Mention any two or three functions of an NGO Board.

116

Notesc) List out the four characteristics of an “ideal” Board member.

d) What are the three broad principles of conduct that are applicable to all

Board members?


a) Mention any two needs for NGO planning

b) Write any six points for strategic planning in an NGO


a. What coordination should NGO focus on for providing social services?

b. Mention any three principles of coordination

c. What are the ways by which coordination is achieved?

d. Mention two types of coordination?

e. What are the areas or fields where coordination could be achieved by such

councils in India?


a. What is required for the effective Social Work?

b. What is involved in symbolic communication?

c. What are the channels of nonverbal communication?

d. How must be the effective communication?

e. What are the skills involved in effective communication between people?


Biestek, F.P. (1965), The Casework Relationship, London, Unwin University

Books.

D.R.Sachdeva (1992), Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad

David Lewis and N. Ravichandran (Eds.), (2008), NGOs and Social Welfare –

New Research Approaches, Rawat publications

117

NotesElizabeth A.Segal (2010), Social Welfare Policy and Social Programs: A

Values Perspective, Edition 2, Publisher - Cengage Learning

Forder (1974), Concept in Social Administration, London

Hargie, O. (1986), A Handbook of Communication Skills, London and Sydney,

Croom Helm.

Joel Blau (2004), The Dynamics of Social Welfare Policy, Oxford University

Press, New York

Karen K. Kirst-Ashman (2010), Introduction to Social Work and Social

Welfare: Critical Thinking Perspectives, Edition- 3, Published by Cengage

Learning

Lishman, J. (1994), Communication in Social Work, Macmillan Press:

London.

Pandey, S K (2008), Social Welfare Administration, Published by Mahaveer &

Sons

Paul Chowdhry, D (2000), Social Welfare Administration, Atma Ram & Sons,

Delhi, Lucknow

3.13. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS


a. Specify the Concepts of Social Welfare

“Social welfare as an organized function is regarded as a body of activities

designed to enable individuals, families, groups and communities to cope

with the social problems of changing conditions.

118

Notes

b. Mention any five scope of Social Work Administration

i. Human services integration

ii. Organizational change and development in human service

organizations

iii. Community organization and social administration,

iv. Administrative leadership in the social services

v. Managing for service effectiveness in social welfare organizations

c. Define: Social Welfare according to NASW

Social Welfare generally denotes the full range of organized

activities of voluntary and governmental organizations that seek to

prevent, alleviate or contribute to the solution of recognized social

problems or to improve the well being of individuals, groups and

communities.

d. What do mean by the process of social welfare administration

It is the process of transforming social polices into social services

and efficiently providing resources and services to meet the needs of the

individuals, families, groups and communities to facilitate social

relationship and adjustment necessary to social functioning.


a. Mention any two characteristics of Social Welfare Administration

i. Social Welfare Mangers advocate for stigmatized, disvalued groups

to mobilize public sentiment and resources.

119

Notesii. Social Welfare Managers collaborate with other agencies to

mobilize and focus resources on a common clientele to achieve the

benefits of an enlarged pool of specialists and improve cooperation.

b. Write any three principles of Social Work Administration

i. Acceptance

ii. Democratic involvement in formulation of agency policies and

procedures

iii. Open communication

c. What is required for the social welfare administration?

i. Faith in the Philosophy and methods of Social Welfare

ii. Knowledge about social legislation

iii. Familiarity with social work practice.


a. What are the different names by which An NGO Board may be

called?

An NGO Board may be called by different names such as Board of Directors,

Steering Committee and Advisory Group.

b. Mention any three functions of an NGO Board.

i. The board sets policies and strategies for the NGO, in line with

the agreed purposes, principles and scope of the NGO.

ii. It also sets operational guidelines, work plans and budgets for

the NGO and policy and programme support.

iii. It assists the internal workings of the NGO by setting criteria

for membership of, and appointing, review panels and/or

support groups.

120

Notesc. List out the four characteristics of an “ideal” Board member

i. A team player

ii. Prepared to make the commitment of time and effort required

to properly fulfill his or her duties and responsibilities as a

Board member

iii. Inspires ethical behaviour in others

iv. Takes a strategic but flexible approach to key issues.

d. What are the three broad principles of conduct that are applicable to

all Board members?

i. Duty of care

ii. Duty of loyalty

iii. Duty of obedience


a. Mention any two needs for NGO planning

i. Planning provides practical ways of doing the work and for this

focus is mainly kept on people, relationships and behaviours for the

successful implantation of the projects or programmes

ii. Planning promotes a theory of change which is expected by

stakeholders. This change would create ripple effects in society for

the improvement of people and meeting their long-awaited needs.

b. Write any six points for strategic planning in an NGO

i. Learn from others

ii. Consult widely: first with the Board, then partners and then staff

iii. Regularly review the plan: ensure that during the course of the

plan, regular views take place to ensure it remains relevant.

iv. Should be practical: enough to work out an operational plan from

it.

121

Notesv. Publishing and sharing the plan: Once developed, the plan should

be published and share beyond the board and donors.

vi. It should be contextualized, including to the funding environment


a. What coordination should NGO focus on for providing social

services?

If social work aims at proper social adjustment, it is all the more necessary

that there should be proper coordination by NGOs between various agencies –

public and private, which are providing social services in a community. The

new term given for this concept is networking of agencies.

b. Mention any three principles of coordination

i. There must be some kind of procedure and methods to be followed

in the solution of various problems.

ii. There should be effective inter-group communication in every

agency.

iii. There should be good team spirit among the staff and perfect

understanding between the Board and executive director.

c. What are the ways by which coordination is achieved?

i. Instilling dominant objectives among the social welfare workers

ii. Promoting standard of work

iii. Establishing formal and informal contacts

iv. Using groups methods for exchange of ideas and views.

122

Notesd. Mention two types of coordination?

i. Coordination within an agency

ii. Coordination between various agencies in the community

e. What are the areas or fields where coordination could be achieved by

such councils in India?

i. Research programme for the implementation of social projects

ii. Improvement of standard of services

iii. Fund-raising

iv. Best practices

v. Setting up of a central volunteer’s bureau


f. What is required for the effective Social Work?

Effective social work requires a multitude of interconnecting

knowledge and skills backed up by the values, which underpin good social

work practice

g. What is involved in symbolic communication?

Symbolic communication involves behaviour, actions or

communications, which represent or denote something else. As social

workers we need to be aware of the potential meaning of our

representation, actions and aspects of our working environment.

123

Notesh. What are the channels of nonverbal communication?

Channels of nonverbal communication include facial expression,

eye contact, gestures, touch, paralanguage or nonverbal elements of speech

and spatial behaviour.

i. How must be the effective communication?

Effective communication must be two-way. It must run from top to

bottom and bottom to top – vertical communication, and it must flow to

and from between people at the same level within the organisation –

horizontal communication.

j. What are the skills involved in effective communication between

people?

i. Eliciting information

ii. Presenting information

iii. Managing the emotional content of the encounters

124

Notes

UNIT – 4

PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

PLAN OF STUDY

4.1. Objectives

4.2 Introduction

4.3 Personnel Administration

4.3.1. Selection of staff

4.3.2. Orientation

4.3.3. Service conditions

4.3.4. Promotions

4.3.5. Improving staff functioning

4.3.6. Welfare Programmes

4.4. Financial Administration

4.4.1. The rationale of good financial management

4.4.2. Budgeting

4.5. Accounting

4.5.1. Managing Accounts & Finances in NGOs – A Manual for

developing NGO Financial Management Policy

4.5.2. Types of Books and Documents to be maintained for accounts

management in NGOs

4.5.3.. Receipts and Payment Account

4.5.4. Preparation of the Final Accounts

4.5.5. Procedures for fund disbursements

4.6 Book Keeping125

Notes4.6.1 Bookkeeping on Accounting and financial reports

4.6.2. Bookkeeping on Auditing

4.6.3. Bookkeeping on financial records

4.7. Fund raising

4.76.1. Fund Raising Techniques

4.7.2. Methods of Fund Raising

4.7.3. Useful tips for fund raising

4.7.4. Inputs for tapping the available Government Funding

4.7.5. Types of government funding

4.7.6. Fund Raising Realities and Strategies

4.8. Office management maintenance of records

4.8.1. Definition

4.8.2. Purpose of record maintenance

4.8.3. Types of records and maintenance of records

4.8.4. Guidelines for maintaining records

4.9. Supervision

4.9.1. Types of supervision

4.9.2. Purposes and functions of supervision

4.9.3. Conditions of good supervision

4.9.4. Methods and techniques

4.9.5. Do’s in supervision

4.9.6. Don’ts in supervision

4.10 Evaluation

4.10.1. Introduction

4.10.2. The Meaning of Evaluation

4.10.3. Purpose of Evaluation

4.10.4. The Process of Evaluation

4.10.5. Function serves the following purposes

126

Notes4.10.6. Functions of evaluation as mentioned in Paul Chowdry

4.10.7. Principles of evaluation

4.10.8. Types of evaluation

4.10.9. Tools of evaluation

4.10.10. Why is monitoring and evaluation important for NGOs

4.11. Public relation

4.11.1. Definition of Public relation

4.11.2. The meaning public relations

4.11.3. Public Relations and its Key Terms

4.11.4. The Components of Public Relations

4.11.5. PR is multifaceted

4.11.6. Concept of public relation

4.11.7. Objectives of public relation in welfare agency

4.11.8. Need for public relation

4.11.9. Methods of public relations

4.11.10. Principles of public relations

4.11.11. Functions of Public relation activities in NGO management

4.11.12. How important is public relation in NGO?

4.12 Let Us Sum Up

4.13 Check Your Progress

4.14 Suggested Readings

4.15 Check Your Answers

4.1 OBJECTIVES

127

Notes

The main aim of this lesson is to acquaint the students to understand the

concepts of personnel administration in NGOs and financial administration in

NGOs and office administration in NGOs.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

The tasks of government are increasing everyday. Development and

welfare orientations have led to the expansion of government and its

administrative machinery. As the tasks, responsibilities and activities of

organisations whether public or private multiply, the demands on personnel, at

every level, in terms of efficient discharge of their duties also rise. Thus the task

of personnel administration is to, assure a steady source of people who can

contribute to the success of an organisation and meet the growing demands of

development.

Personnel administration is that part of administration which is concerned

with people at work and with their relationships within an organisation. It refers to

the entire spectrum of an organisation's interaction with its human resources from

recruitment activity to retirement process. It involves personnel planning and

forecasting, appraising human performance, selection and staffing, training and

development and maintenance and improvement of performance and productivity.

Personnel administration is closely related to an organisation's overall

effectiveness.

Personnel administration deals with the recruitment, placement, training,

disciplinary measures, monetary and non-monetary incentives and retirement

benefits of the human beings or the personnel within an organisation. It also deals

with the nature of human relationships in an organisation, interaction between the

human beings within an organisation and interaction of human beings with the

organisation. Personnel administration includes all activities and functions relating

to policy formulation, planning, policy implementation, social change and

128

Notesmodernisation, administrative reforms and public relations in an organisation. It

aims at optimum utilisation of human resources in order to achieve maximum

results with minimum wastage of funds and technology.

Personnel administration is variously known as 'personnel management',

'labour relations', 'manpower management', labour welfare management', etc. But

the term 'personnel administration' connotes a wider meaning, it includes both

personnel management and industrial relations. Many a time the terms labour

relations and industrial relations are used interchangeably with personnel

administration but it is always better to distinguish between them. The term

'labour relations' refers primarily to the relation between management and

organised labour. It includes negotiations of contracts with unions. It deals with

handling of differences with unions and business agents. Some organisations have

a labour relations officer or director whose primary task is to advise and assist top

management in their dealing with union representatives. This official may or may

not report to personnel administrator. In an unionised organisation, where there is

no labour relations officer or director, the personnel administrator performs the

task of labour relations officer.

Thus personnel administration aims at:

Effective utilisation of human resources

Desirable working relations among all members of the organisation

Maximum development

Meeting the organisation's social and legal responsibilities.

To obtain these objectives, personnel administration is concerned with planning,

organising, directing, coordinating and controlling the cooperative efforts-of

individuals within an organisation.

4.3 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

129

Notes

4.3.1. Selection of staff

Every person required for the agency should be recruited according to the

personnel policy. The qualification, past work experiences, and the general

background of the person required should be according to the job for which he is

going to work. For all professional work, suitably qualified persons should be

appointed. The best way to fill a position is to advertise the post in the daily

newspapers and call for application.

Sometimes, it may be necessary for certain categories of staff, to make a

reference to the local employment exchange, a school of social work or any other

agency. Some staff also be selected from among the regular staff of the agency by

promotion.

Minimum qualification of age, education, technical training etc. should be

prescribed for each post advertised. No person below the age of 20 years should

be appointed. For all social work assignments, training in social work should be

prescribed as minimum requirements. Every applicant for a post should be asked

to make an application on a prescribed form, indicating his educational

qualification, work experience and other miscellaneous relative to the job applied

for. After the scrutiny of applications, some of the candidate considered suitable

on the basis of their application should be asked to appear for an interview before

the selection committee consisting of members of the board and expert in the

respective filed of work, one or two senior staff members of the agency including

the executive director, or the secretary and the president of the institution.

If initial selection is made by the executive director or the staff sub-

committee, it may be necessary to select three or four names for final approval by

the board. Courtesy requires that those who are not recruited should also be

informed of this fact.

4.3.2. Orientation

130

Notes

Immediately after the staff member joins an agency, it is necessary for the

executive to take him round the agency’s office and or the building where services

are rendered and explain to him the job on which he is employed, the usual hours

of work, introduce him to other people with whom he is going to work, and give

him necessary literature of any relating to the work of the agency including the

manual dealing with the policy and other aspects of the working of the agency.

Regardless of the relevance, kind of previous education and experience, a new

recruit requires a carefully planned orientation period of adjustment to the specific

duties for which he is being employed. Such an orientation progamme should

provide the employee with sufficient knowledge may be imparted to the employee

through conferences with his immediate superior and through group meetings and

discussions with each other agency staff members. As a matter of fact, it is

through contacts with other departments of the agency and other agencies in the

community that an employee grows professionally. Employees should be

encouraged to participate in and provide leadership for staff meetings, inter-

agency meetings and community meetings.

4.3.3. Service conditions

It is necessary to lay down as part of the personnel policy, the terms and

conditions under which each worker has to work. This includes hours of work,

pay and allowances, probations, leave, promotions, resignation, retirement,

punishment, appeals etc. These conditions should be written in a manual and

should be given to a new staff member before he joins.

4.3.3.a. Attendance

Definite number of working hours should be specified for the employees

in an agency. Except for field staff, the working hours of all other staff should be

the same. Every organization should keep an attendance register in which every

employee should sign in the morning when he comes to the office. Those who

131

Notescome late should sign indicating the time at which they arrived. The supervisor

should check this register every day at the time the office opens in order to find

out the absentees. Sometimes it may be necessary to follow up absentees who may

need some help or relief because of illness or some other incidents. This

attendance register is a basic record for preparing pay rolls and therefore must be

maintained regularly and properly. Workers should understand that office hours

mean work from the beginning of the opening hour until the noon break and from

the opening hour of the afternoon session until the closing hour. The supervision

should see that the schedule is followed by the staff. Ordinarily, an employee

should not be expected to work more than eight hours for six working days in a

week.

4.3.3.b. Recess or break

For long office hours, a recess is very necessary. the supervisor should see

that every official is not only enjoying proper recess hours but he actually takes

some time rest during the lunch break, so that the he is ready to undertake his

duties in the afternoon with the same degree of efficiency and freshness with

which he started in the morning. Cases of habitual longer hours of recess should

also be dealt with.

4.3.3.c. Leave rules

Every agency whether public or private must have some definite rules of leave

which should be known to the employee before he joints. Various kinds of leave

are enumerated below:

i. Holidays: In general, all public holidays and local holidays should be

allowed to all the staff. These are New Year days, Christmas day,

Independence Day, republic day, birthdays of Mahatma Gandhi, dussehra,

Diwali, Good Friday and Sundays. The system of half work day or no

132

Noteswork on Saturdays could be adopted by the voluntary agencies, if

necessary.

ii. Vacation leave: In some of the educational institutions there is a system of

annual vacation for about a month or so, when whole of the institution

closes. In cases of admissibility of vacation leave, the amount of other

leave particularly earned leave is allowed at a lower rate rather than the

rate admissible in a non-vacation department. If a worker leaves before

taking vacation, he should be entitled to pay for the annual leave which he

has earned.

iii. Casual leave: Every employee should be eligible for casual leave for

about 15 days in a year, which could be granted on request for short

illness, urgent work, etc.

iv. Sick leave: Sick leave and maternity leave are also necessary. These could

be worked out in addition to the earned leave.

v. Earned leave: In the first year of employment, the earned leave could be

worked out at one day after 22 days of work and in the second year of

employment and subsequently at the rate of one day every 11 days of

work. Earned leave should be allowed to accumulate to the extent of 180

days at a time.

vi. Special leave: Some of the agencies allow special leave, leave on half pay,

study leave, leave to attend professional courses and leave of absence for

studies, etc. The amount and nature of the leave to be granted to an

employee should form part of personnel policy of an organization which

must be approved by the managing committee.

vii. General: every agency should allow at least regular public holidays,

casual leave of 10 to 15 days and earned leave of about one month in a

133

Notesyear. This is a minimum which every employee should enjoy. Some of the

voluntary agencies in India do not have any regular system of system of

holidays or leave, and this is uneconomical. An employee with proper rest

and satisfaction with reasonable terms and conditions of service is an asset

to an organization. In terms of output, he gives more to the agency than

the agency could get through long office-hours without adequate holidays

and leave.

The conditions of work influence health, efficiency, psychology and the

quality of work a person does. Every agency employing workers should therefore,

have minimum standards which should include sufficient office space in a

pleasant attractive building with adequate health, heat, ventilation, toilet facilities,

sanitation, water, rest facilities, fire protection, etc. There must be sufficient space

to provide privacy for work of a confidential nature with clients of the agency and

sufficient assistance.

4.3.3.d. Probation period

Practices vary between agencies and between positions as to the use of a

probationary period. Such a period is regarded as a protection to both employer

and employee. It is recommended that the agency’s employment procedure should

give information on

a) What positions are subject to a probationary period.

b) A definite time-limit for such a period

c) A method by which it may be executed.

d) Evaluation of the probation leading either to confirmation in the

appointment or termination of employment at the end probationary period.

The period of probation varies from three months to a year depending on

the type of employment and the nature of the work. It gives an opportunity to the

employer to decide whether he should continue to employ the person on

probation. The system of long probation period should also apply to the newly

134

Notespromoted employees with proper arrangements for effective and constrictive

supervision.

4.3.4. PROMOTIONS

Every organization must have definite promotion rules which should be

known to an employee when he enters the employment of the agency. Promotion

should be based on educational standards, amount of work experience, seniority,

evaluation of performance and capacity for the new position. Staff members

within the agency should have the first consideration in filling such vacancies.

4.3.5. Improving staff functioning

Every staff can help the NGO to function well by making sure that each

post has a job description – what that person should be doing, to whom they

answer to and whom they supervise.

Job descriptions for senior posts should include tasks at field level, so that

the bosses do not get out of touch. And serious tasks should be shared rather than

all being done by the Director. Good bosses deputise – for example, the NGO can

be represented on a local platform on Food Security by the person who knows

about agriculture, etc.

For example, your NGO has stated goals and a chosen specialization. So

you know what you want the NGO to do. And you need staff who can do it. The

job of the NGO should be reflected in the capacity of the staff and then in the

qualities of the board.

4.3.5.a. Supervision/support of the workers

Most workers need the same things to work well. They need the basic

material things – a salary which will pay for a roof, food, school for the children;

135

Notessufficient job security so that if they work well they will not get sacked; enough

holidays to keep mentally healthy. In an NGO, all being well, they will get

something more – a sense of purpose in doing a job that helps others. But this

feeling does not last forever if the workers themselves do not receive enough

support.

In most organisations, most workers answer to someone, who in turn has

the job of checking what they do. Good supervision reminds workers from time to

time of their purpose. Perhaps each cleric needs to spend a day with a field worker

from time to time, or the NGO could hold an 'Accounting Day':

In some cultures and with some people, supervision in almost wholly

negative, with fear and humiliation used to keep workers as underlings. Not only

is this morally dubious, people treated this way tend to work far below their full

capacity.

A better way is to focus on good work – effort, achievement, support of

colleagues, cooperation using praise and encouragement. Honest praise is a

goldmine that most organisations barely try to dig out. It inspires individuals and

knits team spirit. A good supervisor can also help a worker to understand their

own motivation, their strengths, their weaknesses and how they can improve.

4.3.6. WELFARE PROGRAMMES

a) Allowances: Additional allowances like dearness allowance,

compensatory allowance, rent allowance, transport allowance, etc, should

be allowed to an employee by every agency according to the government

rules prevailing in a particular area. In short, employee should be given

monetary compensation of services which the employer is supposed to

provide because of employee’s nature job.

136

Notesb) Retirement benefits: In addition to pay and allowances, the system of

provident fund or gratuity to be subscribed by the employer and

contributed by the employee roughly 1/12 of the total pay, by each, should

be introduced, as part of the terms and conditions of service which will

serve as incentive to work with a voluntary agency.

4.4. FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

4.4.1. The rationale of good financial management

All organizations need money. Alongside staff, money is the one thing that

takes up most management time. This brief introduction outlines how to take

proper care of your funds. Good financial management involves the following

four building blocks:

a) Keeping records

b) Internal control

c) Budgeting

d) Financial reporting

4.4.1.a. Keeping Records

The foundations of all accounting are basic records that describe your

earnings and spending. This means the contracts and letters for money you receive

and the receipts and the invoices for things that you buy.

These basic records prove that each and every transaction has taken place.

They are the cornerstones of being accountable. You must make sure that all these

records are carefully filed and kept safe.

You must also make sure that you write down the details of each

transaction. Write them down in a 'cashbook' - which is a list of how much you

137

Notesspent, on what and when. If you are keeping your basic records in good order and

writing down the details of each transaction in a cashbook then you cannot go

wrong.

4.4.1.b. Internal Control

Make sure that your organisation has proper controls in place so that money

cannot be misused. Controls always have to be adapted to different organisations.

However, some controls that are often used include:

Keeping cash in a safe place (ideally in a bank account).

Making sure that all expenditure is properly authorized.

Following the budget.

Monitoring how much money has been spent every month.

Employing qualified finance staff.

Having an audit every year.

Carrying out a 'bank reconciliation' every month - which means checking

that the amount of cash you have in the bank is the same as the amount

that your cashbook tells you that you ought to have.

This last control is particularly important. It proves that the amounts recorded in

the cashbook and the reports based on it are accurate.

4.4.1.c. Budgeting

For good financial management, you need to prepare accurate budgets, in

order to know how much money you will need to carry out your work. A budget is

only useful if it is worked out by carefully forecasting how much you expect to

spend on your activities.

The first step in preparing a good budget is to identify exactly what you

hope to do and how you will do it. List your activities, then plan how much they

will cost and how much income they will generate.

138

Notes

4.4.1.d. Financial Reporting

The fourth building block is writing and reviewing financial reports. A

financial report summarises your income and expenditure over a certain period of

time. Financial reports are created by adding together similar transactions. For

instance, this might mean adding together all the money you spent on fuel, new

tyres and vehicle insurance and calling them "Transport Costs".

Financial reports summarise the information held in the cashbook. This is

normally done using a system of codes, to allocate transactions to different

categories. These categories might often be defined by donors.

4.4.2. Budgeting

A budget is a complete financial forecast based on available data, about the

financial condition of the agency during the coming year. It is a process of

determining distribution of funds of needs, effectiveness of programmes to deal

with them and the relevant importance attached to them by the community. It is an

estimate of the proposed expenditure for a specific period, and the purposes, and

proposed means of securing the income required.

As one of the tools of financial administration, a budget is a basic means

of controlling the programmes as well as the funds. In other words, it is the

programme of work of the agency expressed in rupees and paise, through income,

which must be made available, and expenditure which necessitates income, and

the service which will require that expenditure.

4.4.2.a. Purpose of the budget

1. To assess the financial requirement of an agency for

a. Starting a fundraising campaign

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Notesb. Requesting various grant-giving bodies for financial assistance

2. To indicate the lines on which money raised or received will be spent

3. To guide the staff of the agency about the manner of spending money on

various schemes and heads of account

4. To help the Managing Committee to exercise financial control over the

agency’s work.

5. To inform the community about sources of income and the plan of

incurring expenditure

6. To determine the size of resources required and the sources through which

these could be raised.

4.4.2.b. Budget preparation

Preparation of the budget is the responsibility of the chief executive of the

agency, may be the Manager, superintendent, headmaster, director or secretary of

a board. If the agency is running several programmes undertaken by various

sections or branches, every branch executive or secretary should prepare a budget

estimate of income and expenditure relating to his branch and then the

consolidation could take at the central level and one consolidated budget could

then be presented for the whole of the agency.

Consolidated budget thus prepared by the chief executive should be

discussed at a meeting of staff members and the final recommendation of the staff

could then be placed before the Managing Committee of the agency which in turn

will get the approval of the general body. For this purpose it may be of advantage

to appoint a budget sub committee with some of the staff members, experts on

programme evaluation and people with experience in financial administration and

fund raising.

Each budget should be accompanied by an explanatory notes interpreting

additional provisions made for new programme or department in the existing

programmes giving justification, for an increase or decrease of expenditure on

140

Noteseach item. As the budget is always related to the programme of an organization, it

is desirable to indicate in the explanatory note to the budget estimate, the present

level of activity of an agency with proposals to extend the activities or to start new

activities, so as to make the budget realistic.

4.4.2.c. Sources of material for the budget

The following are the Sources of material for the budget

i. Accounts for the last three years

ii. Original and revised budget for the previous year

iii. Letters of sanction grant from various authorities

iv. Minutes of managing committee

v. A folder of the executive containing al the notes taken during the course of

year for the purpose

vi. Requisition from various units, branches or departments for more staff,

equipment, raw materials, medicines, etc consequent on expansion taking

place in each unit

vii. Project proposals of new schemes

4.4.2.d. Guiding principles

The following points must be kept in view while preparing the budget.

i. A budget should always give a comparative statement of income raised

and expenditure incurred during the previous years.

ii. Income and expenditure side should always be balanced by showing

deficit or surplus. If the amount of the deficit is very large, the sources

from which this deficit will be met should also be indicated, or the

expenditure reduced.

iii. The budget relate to a particular period of 12 months, by fiscal or calendar

year. Each agency in India follows a different year for the purposes of

141

Notespreparation of its budget and complication of accounts. With the

availability of grants from various bodies, there is a trend towards

preparing budgets according to the fiscal years, i.e., April to March

iv. Preparation of the budget estimate should be started well in advance, i.e

sometimes in December, if the fiscal year is from April of the next year.

v. The budget should always be realistic, accurate, and conservative, keeping

in view the resources of the agency which may be limited and should

always be related to the programme undertaken by the agency. Budgets

and accounts of the previous years may serve as a guide.

vi. The cost of fund-raising should be kept to the minimum. Some agencies

have appointed fund collectors with the result that half of the money raised

goes for their salary. This is not a very healthy practice.

vii. The administrative cost which mainly includes executive charges,

accounting, public relations, contingencies etc. should be kept to the

minimum in a county like India but in no case should the cost be so

reduced as to allow deterioration in the standard of work.

viii. The budget should also provide for the additional amount necessary for

giving increments or for new appointments. It may become necessary

during the next year to replace all untrained staff members with trained

persons, resulting in an increase in expenditure on salaries. This should be

taken care of while preparing budget estimates.

ix. If the agency proposes certain assets like building and equipment,

provision on account of depreciation should always be made for building

roughly at the rate of 2.5% and for equipment and furniture at the rate of

10% of the cost at the end of the previous year. Some agencies do not

adopt this practice and they do not set aside a separate building fund as it

142

Notesis always very easy for them to approach the community for getting funds

for a capital purpose by way of special campaign, large grants or bequests.

The budget could, however, cover expenditure on necessary that could be

raised by a separate campaign.

4.4.2.e. How to prepare the budget and steps to be taken?

Budget is a financial plan. All of us know what is budget as we do make

our financial plans in our personal life also. Planning is an important part of

budget and unless it is done in a systematic and planned, the project may end up

with shortage of funds or under-utilisation of funds in some or all heads. Though

we are all doing budgets, this may help you in refreshing the plans/ideas. As we

all know, before starting a project we do the project planning by doing the need

assessment and identifying the issues and then designing the project.

While designing the project we also need to look at the financial aspects of the

projects such as the programme costs, staff, and administration etc.. In the same

way when we plan the financial plan (budget), we also need to look at the project

in total and accordingly the financial planning (budgeting) needs to be done.

i. Programme/Activities

Let us look at the Identified Activities of the project. Prepare a financial plan

to successfully take up the above activities. This could include e.g. training

programmes, meetings, income generation programmes so on so forth depending

upon the type of project you are taking up. You should have a detailed planning

for each and every activity i.e. for example let us take health awareness camp:

a) Number of Camps: How many likely camps during the project period

b) Number of days each camp runs for: If the each camp runs for 3 days

you need to do the financial plan first for a day then calculate it for 3 days.

c) Number of Participants for each camp: How many likely participants

for each camp and how much travel, food and lodging would cost for each

143

Notesparticipant. In some cases, some participants depends on their daily wages

– may also have to compensate them etc.

d) Number of Resource Persons: For each person what will be the

expenditure on consultancy fee, travel, stay etc. for each day. Then

multiply the same with the number of days.

e) Cost of hiring of vehicles/fuel costs during the camp

f) Stationery required – clearly plan item-wise and their cost g) Audio

Visuals, pamphlets etc. All the things needed for organizing a camp

needs to be planned.

Here we have taken example of one activity of a project – like that for

each activity we need to do the budgeting.

ii. Staff Requirements

The other most important thing that we need to look at is the staff

requirement for successfully implementing the project. We need to look at:

a) How many programme staff required with specialization?

b) How many finance, admin staff are required?

c) How many members from the existing team give a part of their time

for this project –if so how much money needs to be paid?

d) What is the period for which the staff are required for?

e) How much needed for advertisement for these positions?

f) What is the likely salary for each position per month multiplied by

the number of months?

g) How much money needed for staff training?

h) How much money needed for staff benefits? i.e. medical, provident

fund, gratuity, staff insurance, bonus etc. etc. depending on the

organisation’s own policies.

i) If organisations have relocation (while recruiting the candidates may

ask for relocation allowance to move from existing place to a new

place to take up a job) allowances policies that also need to be

calculated.

144

Notesj) Any other things that the organization may want to include as per

their organisation’s policies.

iii. Administration

This is one area which needs careful financial planning. Many times in spite

of proper planning the administrative costs go up because of various reasons

which may be beyond organizations control. As an example, when we prepare the

budget we may put the office rent as the amount we may be paying at that time. If

there are no written documents after few months the landlord may want to raise

the rent or vacate the building. Other e.g. consumption of electricity or

maintenance of vehicles etc. some of these heads could be:

Rent

Travel

Electricity

Water

Office Upkeep

Vehicle fuel

Vehicle maintenance

Salaries

Recruitment

Printing and Stationery

Internet/postage/Courier

Also other important point that needs to be discussed is whether all these come

under Administration or some of them could be part of the programme costs as

many donors may not like to approve admin costs beyond a certain percentage.

iv. Other things that need to look at while preparing a budget

Once the draft budget is prepared it is must to look at the following:

Check the formulas (if you are using a computer)

Check the number of units and the months etc.

145

Notes Look at the previous years financial reports and see whether it went as

planned or under/overspending in any heads. If so, keep them also in mind

while preparing a new budget.

Add 5 to 10% the overall budget to take care of inflations and unseen

expenses

Cost should always be estimated higher than the current rate and put 10%

higher to meet inflation etc.

If you are sending proposal for continuation of an existing programme

check if the activities proposed this year are more than last year, then

you also need to look at the administrative costs involved.

v. What happens when you have done a proper project planning?

Starting with need assessment stage and finally when you have done the

budgeting you found that the amount is much more than the donor likely to

approve. Since the donor would not give that much of money, you may think of

start cutting the budget here and there. By doing this, the whole time put in,

planning a project gets affected.

The best thing would be to do the whole process jointly with

the representative of the donor agency.

Otherwise without changing your proposed activities, you could

approach other donor agencies for joint funding. Or request the existing

donor to recommend to any other donor for full funding or joint funding.

4.4.2.f. Financial Planning and Budgeting

NGO receive specific grants to implement activities but it may not be

necessary that the entire allocated grant will be spent for a certain activity. NGOs

usually have their own internal valuation systems to judiciously allocate resources

for different activities. For this reason, it is important to undertake financial

planning and budget. So what is the procedure for this? Below are the steps

outlined for carrying out this process.

146

Notes

Budgets & Approvals

It is necessary that for every activity taken up by us to be

interpreted in financial terms and get the approval of the concerned

competent authority. Such interpretation takes the form of budgets detailing

each and every components of the activity so that a clear evaluation of the total

activity and the components thereof can be made by before approval. Such

budgets normally become necessary, for the following activities:

a) Meetings & conferences

b) Special events

c) Remuneration of Staff & Consultants

d) Capacity Building & other training programmes

e) Office Running Expenses

f) Promotional events

g) Travel

However, most of the times the expenses incurred on these activities are

part of our programs budget and specific grants are allocated for such expenses,

and would require only a simple sanction. It is therefore necessary that the budget

for such activities is prepared at the time of preparation of the plan itself. The

process to be followed is

a) Budget for each activity to be prepared giving break up of sub-activities

and related costs.

b) The budget has to be verified and certified by the finance/accounts

manager to ensure that the costs are realistic as compared to the

activities, and the budget captures all the required costs for such

activities only.

c) The necessary approval of the budget for incorporation into the Plan.

147

NotesWherever there are procurement of supplies and services for such

activities, the formalities with regard to multiple quotations, evaluations, etc. have

to be followed.

4.5 ACCOUNTING

4.5.1. Managing Accounts & Finances in NGOs – A Manual for developing

NGO Financial Management Policy

All registered NGOs are required to maintain a system for recording and

submitting all types of financial transactions made by them for the purposes of

implementing projects and running their organization. Since finances are a crucial

part of organizational management, it is always a better idea to maintain a

‘Financial Policy’ for following procedures to keep the accounting system

effective, transparent and easily manageable.

Following a systematic procedure and maintaining a policy on managing

of NGO finances is a strong indicator of the good health of an organization. Even

donor agencies would be most happy to render immediate funding support to such

NGOs which have systematic policies in place for effective financial

management. Operational or administrative manuals on conducting day-to-day

financial transactions can be strong tools to demonstrate the good governance,

transparency and systematic management of an NGO. Besides, such systems also

enable in keeping a track of NGO expenditures.

But how can NGOs develop such manual for accounting and financial

management? What are the various procedures for managing finances in an NGO?

What are different types of systems to be followed for accounts management in

NGOs? Is there a sample policy on NGO financial management?

We are providing a detailed explanation of how financial systems work in

NGOs and how NGOs can make use of this guidance material to develop their

148

Notesown financial policy for effective organizational management, fulfillment of local

statutory requirements and better mobilization of funding for the organization.

4.5.2. Types of Books and Documents to be maintained for accounts

management in NGOs

Following are listed the various types of books and documents

(bookkeeping) to be maintained by NGOs for proper and systematic accounting.

The same list can be mentioned in the financial management policy as well:

Account Books and Documents to be maintained

a. Cash Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book

b. Bank Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book

c. Summary/Daily Petty Cash Book

d. Journal Vouchers and Journal

e. General Ledger

f. Fixed Assets Register

g. Contract/Registration Documents

h. Attendance Register

i. Budget Copies of various grants

j. Utilization Certificates

k. FCRA and other relevant Registration papers

l. Copies of Consultancy agreements

m. Capital assets approvals

n. File of original bills of assets purchased

o. Copies of all Contracts and agreements.

p. Stationery Register

q. File containing Bank Mandate and authorized signatories

r. Quotation file for all purchases

s. Advance Payment Register (Advance to third parties & Staff Advances)

t. Check issue register

u. Cancelled check register

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Notesv. Donation receipt issue register

4.5.3.. Receipts and Payment Account

This is like a summary of the cash and bank book and starts and ends with

the cash and bank balances. It differs from the income and expenditure statement

in that the income and expenditure statement does not show details of loans, sale

of assets, recovery of staff advances etc. At the end of every quarter a receipts and

payments account is prepared.

4.5.4. Preparation of the Final Accounts

Final accounts include a balance sheet and income and expenditure

account and a receipts and payments account would need to drawn up at the end

of the year.

4.5.5. Procedures for fund disbursements

All requests for payments are to be made using the appropriate forms.

Requests for payments are to be properly substantiated with the bills /

receipts and essential documents.

Requests for payments are prepared by accounts and submitted to

executive director for checking and approval.

4.6 BOOK KEEPING

Bookkeeping is basically sorting and organizing financial transaction in a

systematic way. Every financial transaction is allocated to a financial pigeon hole

called account. The recording system of NGO’s financial transaction allows

monitoring bank balances, status of funds receipts and expenditures and

comparative statements of budget vs. actual expenditure on a regular basis. NGO

150

Noteswill maintain records of fixed assets, petty cash disbursements, supplies,

inventory, the use and maintenance of office equipment.

4.6.1 Bookkeeping on Accounting and financial reports

The following sets of financial reports will be prepared by NGO:

a) Quarterly financial reports will be prepared for review by each individual

project manager of NGO’s specific projects as well as of its core activities.

This quarterly report will be reviewed by the board of NGO.

b) Financial reports to donors will be submitted as prescribed in the

agreement between donors and NGO.

c) Annual balance sheet and statement of income and expenditures will be

prepared for each fiscal year.

4.6.2. Bookkeeping on Auditing

Books of accounts of NGO shall be audited annually by an independent

auditor appointed by the general assembly. NGO may hire internal auditor in order

to streamline its accounting systems and procedures.

4.6.3. Bookkeeping on financial records

Every organization should strictly maintain the following financial records

i. Budget file

ii. Cash book

iii. Receipt and bill books

iv. Petty cash or imprest account

v. Acquaintance roll or salary registers

vi. Caution money or security register

vii. Voucher file

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Notesviii. Bank account (resolution for operating of bank account, pay-in-slips,

pass book, bank conciliation statements)

ix. Ledger

x. Property register

xi. Stock registers

xii. File containing statement of accounts, audit reports and compliance

report

xiii. Order book

4.7. FUND RAISING

Remember money does not grow on trees. Even if a 'donation' is made to a

programme or activity, it is done with an objective in mind - sometimes simply to

get good karma. This is critical to understand when we approach a potential

sponsor - why is he donating? What advantages can they obtain?

Almost every voluntary or non-profit organization requires money either

to support its existing activities or to expand and improve it services. Fund raising

has no option other than hard work, but if the voluntary agencies have a cause or

programmes that deserve support and it is willing to really work at it, it can raise

considerable awareness, goodwill and money.

All the traditional methods of fund raising cannot produce satisfactory

results in the modern era. Though we prefer traditional techniques of fund raising,

such as raising funds from government, trusts etc, now we need to more

concentrate on various new methods and techniques of fund raising that ensure an

efficient and effective process of fund collection and produce the better result that

lead to sustainability as well. Following are the diverse methods and techniques of

fund raising that explains how NGOs could do it. Here, we also share some case

examples of reputed NGOs who have adapted these techniques in their fund

raising activities and achieved a great success.

152

Notes

4.7.1. Fund Raising Techniques

To organize funds for your organization, the following techniques are to be

applied and practiced.

Projects proposal writing

Institutional & Government funding

Different Fund Raising Plans

Direct Mailing Applications

Donation Boxes

Schools awareness cum sponsorship programmes

Corporate Fund Raising

Internet fund raising

Foreign funding

Cause related marketing

Awareness Events

Fund Raising events

Social Campaigns, trainings & seminars

4.7.2. Methods of Fund Raising

4.7.2.a. Through Funding Agencies

There are many funding agencies in India to whom NGO can approach

easily. Bilateral agencies in 2009-10 have invested 2.5 billion dollars in India.

Before preparing a proposal for any funding agency, it is important for the

voluntary agency to have a clear written vision and mission statement.

NGOs need to be fit in to the criterion given by funding agencies. Each

funding agency has their own thematic area for which they fund.

Voluntary organizations should first understand these areas for which

funding can be sought.

153

Notes Organizations should prepare & submit concept note. If Agency is

satisfied with the design of project proposed, then detailed project proposal

should be submitted. NGOs need to present their idea very specifically and

clearly. Funding agency will ask for objectives and outcome expected.

NGO should also abide to some conditionalities laid by FA about

evaluation, documentation and reporting, budget etc.

Funding agencies assess basically the impact of work done by NGO, what

kind of expertise NGO has, what is the objective NGOs posses to work in

community. Also they will look for how innovative the project is. (said by

Rati Misra – Resource Alliance)

4.7.2.b. Through Individuals

Most of the time this is directly face to face solicitation. This is, by far, the

best method of fund raising.

Before meeting the prospective donor, send him / her written letter or

appeal giving necessary information about the activity for which NGO

intends to raise the funds.

On behalf of NGO the person who is involved in fund-raising, should try

to gather all possible information about the funder.

Do not rush into the solicitation – interested try to steer the conversation to

the need that requires to be addressed.

When requesting a specific sum of money, do not think in terms of what

the donor may give. Think in terms of what the donor could be or is,

capable of giving.

4.7.2.c. A technique of Direct Appeal

It also includes sending public appeal through post / courier. In such case, NGOs

should usually require a cause that has a broad appeal. It is also important to select

the target group with the utmost care.

154

Notes Prepare the list of names and addresses of potential individual donors.

Since it involves the expenditure of posting, NGOs need to do careful

scrutiny of available contacts.

The stationary, including the envelope, should be of good quality.

It is always better to send additional printed return envelop stating name

and address and contact number of the executive office attached with the

appeal so that it will be easy for donor to send a Cheque / DD directly at

the address mentioned therein.

If sure of getting donation or after getting donations, it is the duty of NGO

to acknowledge the donor immediately through proper correspondence.

The appeal should be short and must tell a good success story.

It should not only attract the reader’s attention and interest, but also stir

within him the desire to act. Therefore it is needed to communicate the

need in human terms.

4.7.2.d. Government Departments

Receiving Government support may bring a degree of recognition and

credibility to the organization. Government funding is substantial in terms of

volume and it is a great source of fund. However, dependence on Government

could also make the organization vulnerable to government control or political

pressure. The Central and the State Governments, however, have several schemes

for assistance to voluntary agencies in areas of human resource development,

welfare of women, children and marginalized communities; health, family welfare

etc As Rati Misra (Resource Alliance) said NGOs should realize that government

funding will add value to the profile of their NGO and they should put their focus

in communicating their work to concerned government department. In the year

2008-09, Government has spent 2.5 billion dollars in social sector.

4.7.2.f. Corpus or endowments

155

NotesIt is a “capital receipt” and therefore not treated as income. Donor must

express the intent in writing that the donation is towards corpus. Corpus donation

should preferably be invested in long-term deposit and only the interest used.

4.7.2.g. Through Cause Related Marketing

The process involves allowing a small percentage of the profit on any

consumer item to be designated towards a charity.

This system has a three-pronged effect, benefiting the manufacturer, the

consumer and the charity.

The consumer feels inclined to buy the product because he has the added

advantage of buying a good (cause-related) product and being

philanthropic at the same time. This naturally boots the sale of any cause

related product and the manufacturer is able to make more profit in spite of

being philanthropic.

o And last, but not the least, the charity earns the valuable income

without much effort.

o Search the companies which would like to tie-up with NGOs that

synchronize with their CSR objectives matching with the

objectives of the NGO.

4.7.2.h. E- Fund Raising

An online Payment System allows you to be open 24 hours a day, 7 days a

week and 365 days a year.

Not only is this is an important convenience for your donors and

individuals; it also means more revenue for you.

o An online system also helps you to reduce your overhead costs.

o The most important part of online is accepting donations from your

donors ranging from a single transaction to a series of transactions

from a donor.

o Online payment processing offers a donor the convenience of

submitting their credit card or other forms of payment on your Web

156

Notessite, and for you to actually receive the money from this

transaction.

o You can also go for e- marketing of your products which finally

aims at raising funds through selling the products online.

4.7.2.i. Through events

Special events include organizing a film premier or a dance/musical programme

or a fashion show or a gala dinner or a carnival.

Special brochures or souvenirs can be brought out on such occasions and

advertisements solicited for inclusion in the same.

Banners and other forms of display advertisements bring in good revenue

as well.

Special events require a lot of hard work, planning, teamwork and

organizing.

Often, organizations spend months in preparing for just an evening’s

programme. General experience indicates a low return from such events in

terms of money. However, in terms of launching the organization,

awareness-building about the cause and general goodwill and visibility, the

returns are high.

It requires corporate sponsorships to cover the fixed costs.

If your organization decides to organize such events with specific

frequency (once in two years), you should have a permanent good

planning team. You should acknowledge all you funders at this occasion.

NGO may organize any event where all the beneficiaries are invited and

also arrange any celebrity, so that credibility of your project or work will

be demonstrated to society.

4.7.2.j. Pay roll giving

Pay roll giving is nothing but deduction of certain percentage of amount of total

salary of employee. This is the strategy which is decided at board level and

directly implemented in organization. Many IT companies and corporates adapt

these strategies of donating certain amount especially in the time of certain natural 157

Notesor manmade disasters. Philanthropic organizations with a broad and visible cause

should first approach the chairman of Managing Director of a company and get

him sufficiently interested in the cause. Payroll giving is not the easiest way to

raise money. Personal solicitation is a must.

4.7.2.k. Corporate

As an NGO we have to realize that the funds are required for what our programs

stand for. They are the product we sell. In the year 2008-09, corporates have

contributed approximately 6 billion dollars (nearly 30,000 crores) in social sector.

(ref: Pooranchandra Pandey, Times Foundation).

It is important to understand what a company focuses on as part of its

CSR, or might have product synergies towards owing to their business.

It is important to research well and make a more focused approach in

identifying corporates.

A corporate in most cases is open to funding various aspects as long as the

program of NGO matches the broad outline with their CSR focus. As long

as the need can be justified, the output well defined - funding from

corporate will always be easier to click.

Corporates expect reports, tax exemptions and their own visibility in NGO

programmes.

Confirm the pattern of documentation, reporting and monitoring and

adhere to those formats with less flexibility. (Inputs given by Lalita

Sachdeva, UNICEF).

4.7.2.l. In kind donations

An in-kind donation is also very important way of raising funds.

Many people / companies wish to write off their furniture and equipments

after some period or they may prefer to donate brand new equipments to

NGO instead of donating plain amount.

NGO should respect these donors also as they play very important role in

giving something useful to NGOs.

158

Notes NGO should maintain relationships with these people who always like to

donate in kind.

Many people donate brand new laptop, fax machine, telephone

instruments, printer, some stationary etc.

4.7.2.m. Fund Raising at local level

i. Direct Mailing Application

Direct mailing application process (DMA) is a very vital aspect of fund raising

techniques available for NGO sector. It is a direct marketing activity by which you

take your appeal to the people & individualizing your appeal to the target

Population. To make donation easy, a donor should be given following facilities.

a) Business Reply Envelope (BRE)

b) Modes of payment i.e Cheque/ DD/ Cash/ Credit Card/ Bank

transfer/Swift Code etc.

ii. Donation Boxes

NGO can place donation boxes at various profitable locations. A Donation

Box not only creates visibility of the NGO but also generate some money.

iii. School Awareness cum sponsorship Programme

School fundraising is one of the wide spectrum of fundraising methods by

which the funds are raised from the community through the medium of school

students by educating them about the cause.” Normally an event is organized in

the school with the two pronged objective of creating awareness and raising funds.

4.7.3. Useful tips for fund raising

159

Notes1. Write / speak accurately, factually, convincingly and cheerfully.

2. Avoid jargons– it may be viewed a pretentious.

3. Your appeal should be addressed to the right person with proper

designation and correct spelling

4. Avoid making your appeal look mass-produced.

5. Write to the individual, keeping his / her special interests and concerns in

mind.

6. Try to be realistic in presenting in your case. In your enthusiasm you may

end up overstating the need, the projected outcomes or the basic facts

about your organization.

7. Avoid very small fonts and very close-spaced types.

8. Focus on inspiring and not just impressing the reader / listener.

9. Use photographs, tables, graphics and animation if possible.

10. Create a good slogan and use it (e.g. “Together we will overcome poverty /

illiteracy…….”)

11. A well-produced brochure or a powerful poster can present a positive

image of your organization.

12. Tell a story (how someone’s life changed because……….). A good story

brings your message to life.

13. Long reports and letters are seldom read. Be brief and to the point.

14. Your stationary need not be very fancy, but it should be of reasonably

good quality.

15. Mean what you say and say what you mean.

16. Be assertive (decide what your organization or cause really needs and ask

for it clearly and confidently) but never aggressively.

17. Never suggest that money should be given because your organization

deserves help. An organization has no needs. It is the community that has

needs. Society has problems to solve and your organization has the

solution.

18. If media coverage is important to you, then time and resources must be

spent planning and executing media strategies.

160

Notes19. The success of your media strategy will largely depend on your contacts

with reporters, assignment desk editors and other media representatives.

20. Press conference should be called only when you have breaking news or

you wish to announce a major event.

21. Mass media campaigns are a calculated risk because of the high

probability of misquotes and distortions by reporters.

22. Be passionate

23. Do it with Confidence

24. Have a “Can do” attitude

25. Fund-raising is an art, not a science. Bring your own creativity to it and

remain flexible.

26. Recruit staff with commitment first, techniques second

Say what you mean; mean what you say.

27. Make the donor feel he is an insider - that he owns the organization. He

will defend and support his institution.

28. Write copy as if from one person to another person; not from an

organization to a donor.

29. Make sure you see and read mail from donors. It is the way to know what

they are thinking about you.

30. In every piece of mail and all publications, including Annual Reports -

always provide the opportunity to give.

31. The person answering your phone represents your organization.

32. Please do not fund raise if your organization is unable to cope with

opening the mail and answering it properly!

33. Tell the truth and facts always - credibility is important in fund-raising.

34. Tell your donors how their money helped to make a difference.

35. Emotion, rather than reason, leads to charity.

36. Induce action; always use a reply envelope.

37. Be specific; speak of specific cases or individuals - avoid generalities.

38. Long words put donors to sleep and sleepy people cannot write cheques.

39. Use more photographs – one picture is worth a thousand words.

161

Notes40. Do not write about a huge problem, which an individual cannot solve

through his donation.

41. Aim for something within the reach of an individual.

42. Talk about sponsoring a child and not 10,000 children.

4.7.4. Inputs by Gagan Sethi, Managing Trustee, Janvikas, Ahmedabad on

Government Funding

Any NGO can obtain government funding only after showing their last

three year’s record of their work which includes documentation,

photographs of various programmes, accounting records for last three

years etc.

Time distance between approval of funds and actual allotment of

installment is too large. Sometimes funds are made available after

completion of financial year in which approval was given. Therefore you

should have some advance system which is useful for actual

implementation as well as useful for maintaining books of accounts.

Do not depend totally on government funding since the process is very

lengthy. Government might be a part funder. It may give some additional

value to your existing funding.

If organization applies for any larger project e.g. watershed project for

entire habitation or district, a separate committee of government will first

scrutinize the organization’s work which has been done in last few years.

Some projects have guideline based applications which should be

considered carefully by NGO.

Organization should always remember that somebody is listening to them

from very high level. Therefore NGO should fulfill all the formalities in

time which has been asked for.

Organization should always remember that when they get funding from

government, they will be accessible to only 80% of total amount of

funding. They should consider that 20% of funding will not be available in

their hands.

162

Notes

4.7.5. Types of government funding

There are two types of government funding as follows.

1. Funding to local self government (monitoring is much stronger in these

cases)

2. Funding to individual organization (monitoring is not that strong since

many times these funds are given on the basis of some unethical practices).

4.7.6. Fund Raising Realities and Strategies

The reality Strategy

Easier to get money for one

event than for a sustained

long-term programme

Develop a comprehensive long-term programme,

but break it into smaller chunk sized bits, to seek

funding for each part, from the same or

sometimes different sources

More and more NGOs are

seeking more money from

traditional funding sources

Develop a more diversified range of donors who

can provide different amounts at different points

of a programme/project's implementation. Seek

both local as well as overseas donors.

Many donors are providing

much less money than

required, or simply do not

have enough

A diversified fund-raising programme is very

important. An interesting thumb-rule - closer the

donor, smaller the amount. A person walking on

the street in your town may provide only small

change that he currently has in his pocket. But a

more 'distant' person or organization may provide

more funding.

There are many conditions

and terms imposed on funds

provided by most donors that

may restrict its use

Understand the need for these conditions/terms

by looking at it from the donors' perspective;

ensure that you have communicated your needs

very clearly - the who, how, why and when; try

to find a middle ground in negotiating with the

163

Notes

donor - satisfy their needs without sacrificing

your own.

Technical knowledge and

information (especially

through consultants) is very

expensive and takes up much

of a funding request.

Try to seek in-kind contributions from experts,

especially from a corporation or company. This

puts them in a good light, and enables them to be

community-friendly. This can be done in the

form of advice, work-time, equipment use etc.

Note that this is different from a 'donation'. The

relationship between the NGO and the expert is

longer and stronger.

Misdeeds and fraud by some

NGOs taint the sector as a

whole, creating mistrust and

misunderstanding

Get out of the 'charity' angle. Develop clear

professionalism among the staff members.

Always be willing to provide info on the NGO's

goals and objectives, as well as programmes. Get

third party organizations to write about the

programme and projects. Keep good relations

with the media, and cultivate spokespersons

among the staff members.

Sometimes it is so difficult to

find a donor who is willing to

finance a specific programme

or project.

Look in other places. Sometimes a local

businessman or company may be willing to help

- only if and when asked! Seek funding from

'non-traditional' sources that may exist in your

own backyard.

It takes so much time, effort

and money itself to find and

secure funding

All staff members of an NGO should spend part

of their time in fund raising - each catering to

different aspects of the process - writing

proposals, finding and networking with donors,

negotiating, writing reports etc.

Fund raising activities need

skills and knowledge to be

effective and successful -

which most NGOs do not

Creating NGO Networks, NGO service centers,

information kiosks etc. help in pooling and

developing the knowledge and skills needed for

164

Notes

have this purpose.

NGOs, in many cases, are in

competition with each other to

seek and find funds

Try to find the differences and uniqueness of

your own programme/projects. What new

approach have you used? Usually, each NGO

services a different aspect or a different

community - with rare overlap. Develop a 'bigger

picture' with other NGOs that illustrates

comprehensive and diverse package of services

and projects.

4.8. OFFICE MANAGEMENT MAINTENANCE OF RECORDS

In every organization, certain amount of records is to be maintained. These

may be in the forms of books, files, registers, etc.,

4.8.1. Definition of Recording

According to oxford dictionary “ recording refers to writing or printing of

facts as these happen for the purpose of keeping them in memory as an evidence

to be used at some future time” records, therefore, may be in writing or in other

permanent form to be used for reference in future.

4.8.2. Purpose of record maintenance

i. To improve the professional skills and techniques of workers.

ii. To evaluate the work of the agency and to improve upon methods and

techniques used therein.

iii. To create satisfaction and keep up the interest of the workers

iv. To build up a body of knowledge of Social Work administration.

v. To facilitate supervision and training

165

Notesvi. To show progress of the agency to the board, community, public

authorities etc

vii. To ensure continuity of work and keep note thereof.

viii. To do work on a systematic basis

ix. To account for funds given to the agency.

x. To render effective and systematic service to beneficiaries.

xi. To ensure better agency managements.

4.8.3. Types of records and maintenance of records

The following records are to be maintained in a welfare agency.

i. Organizational records

a) Registration certificate

b) Copy of the constitution, bye-laws of the agency etc.

c) Agenda papers

d) Minutes of books/register

e) Returns to be filed with the registrar of societies

f) Register of board members with their addresses

g) Resolutions for formulation of the committee, sub-committee

and record of their work.

ii. Programme records

a) General

1. Blue-print of the agency’s plan of work for a given period

and details of the schemes to be implemented

2. Case-histories in case work process

3. Socio-grams in group work agencies

4. Survey report of the community

5. Dairy of the field workers

6. Attendance register for programme staff

7. Register of volunteers

8. Admission of beneficiaries register

166

Notes9. Inspection or visitor’s books copies of new scheme

iii. Administrative records

1. Personnel files of staff members

2. Register of staff members

3. Attendance register

4. Leave record

5. Log book

6. Telephone calls register

7. Building plan file, sanctioned plan, completion certificate, rent-

deed, etc.

8. File for each branch

iv. Procedural records

a) Diary

b) Despatch register

c) Register of files

d) Reminder register

e) File movement register

f) Recording and weeding out register

v. Financial records

1. Budget file

2. Cash book

3. Receipt and bill books

4. Petty cash or imprest account

5. Acquaintance roll or salary registers

6. Caution money or security register

7. Voucher file

8. Bank account (resolution for operating of bank account, pay-in-

slips, pass book, bank conciliation statements)

9. Ledger

167

Notes10. Property register

11. Stock registers

12. File containing statement of accounts, audit reports and

compliance report

13. Order book

vi. General records

1. Annual report

2. File containing material for the annual report for the next year

3. List of addresses of agency’s contacts

4.8.4. Guidelines for maintaining records

i. Records should be small enough to meet the minimum requirements of

the

agency and large enough to fulfill their general objective. Records should

be instrument of good work, rather than a hindrance in work.

ii. Kinds of records to be maintained should be decided by the agency

from

time to time to suit its work programme.

iii. Forms to be used in maintaining records and contents of such forms

should

be decided by the executive. Before standardization of a form, it should be

tried or field-tested on experimental basis.

iv. Methods or style of writing records on uniform basis should be clearly

laid

down by the head of the organization in order to have uniformity and

continuity.

v. Responsibility for writing records should be fixed on officials /

workers.

vi. The duties for supervision of the records and checking them should be

fixed.

168

Notesvii. The frequency of writing different records and periodicity of checking

these should be fixed.

viii The manner of utilizing records while in use and thereafter should be

clearly known in order to justify their maintenance.

ix. There should be a system of rules governing recording, binding, weeding

out and destroying of records with proper indexing thereof.

x. Records should be arranged properly in racks, almirahs etc, depending on

their nature, frequently of use and should be preserved / stored according

to their importance, in suitable places.

4.9. SUPERVISION

Supervision is a technique of staff developmental and staff management.

Supervision is face to face over-sight of assigned tasks and responsibilities for the

purpose of assuring proper and effective performance. It is not a negative aspect

of fault finding but a positive method of staff development in order to render

better quality service. The principles of supervision are derived from the

techniques of social work and method of administration.

4.9.1. Types of supervision

The supervision can be of the following categories

1. Supervision of the technical person by administrative or voluntary

supervisor.

2. Supervision of the administrative persons by voluntary or technical person

3. Organizational supervision – national to state and state to district.

4. Financial supervision of and by people having knowledge of financial

rules and regulations.

4.9.2 Purposes and functions of supervision

Supervision has the following purposes and functions

169

Notes1. To see that the work is carried out in accordance with the rules,

instructions and requirement of the agency.

2. To educate and develop the worker

3. To direct and guide the workers and arouse in them the interest in work.

4. To assist the supervisor in having a grasp of the work

5. To bring out the best service from the worker

6. To evaluate and assess the capacity and performance of the worker and to

help in better performance through corrective measures and rewards

7. To bring about harmony and team work among the employees

8. To produce orderliness in procedure and to maintain and develop standards

of performance

9. To get weak spots in performance and to assist the supervision in

eliminating them

10. To transmit the inspiration of the leader to members of the staff.

11. To help the staff and guide them

4.9.3 Conditions of good supervision

Supervision can be effective and useful provided certain conditions exist; some of

these are:

i. Qualification for different posts particularly of the supervision and the

supervisee are laid down.

ii. By virtue of his qualification, experience and knowledge, the supervisor

commands respect.

iii. Well-defined administrative structure with clear line of authority exists in

the organization. This also requires working out of job charts in the

organization.

iv. Arrangements for training orientation and refresher course exist in the

organization.

v. There is proper atmosphere, complete absence of fear and suspicion for

proper discipline and harmonious relationship.

170

Notes

4.9.4 Methods and techniques and Supervision

There is a variety of methods and techniques of proper and purposeful

supervision, depending upon the situation of each case. Some of these methods are

illustrated below.

i. Inspecting or visiting the supervisee if he is away from the supervisor.

ii. Individual interviews with supervisee and developing professional rapport.

iii. Staff meetings, conferences

iv. Presence of a supervisor at a meeting or a class or any other work situation

taken up by the supervisee.

v. The supervisor acts as a teacher or an advisor. He helps and guides. He

shares knowledge and skills with the workers.

vi. The partnership concept and let us do it

vii. Use of human approach

viii. Grant of incentives, awards and promotions

4.9.5 Do’s in supervision

In the process of supervision, the following are certain do’s in supervision

which may be kept in mind:

i. The supervisor should have the understanding of the human behavior

ii. The supervisor should build up a relationship with the staff which has the

element of impartiality, ability and willingness

iii. The supervisor should encourage the supervisee when he had a difficult

task or a problem to tackle by expressing his confidence in his ability to

handle it.

iv. The supervisee should be praised warmly when he has done some good

work.

171

Notesv. Any situation where a supervisee is disturbed over a problem, the

supervisor should show sympathy and concern.

4.9.6 Don’ts in supervision

There are also some Don’ts in the process of supervision. Some of these

are illustrated below.

i. The supervisor should not criticize, rebuke or humiliate the supervisee in

the presence of others.

ii. A supervisee should not be compared with his other colleagues.

iii. The supervisor should not undermine the authority or status of the

supervisee by encouraging his subordinates to carry tales against him or to

keep an eye on him

iv. The supervisor should not give the impression of having any favorites or

showing prejudice against any one.

v. The supervisor should not insist on rigid application of the rules

4.10 EVALUATION

Evaluation, like monitoring, looks at whether objectives have been

achieved. But it tries to stand back and look at the longer-term objectives – Are

you on the right road? Is your project going to change the problem?

4.10.1. Introduction

Appraisal or judgment of the worth and effectiveness of all the processes

designed to ensure the agency to accomplish its objectives said to be an

evaluation. Evaluation is essentially the study and review of past operating

experiences. It implies critical analysis of quality of the relationships, which have

172

Notesbeen developed between all groups. It implies a willingness to measure results and

to make changes in both goals and methods as a result of considered evidence.

Evaluation becomes a resource for the continuous strengthening of all individuals

and groups in the agency setting.

4.10.2The Meaning of Evaluation

Evaluation is a process of judging value on what a project or programme

has achieved particularly in relation to activities planned and overall objectives.

It involves value judgement and hence it is different from monitoring (which is

observation and reporting of observations).

4.10.3 Purpose of Evaluation

a) Evaluation is important to identify the constraints or bottlenecks that

hinder the project in achieving its objectives. Solutions to the constraints

can then be identified and implemented.

b) Evaluation also enables the project planners and implementers to assess

the benefits and costs that accrue to the intended direct and indirect

beneficiaries of the project. If the project implemented is, for example, the

protection of a spring, evaluation highlights the benefits to the people who

fetch and use water and the cost to the people whose land is wasted and

whose crops are destroyed during the process of water collection.

c) Evaluation is essential for drawing lessons from the project

implementation experience and using the lessons in the planning of other

projects in that community and elsewhere.

d) Finally, evaluation should provide a clear picture of the extent to which the

intended objectives of the activities and the project have been realized.

4.10.4 The Process of Evaluation

173

NotesEvaluation can and should be done: (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after

implementation.

4.10.4.a. Before project implementation

Evaluation is needed in order to:

Assess the possible consequences of the planned project(s) to the people in

the community over a period of time;

Make a final decision on what project alternative should be implemented;

and

Assist in making decisions on how the project will be implemented.

4.10.4.b. During project implementation

Evaluation should be a continuous process and should take place in all project

implementation activities. This enables the project planners and implementers to

progressively review the project strategies according to the changing

circumstances in order to attain the desired activity and project objectives.

4.10.4.c. After project implementation

This is to retrace the project planning and implementation process, and

results after project implementation. This further helps in:

Identifying constraints or bottlenecks inherent in the implementation

phase;

Assessing the actual benefits and the number of people who benefited;

Providing ideas on the strength of the project, for replication; and

Providing a clear picture of the extent to which the intended objectives of

the project have been realized.

4.10.5 Function serves the following purposess

174

Notes A scientific approach to assess the achievements of a program

It is a process to assess the extent to which objectives laid-down for a

program have been achieved.

The manner and the degree to which the program has developed and the

gaps in the implementation of the program has left.

Evaluation also measures the extent of the community participation and

brings out the anticipated consequences.

In brief, evaluation measures results so that the lessons learnt from the

result of program implementation are utilized for taking corrective

measures for future. Thus, evaluation helps in making the program

implementation as efficient and economical.

4.10.6 Functions of evaluation as mentioned of Paul Chowdry

By evaluation we check-up the IQ of the agency

Evaluation is necessary to judge the effectiveness of the program, keeping

in view of the changing needs of the society

Further facts are essential for sound planning and the task of the policy-

making , which are provided by evaluation and research

Through evaluation, we can measure accomplishment in order to avoid

weakness and future mistakes.

Evaluation helps us to see efficiency of the techniques and skills employed

in a welfare programme so that these techniques and skills should be

further improved, if necessary.

Evaluation also helps the agency to understand how far objectives and the

policy laid down by the agency are being fulfilled and to assess the

shortfalls.

By the results of the agency’s program, we can also know about the

benefits going to the people for whom the program was meant. It gives a

sense of satisfaction to the organizers.

175

Notes Evaluation is also necessary to understand the degree of participation of

the community in welfare programmes and the relationship of the agency

with other agencies so as to avoid overlapping.

Evaluation helps agencies make a comprehensive view of their purpose,

programs with a view to self-improvement and guidance to workers.

Evaluation helps agencies make plans for future work on the basis of data

collected.

4.10.7 Principles of evaluation

The following are the some of the broad principles, which should be kept in view

in evaluation

Evaluation is a continuous process

Evaluation should involve minimum possible costs

Evaluation should be done with prejudice to day-to-today work.

Evaluation must be done on a cooperative basis, in which the entire staff

and the board members should participate.

As far as possible, the agency should start itself evaluate its programme,

but occasionally outside evaluation machinery should also be made use of.

Total overall examination of the agency will reveal strengths and

weaknesses.

To make evaluation easy and less-time consuming, the agency should keep

on collecting statistics during the course of the year.

The result of evaluation should be shared with workers of the agency.

4.10.8 Types of evaluation

The organization goes for an evaluation through different types. They are:

a. Internal evaluation

b. External evaluation

Based on time factor, the evaluation is of the following types:

176

Notes

Ex-ante: This will be done before the incidence has taken place, i.e, appraisal or

benchmark survey

Concurrent: During the operation of the programme to provide feedback for

monitoring purposes

Terminal: On completion of work, findings are arrived at.

4.10.8.a. Internal evaluation

In internal evaluation, the staff, board members and the beneficiaries

participates.

It is a continuous process, which is done at the various points and in

respect of various aspects of the working of an agency

Appointment of special committees to go into the working of particular

aspects, branch or programmes of the agency or to study particular

techniques or procedure may be useful.

4.10.8.b. External evaluation

External evaluation is done by an outside agency, may be governmental or

non-governmental. This may be again of two types.

i. Grant-giving bodies for the purpose of finding out how the money

given is utilized by grantee agency for running, improving and

developing its programme. In this category, may be included the

central social welfare board which evaluates the programmes and

business practices of aided agencies through an experienced and

qualified inspectorate.

ii. The other types of external evaluation is by the licensing authority or

by the parent organization, with a view to finding out the effectiveness

of the programme of the agency and to see how far the standards laid

down are put into practice. Public agencies are also subject to

inspection by the staff of the supervisory department and auditors.

177

Notes

4.10.9. Tools of evaluation

Evaluation is done by non-research staff may not require many tools. Staff

meetings may be necessary in order to lay down the objectives of evaluation, and

their procedure for self-appraisal. However, a questionnaire for this purpose may

sometime be useful in order to obtain information on specific areas of the

agency’s work. Various records regularly maintained by the agency might also

become the basis of periodic evaluation.

4.10.10. Monitoring and evaluation in NGOs.

Monitoring and evaluation are separate practices dedicated to the assessment of

your NGO’s overall performance. Monitoring is a systematic and long-term

process that gathers information in regards to the progress made by an

implemented project. Evaluation is time specific and it’s performed to judge

whether a project has reached its goals and delivered what expected according to

its original plan.

First of all, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) are important to assess that

project/programme have achieved set targets or not. For instance, by monitoring

the development of the project, we will easily understand whether strategic

changes need to be made and act accordingly. Second, M&E are relevant to

donors who need to assess whether your NGO is a reliable partner. By reviewing

milestones and final outcomes of your projects, donors will decide on the

accountability of your NGO, upon which further collaborations could be

established. As such, to develop a strong M&E plan is of vital importance.

Monitoring is for NGOs, not for donors.

178

Notes

4.11. PUBLIC RELATION

4.11.1. Definition of Public relation

Public relations, according to Cutlip, Center, and Broom, is the

management function that identifies, establishes and maintains mutually beneficial

relationships between an organization and the various publics on whom its success

or failure depends.

According to Glen Cameron, University of Missouri, Public Relations is the

“strategic management of competition and conflict for the benefit of one’s own

organization—and when possible—also for the mutual benefit of the organization

and its various stakeholders or publics.”

4.11.2. The meaning public relations

“Public Relations is a strategic communication process that builds

mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics.”

o focuses on the basic concept of public relations

o As a communication process, one that is strategic in nature and

emphasizing “mutually beneficial relationships.”

“Public relations help an organization and its publics adapt mutually to

each other.”

4.11.3. Public Relations and its Key Terms

o Deliberate

o Planned

o Performance

o Public interest

o Two-way communication

o Strategic management of competition and conflict

179

Notes

4.11.4. The Components of Public Relations

o Counseling

o Workplace diversity

o Research

o Special events

o Media relations

o Marketing communications

o Publicity/image building

o Speech writing

o Employee/member relations

o Corporate communication

o Community relations

o Public service

o Public affairs/lobbying

o Image building

o Government affairs

o Branding

o Issue management

o Personal

o Financial relations

o Advocacy

o Industry relations

o Entertainment

o Development

o Crisis

o Multicultural relations

o Educational

4.11.5. PR is multifaceted

180

Notes Public relations professionals must have skills in:

o Written communication

o Interpersonal communication

o Research

o Negotiation

o Creativity

o Logistics

o Facilitation

o Problem solving

o Evaluation

4.11.6. Concept of public relation

Public relation as a concept was critically evolved in business and industry and it

subsequently spread to other areas of human activity. This profession is

immensely applicable in government and public institutions like corporations,

municipalities, universities, hospitals, professional and social service

organizations. Public relations were in practice in people’s daily life even before

the emergence of industry, business and government. Public relations are the

result of the action inherent in an individual, an institution or an organization.

Public relation is never a monopoly of practitioners. In fact members of an

organization and especially those in leadership, management and supervisory

positions have a very important pr role to play. People who adopt the art of public

relations stand better chance of survival and success since they can always find

areas of mutual interest. They can use modern methods of communication and

persuasion which go a long way in establishing mutual understanding. a) Meaning

of public relation Public is a group of similar individuals, an assortment of persons

having similar interest, problems goals and circumstances. It is generally from

such sources that opinions emerge. Public comes in many forms and sizes. They

have a multitude of desires and wants. Public has its own likes and dislikes which

sometimes can even be strong. Employees are one form of public and employers

181

Notesother form. Other members of the public are dealers, wholesalers, brokers and

investors. Each of these groups tries to attract a distinct audience with its varied

tools and techniques. In short public is any group of people who share a common

interest. b) Relations: It is the outcome of mutual understanding which is derived

from the process of sharing of the common interest. The need to establish relation

with one another is created because of human wants. The respective wants of two

individuals will affect their relationship. Therefore one must understand the wants

of those involved in order to understand any relationship. c) Public relations: By

the integration of the above two human element viz. public and relations we get

public relation. It is a profession that is a part and parcel of management function.

4.11.7. Objectives of public relation in welfare agency

A well organized public relations work in a welfare agency fulfills the following

objectives

i. Keeping the community informed about the problems, the agency

tries to tackle and accordingly services organized therefore.

ii. Informing the tax-payers and donor as to how their money is being

utilized.

iii. Informing prospective beneficiaries about the benefits available for

them through an agency’s services.

iv. Keeping the agency alert about the public criticism and thus trying

to maintain minimum standards, so that the services rendered do

not offend the public eye.

v. Bringing about modifications, if necessary in the attitudes of

people towards social problems.

In addition to the above, objectives of the Public relations in any organizations

will have to fulfill the following

1. To promote mutual understanding.

2. To persuade individuals, groups etc.

182

Notes3. Help in fund raising.

4. Change the behaviour and attitude of the public.

5. Influence people.

6. To win friends.

7. Avoid risk involved in misunderstanding.

8. Prepare and supply the public with information about the organization

like price, quality, export, employment and other special features.

9. Provide information about the activities of the company, to the press

and writers.

10. Liaise, counsel and advise.

11. Improve internal staff relations.

12. Help the public to love life and work for better or for worse without

conditions.

13. Undertake a public relation education programme.

14. Forestall attack by the competitors or opponents.

15. Create and maintain image and reputation of the company.

16. Promote goodwill.

17. Correct misconceptions and clarify on criticisms of its policies and

practices.

18. Establish relations with the federal and state legislators, agencies.

19. Undertake a campaign of public education about an industry or

profession and its contribution to the public.

20. Communicate with the employees on their benefits, accident

prevention, labour relations and collective bargaining.

21. Establish press relations, publicity articles preparation, press release,

photographs.

22. Undertake programmes like sales training courses for retailers, whole

sellers.

23. Undertake programmes like sales training courses for retailers,

wholesalers.

24. Sponsor dealer and distributor relations schemes.

183

Notes25. Ascertain public opinion, conduct opinion research and understand

public attitudes on the organization, profession and practice.

4.11.8. Need for public relation

In the present age the human society has become so complicated and

differentiated that individuals at least in the develop countries is no longer able to

live without adequate information and communication. It is a fact that in this

increasingly automated world man can no longer exist incomplete isolation. The

need for public relation arises due to the following three fundamental factors.

i. Communication: To be the means of communication have reached to

almost a stage of perfection. It is possible to receive information at any

given period of time. Though the adequate information is theoretically but

no means it is guaranteed in each individual case so public relation is

needed.

ii. New information order: It is very difficult to answer we are correctly

inform. There are various sources like countless lectures, books many

discussions in radio and television. But we can not guarantee the

correctness of the information. The information is without direction and it

is incomplete or inaccurate. Information is without direction and it is

incomplete or inaccurate. Information must be prepared essential

information must be separated from three wheel matter. The interest of the

receiver must be aroused in the right direction. Here there is a need for

public relation.

iii. Mutuality and understanding: Mutuality is based on interaction between

consideration for public opinion and the need of communicator to inform

and establish contact. Understanding is created by providing inside into a

reporting on all necessary matters. Confidences cultivated by bringing the

184

Notesaim of the organization into harmony with public interest. In these ways

the goodwill of the company is won among the general public.

4.11.9 Methods of public relations

Public relations work can be broadly classified into three main heads:

i. personnel contacts

ii. visual means

iii. spoken words

Personal contacts: Personnel contacts of Board members, the members of the

Managing Committee and the staff with the members of community, beneficiaries,

donours and governmental and non-governmental agencies is a very effective

method of public relations. This could be done by inviting various persons to visit

the agency, arranging seminars and conferences and inviting a few people to

annual meetings of the agency by attending meeting and conferences organized by

other agencies, coordinating councils, etc.

Visual means: Under this head can be included newspapers, magazines, reports,

folders, pamphlets, photographs, television and slides. Some of the agencies may

use any one or more media of dissemination of information regarding the agency’s

working to the various people, but before deciding to choose a particular medium,

attention is to be focused on the kinds of the groups to be informed. A close

contact with the journalists and editors of the area will prove very useful in

making use of local newspapers and journals. Some of the agencies like Nehru

Yuva Kendra, Indian Conference of Social Work, Young Men’s Christian

Association, Indian Council for Child Welfare etc issue monthly newsletters and

bulletins to other readers in order to acquaint them with the day-to-day work.

This practice could be adopted with advantage by other agencies.

185

NotesTelevision is a very strong media for reaching the people. In fact Indian

T.V has already started screening serials and messages useful for families, women

issues, child welfare, adoption, children in institution and messages regarding

immunization, education of girls, small family norm, nutrition for girls and

expectant and nursing mothers etc. agencies use this media for projecting their

services.

An agency could also encourage visits by members of the community,

political leaders, journalists, protective donors, beneficiaries etc in order to give

them the idea of the problem the agency is trying to tackle, the methods used, the

services rendered and its requirement for development and improvements of its

services. In India, some of our agencies do not even prepare their annual reports,

which is a must for every social agency. It is necessary for us to have a regular

system of publishing the annual reports.

Spoken words: Use of radio, community meetings, lectures etc may be some of

the methods to be used for the purpose. With a network of radio stations and

television in India, it may be possible for an agency, if it is really doing useful

work, to make use of the services of All India Radio. Short talks, features,

interviews with the beneficiaries, the staff and the Board members of an agency

could form part of a bigger programme of focusing public attention on a particular

problem.

4.11.10Principles of public relations

The following are some of the broad principles which should be kept in

view, while organizing public relations work.

i. Focus should always be on various groups whom we are trying to

approach.

ii. While preparing any publicity material, we should have in mind a theme of

each agency’s work.

iii. The attitude of the staff towards the general public is very important and

quality of services is a fundamental aspect of public relations. If the

186

Notesclientele’s needs are looked after properly, promptly and courteously, the

news will spread in the community very soon.

iv. Some of the influential people of the community may be very good media

of public relations because they are always in touch with the important and

useful people in the community.

v. Public relations are a continuous process and as such there is no particular

time to organise a campaign of publicity but there should be a regular

time-table for using different media of public relations and approaching

different groups at different times of the year.

vi. A separate committee consisting of influential people of the locality,

people with experience in journalism, members of the managing

committee of the agency should be formed and this committee could be

entrusted with public relations at work.

It is advisable for the Board to review the work of public relations from

time to time, note the progress and suggest ways and means of strengthening

public relations work wherever and whenever necessary.

4.11.11. Functions of Public relation activities in NGO management

The functions of public relation department differ in different NGO

organizations depending upon their nature and activities. However there are

certain standard functions which are common to most of the organizations. They

are as follows:

i. Policy: a policy is a statement of guidelines to be followed in the

company. Public relation policy is required for every organization .it has to

develop and recommend corporate public relation policies and has

contributed the public relation viewpoint which helps in the formulation of

decision. Its function is not only to provide the policy to the top

management but also to the other sections and divisions.

187

Notesii. Publicity: In order to interact with the public it is necessary to have

corporate publicity. The department has to undertake the issuance of

announcements of corporate activities to the external communication

media. It also has to handle inquiries from the press. It is one of the

important functions of the department to develop and place promotional

publicity about the organization as a whole or any of its units.

iii. Relations with Government: It is necessary to maintain healthy

relationship with the government policies as it helps in conjuring funds in

form of government grants and donations etc.

iv. Community Relations: Community contacts should be well planned and

co-ordinate. Activity such as environmental protection standards, equal

employment opportunity and co- operating in urban improvement

programme should be undertaken.

v. Shareholders Relations: In order to attract public money it is necessary

and important to maintain good relations with corporate stockholders. This

can be done in the form of communication between the company and the

shareholder including the investors. The company can be made more

acceptable among the investors by broadening the exposure of the

company policies and financial results in the investment community.

These includes preparation of annual reports, etc. it has also to plan and

stage the annual meetings of the shareholders.

vi. Product Publicity: The public relation department has to develop and

execute the promotional product publicity campaigns. In case of NGO

organizations, they promote their product as the cause for which the NGO

is operating e.g. welfare, child welfare, nature and health awareness, aids

awareness etc .in these publicity the focus is on the cause and how to

popularize them. It includes announcement of new cause or products

through the editorial channels of communication media.

vii. Employee Publications: The public relation department has to prepare a

corporate donation policy for the company contributions various aspects

involved in this function include processing request for donation,

administering company’s foundation etc.

188

Notesviii. Promotion Programme: The public relation programmes broadly covers

institutional promotion programmes design to build corporate acceptance

of key policies, special events, public relations, literature and institutional

advertising other functions include: a. Public relation education

programme. b. Advisory functions. c. Co-coordinating activities. d.

Conveying and interpretations.

4.11.12. How important is public relation in NGO?

i. Public relation is vital component in running a non governmental

organization as NGO activities are related with people. Therefore healthy

interaction with various people is an essential criterion.

ii. Public relation helps in achieving those criteria. NGO’s work for the

people, with the people and by the people. Therefore maintaining healthy

relations with society in order to make awareness about the organization

amongst the people is very crucial factor, which in turn helps in fund

raising for the noble cause.

iii. Non-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the

public to meet their goals.

iv. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to

raise funds and employ standard lobbying techniques with governments.

Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to

influence social and political outcomes.

4.12. LET US SUM UP

Social welfare programmes need qualified and trained personnel for their

successful implementation. Training of social welfare personnel has therefore

assumed substantial significance. Before planning and organizing welfare

189

Notesservices, the objectives of a service must be kept in mind. Without social

cooperation, a community cannot serve since society implies inter-dependence.

Service conditions are very much necessary to lay down as part of the

personnel policy, the terms and conditions under which each worker has to work.

This includes hours of work, pay and allowances, probations, leave, promotions,

resignation, retirement, punishment, appeals etc. These conditions should be

written in a manual and should be given to a new staff member before he joins.

Every staff should therefore clear about attendance, recess or break, leave rules

such as holidays, vacation leave, casual leave, sick leave, earned leave, special

leave, and finally probation period.

With regard to financial administration, all organizations need money.

Alongside staff and money is the one thing that takes up most management time.

Good financial management involves the following four building blocks such as

keeping records, internal control, budgeting and financial reporting. As one of the

tools of financial administration, a budget is a basic means of controlling the

programmes as well as the funds. In other words, it is the programme of work of

the agency expressed in rupees and paise.

Each budget should be accompanied by an explanatory notes interpreting

additional provisions made for new programme or department in the existing

programme giving justification, for an increase or decrease of expenditure on each

item. As the budget is always related to the programme of an organization, it is

desirable to indicate in the explanatory note to the budget estimate, the present

level of activity of an agency with proposals to extend the activities or to start new

activities, so as to make the budget realistic.

Types of Books and Documents to be maintained for accounts

management in NGOs Cash Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book, Bank

Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book, Summary/Daily Petty Cash Book, Journal

Vouchers and Journal, General Ledger, Fixed Assets Register,

190

NotesContract/Registration Documents, Attendance Register, Budget Copies of various

grants, Utilization Certificates, FCRA and other relevant Registration papers,

Copies of Consultancy agreements, Capital assets approvals, File of original bills

of assets purchased, Copies of all Contracts and agreements, Stationery Register,

File containing Bank Mandate and authorized signatories, Quotation file for all

purchases, Advance Payment Register (Advance to third parties & Staff

Advances), Check issue register, Cancelled check register and Donation receipt

issues

With regard to the recording system of NGO’s financial transaction allows

to monitor bank balances, status of funds receipts and expenditures and a

comparative statements of budget vs. actual expenditure on a regular basis. With

regard to book-keeping, NGO will maintain records of fixed assets, petty cash

disbursements, supplies, inventory, the use and maintenance of office equipment.

Funds for NGOs are raised through different methods such as through

writing projects to Funding Agencies, Through Individuals, through sending

public appeal through post / courier, applying projects to Government

Departments, through Corpus donation, Through Cause Related Marketing,

through E- Fund Raising, through events, Pay roll giving, through Corporates, and

receiving in kind donations.

Supervision is a technique of staff developmental and staff management.

Supervision is face to face over-sight of assigned tasks and responsibilities for the

purpose of assuring proper and effective performance. It is not a negative aspect

of fault finding but a positive method of staff development in order to render

better quality service.

Evaluation is important to identify the constraints or bottlenecks that

hinder the project in achieving its objectives. Evaluation also enables the project

planners and implementers to assess the benefits and costs that accrue to the

intended direct and indirect beneficiaries of the project. Evaluation is essential for

191

Notesdrawing lessons from the project implementation experience and using the lessons

in the planning of other projects in that community and elsewhere. The Process of

Evaluation in NGOs is to be done before, during and after implementation of the

projects.

Public relation is a strategic communication process that builds mutually

beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics. Public relations

help an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other.



a. What is the best way to fill a position of a staff in an NGO?

b. What should be prescribed as minimum requirements of a staff in NGO to

be selected?

c. What do you mean by orientation for a staff in NGO?

d. What are the service conditions to be written in a manual if a person is

selected as staff in an NGO?

e. How a promotion is to be made for a staff in an NGO?

f. What are the welfare programmes for the staff in an NGO?


a. What are the four building blocks which the good financial management

should involve?

b. What should summarize in the financial reports and how it is normally

done?

c. What is a budget?

d. Mention any three purposes of the budget?

e. With whom the responsibility of the budget preparation lies?

f. Mention any three guiding principles to be kept in view while preparing

the budget?

g. Specify any five Types of Books and Documents to be maintained for

accounts management in NGOs.

192

NotesCheck Your Progress - 4

a. What is bookkeeping?

b. With regard to bookkeeping, what are records to be maintained in an

NGO?

c. Mention any five bookkeeping on financial records.


a. Mention any three types of supervision

b. List out any three conditions of good supervision?

c. Mention any three don’ts in the process of supervision?


a. Meaning of evaluation

b. When evaluations should be carried out in an NGO?

c. List out any three functions of evaluation

d. What are the types of evaluations?


i. Define Public Relation

ii. Jot down out any 4 objectives of public relation in a welfare agency

iii. Enumerate the classification of public relations work into three main heads

iv. Specify how public relations is important in NGO


Dave Lewis (2011), The Management of Non-governmental Development

Organizations: An Introduction, Volume Five, Publisher- Routledge.

Michael, Edward, D. Hulme (1995), Non-governmental Organizations:

Performance and Accountability, Beyond the Magic Bullet Publisher –

Earthscan.

Noshir H Dadrawala, The Art of Successful Fund Raising, Published by Centre

of Advancement of Philanthropy

193

Notes


Sons.

Paul Chowdhry, (2000), D. Social Welfare Administration, Atma Ram &

Sons, Delhi, Lucknow.

Sachdeva, R. (1990), Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabat.

Sanjay Bhattacharya (2005), Social Work – An Integrated Approach, Deep &

Deep Publications Private Limited, New Delhi.

4.15. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS


a. What is the best way to fill a position of a staff in an NGO?

The best way to fill a position of a staff in an NGO is to advertise the post

in the daily newspapers and call for application.

b. What should be prescribed as minimum requirements of a staff in

NGO to be selected?

For all social work assignments, training in social work should be

prescribed as minimum requirements for staff in NGO to be selected.

c. What do you mean by orientation for a staff in NGO?

Immediately after the staff member joins an agency, it is necessary for the

executive to take him round the agency’s office and or the building where

services are rendered and explain to him the job on which he is employed,

the usual hours of work, introduce him to other people with whom he is

going to work, and give him necessary literature of any relating to the work

of the agency including the manual dealing with the policy and other

aspects of the working of the agency.

194

Notes

d. What are the service conditions to be written in a manual if a person is

selected as staff in an NGO?

It is necessary to lay down as part of the personnel policy, the terms and

conditions under which each worker has to work. This includes hours of

work, pay and allowances, probations, leave, promotions, resignation,

retirement, punishment, appeals etc. These conditions should be written in a

manual and should be given to a new staff member before he joins.

e. How a promotion is to be made for a staff in an NGO?

Every organization must have definite promotion rules which should be

known to an employee when he enters the employment of the agency.

Promotion should be based on educational standards, amount of work

experience, seniority, evaluation of performance and capacity for the new

position. Staff members within the agency should have the first

consideration in filling such vacancies.

f. What are the welfare programmes for the staff in an NGO?

i. Allowances and additional allowances like dearness allowance,

compensatory allowance, rent allowance, transport allowance.

ii. Monetary compensation of services.

iii. Retirement benefits such as the system of provident fund or

gratuity to be subscribed.


a. What are the four building blocks which the good financial

management should involve?

i. Keeping records

ii. Internal control

iii. Budgeting

195

Notesiv. Financial reporting

b. What should summarize in the financial reports and how it is

normally done?

Financial reports should summarise the information held in the cashbook.

This is normally done using a system of codes, to allocate transactions to

different categories. These categories might often be defined by donors.

c. What is a budget?

A budget is a complete financial forecast based on available data, about the

financial condition of the agency during the coming year. It is an estimate

of the proposed expenditure for a specific period, and the purposes, and

proposed means of securing the income required.

d. Mention any three purposes of the budget?

i. To assess the financial requirement of an agency for starting a

fundraising campaign and requesting various grant-giving bodies

for financial assistance

ii. To guide the staff of the agency about the manner of spending

money on various schemes and heads of account

iii. To determine the size of resources required and the sources through

which these could be raised.

e. With whom the responsibility of the budget preparation lies?

Preparation of the budget is the responsibility of the chief executive of the

agency, may be the Manager, director or secretary of a board.

f. Mention any three guiding principles to be kept in view while

preparing the budget?

i. A budget should always give a comparative statement of income

raised and expenditure incurred during the previous years.

196

Notesii. Income and expenditure side should always be balanced by

showing deficit or surplus.

iii. The budget should always be realistic, accurate, and conservative,

keeping in view the resources of the agency.

g. Specify any five Types of Books and Documents to be maintained for

accounts management in NGOs.

i. Cash Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book

ii. Bank Payment/Receipt Vouchers & Book

iii. General Ledger

iv. Fixed Assets Register

v. Contract/Registration Documents


a. What is bookkeeping?

Bookkeeping is basically sorting and organizing financial transaction in a

systematic way. Every financial transaction is allocated to a financial

pigeon hole called account.

b. With regard to bookkeeping, what are the records to be maintained in

an NGO?

With regard to bookkeeping and records, NGO will maintain records of

fixed assets, petty cash disbursements, supplies, inventory, the use and

maintenance of office equipment.

c. Mention any five bookkeeping on financial records.

i. Budget file

ii. Cash book

iii. Acquaintance roll or salary registers

iv. Voucher file

197

Notesv. Bank account (resolution for operating of bank account, pay-in-

slips, pass book, bank conciliation statements)


a. Mention any three types of supervision

i. Supervision of the technical person by administrative or voluntary

supervisor.

ii. Organizational supervision – national to state and state to district.

iii. Financial supervision of and by people having knowledge of

financial rules and regulations.

b. List out any three conditions of good supervision?

i. Qualification for different posts particularly of the supervision and

the supervisee are laid down.

ii. Well-defined administrative structure with clear line of authority

iii. Arrangements for training orientation and refresher course exist in

the organization.

c. Mention any three don’ts in the process of supervision?

i. The supervisor should not criticize the supervisee in the presence

of others.

ii. The supervisor should not undermine the authority or status of the

supervisee by encouraging his subordinates to carry tales against

him or to keep an eye on him.

iii. The supervisor should not give the impression of having any

favourites or showing prejudice against any one.


a. Meaning of evaluation

198

NotesEvaluation is a process of judging value on what a project or programme

has achieved particularly in relation to activities planned and overall

objectives. It involves value judgment and hence it is different from

monitoring.

b. When evaluations should be carried out in an NGO?

Evaluation can and should be done: (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after

implementation of a project.

c. List out any three functions of evaluation

Evaluation is necessary to judge the effectiveness of the program, keeping

in view of the changing needs of the society.

i. Evaluation also helps the agency to understand how far

objectives and the policy laid down by the agency are being

fulfilled and to assess the shortfalls.

ii. Evaluation helps agencies make plans for future work on the

basis of data collected.

d. What are the types of evaluations?

i. Internal evaluations

ii. External evaluation


a. Define Public Relation

Public relation is the management function that identifies, establishes and

maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and

the various publics on whom its success or failure depends.

b. Jot down out any 4 objectives of public relation in a welfare agency

199

Notesi. Keeping the community informed about the problems, the

agency tries to tackle and accordingly services organized

therefore.

ii. Informing the donor as to how their money is being utilized.

iii. Informing prospective beneficiaries about the benefits available

for them through an agency’s services.

iv. Bringing about modifications, if necessary in the attitudes of

people towards social problems.

c. Enumerate the classification of public relations work into three main

heads

i. personnel contacts

ii. visual means

iii. spoken words

d. Specify how public relations is important in NGO

Public relation is vital component in running a nongovernmental

organization as NGO activities are related with people. Maintaining

healthy relations with society in order to make awareness about the

organization amongst the people is very crucial factor, which in turn helps

in fund raising for the noble cause. Non-governmental organizations need

healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals.

200

Notes

UNIT – 5

WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS

PLAN OF STUDY

5.1 Objectives

5.2 Introduction

5.3. Central Social Welfare Board

5.3.1. Historical Perspective

5.3.2. Mission Statement

5.3.3. Vision and objectives

5.3.4. The Board must

5.3.5. Organizational structure

5.3.6. State Social Welfare Boards

5.3.7. Programmes and activities

5.4. Indian Council for Child Welfare (ICCW), Tamilnadu

5.4.1 Vision

5.4.2. Mission and Objectives

5.4.3. Programmes and Activities of ICCW

5.5. Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS)

5.5.1. History and the beginning

5.5.2. Regular Programmes of Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan

5.6. Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA)

5.6.1. History of YMCA

5.6.2. Indian YMCA Movement

5.6.3. The origin of the YMCA movement in India

5.6.4. The genesis of the national council of YMCAs of India

201

Notes5.6.5. Spread of the Indian movement

5.6.6. Spectrum of activities of YMCA

5.6.7. Activities of YMCA Chennai

5.7. Church’s Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA)

5.7.1. History

5.7.2. Growth

5.7.3. Organizational Vision

5.7.4. Mission

5.7.5. Geographical area of work

5.7.6. CASA’S Approach to Development

5.7.7. Development Programmes and Activities of CASA

5.8. CARE INDIA

5.8.1. Introduction and History

5.8.2. CARE International Vision

5.8.3. CARE India Mission

5.8.4. Programmes of CARE India

5.9. Department of Social Welfare

5.9.1. Scheduled Caste Welfare - About the Division

5.9.2. Welfare of Backward Classes - About the Division

5.9.3. Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities - About the Division

5.9.4. Social Defence - About the Division

5.10. Role of Voluntary Non-Government Organization in Social Welfare

5.11. Problems Faced by Voluntary Agencies

5.11.1. What working issues are there in the voluntary sector?

5.11.2. Problems and Issues Faced by NGOs

5.11.3. Problems faced by NGOs in India

5.11.4. Organizational problems of NGOs

5.12. Let Us Sum Up

5.11. Check Your Progress


5.13 Check Your Answers

202

Notes

5.1 OBJECTIVES

This chapter explains about the various welfare organizations and their

programmes. National and international organizations of welfare in nature given

in this chapter will make the students to learn about their various activities

benefitting the needy and poor in all walks of life. At the same time, students are

exposed to learn the problems faced by voluntary organizations.

5.2 INTRODUCTION

A 'Service' is termed as 'Social' if its aim is the enhancement of the welfare

of an individual or the community either through personal effort or by collective

action. Social Services are, therefore, conceived as organised philanthropic actions

to promote human welfare. However, social services are interpreted differently in

different countries. It is restricted to relief services only among the European

countries, whereas in Great Britain and Common wealth Countries it has a wider

meaning and includes health, education, housing welfare etc.

In India, Social Services are generally understood as those activities which

are meant for furthering people's welfare and these include education, public

health activities, social security measures, social insurance, social assistance, child

welfare, corrections, mental hygiene, recreation, labour protection, housing etc.

We have had social welfare programmes, social service organisations, social

reformers and workers in the cause of social welfare in India from the earliest

times. Right through the centuries, commencing with the reign of King Ashoka or

going back even to the days of Buddha, there have been many rulers and many

203

Notesamong the common people of India who trod the path of Service to their fellow

beings and adopted it as a life mission. Mahatma Gandhi's work in this sphere

constitutes a continuance in the present century of the National tradition. The ideal

of social welfare is thus not new to us; it is an integral part of our national

character and history.

Social welfare organisations play a vital role in rendering Social Services in every

country, especially in developing and underdeveloped countries. In this unit we

are discussing about various Welfare Organisation.

5.3 CENTRAL SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD

Introduction:

The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was set up in 1953 with the

objective of promoting social welfare activities and implementing welfare

programmes for women, children and the handicapped through voluntary

organizations. The CSWB is unique in the sense that it was the first organization

in post-Independence era to achieve people's participation for implementation of

welfare programmes for women and children through non-governmental

organization (NGOs).

Presently more than 18,000 NGOs are receiving financial assistance and

guidance from the Board. The programmes implemented by the Board include:

socio-economic programmes for needy/ destitute women, condensed courses of

education and vocational training courses for women and girls, awareness

generation projects for rural and poor women, family counseling centres/voluntary

action bureau, holiday camps for children, welfare extension projects in border

areas, and balwadis, crèches and hostels for working women, etc.

5.3.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

204

NotesThe Central Social Welfare Board came into being existing in an era when

welfare services for the disadvantaged sections of society were not systematised

and the welfare infrastructure was not yet a formal construct. In the newly

independent nation, visionaries such as Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Pt. Govind Vallabh

Pant and Sh. C.D. Deshmukh were preparing the blue print for the holistic

development of all sections of the community against the background of recent

Partition and communal disharmony. Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, veteran social

worker, parliamentarian and member of the Planning Commission was entrusted

the responsibility of standing at the helm of the nascent Board that was perceived

as an interface between the resources of the Government and the energy and

outreach of the voluntary sector.

Voluntary effort in the field of welfare in India during the early fifties was

largely an amorphous and individualistic attempt to provide ‘fire fighting’

measures in areas where extreme marginalisation was taking place. In such a

perspective the first aim of the Board was to promote voluntarism and the setting

up of voluntary organizations. This could not be carried out without any

preliminary baseline data that would provide a direction and purpose to the

implementation of welfare programmes.

In other words, the early days of the Board in an uncharted territory were a

time of determining the felt needs of society and formulating programmes to

address those needs, while simultaneously creating an environment of voluntarism

at every level so that voluntary organizations that could implement these

programmes could be established. This seemingly impossible, Herculean task was

given to the founder Chairperson of the Board, Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh.

In response to the surveys and information collected, a multiplicity of

programmes was designed. Most of these addressed simple needs such as,

balwadis for the children of women workers, Hostels for Working Women and aid

to various organizations that are working for the aged, handicapped and other such

groups. Welfare Extension Projects and Border Area Projects were started in

205

Notesareas where there were no organizations to implement the programmes of the

Board. The Board gave assistance for family welfare, aid to ‘cases of undeserved

want’ – old age, sickness, disablement and unemployment. It also organized

emergency relief in natural disasters. Apart from this, the Board organized

programmes of training in social work and carried out pilot projects.

Over the years, the Board has been steadily evolving into a mature instrument of

social change that has its anchor in the changing realities of our society. In order

to maintain the topicality of its schemes and programmes and to remain

responsive to the needs of society, the Board has been revamping and redesigning

or formulating programmes that best fulfill emerging requirements.

5.3.2 MISSION STATEMENT

As a National Organisation, strive to be recognized as the most progressive

entity for providing services of unequivocal excellence to women and children for

their protection, capacity building and total empowerment. To raise awareness

about the legal and human rights of women and girl child and to run campaigns

against social evils affecting them.

5.3.3 VISION AND OBJECTIVES

The decade perspective of the Central Social Welfare Board encompasses

the following objectives.

5.3.4 The Board must

Act as a change maker with a humanitarian approach by reinforcing

the spirit of voluntarism.

Create an enabling mechanism to facilitate networking of committed

social workers for the empowerment of women and children.

Develop a cadre of sensitive professionals with a gender centric vision

committed to equity, justice and social change.

206

Notes Recommend gender specific policy initiatives to meet the new

challenges for women and children in emerging areas.

Strengthen voluntary organisations and expand coverage of ‘engendered’

schemes in areas where they have not yet reached.

Initiate and strengthen its monitoring role to act as social audit and

guide for the voluntary sector so as to access Government funds as

resource.

Generate awareness about the challenges of a society in transition

where negative use of technologies and practices are impacting on the

wellbeing of women and children.

5.3.5 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The Board is headed by Chairperson. The Board has 56 members in

General Body and 16 members in Executive Committee. The composition of the

General Body and Executive Committee are as follows:-

General Body

Chairperson, CSWB

All Chairpersons of State Social Welfare Boards, (33)

Representatives from the Parliament; two from Lok Sabha and One from

Rajya Sabha.

Five Professionals (one each from Law, Medicine, Social Work, Education

and Social Development and Nutrition)

Three eminent persons with extensive experience of social work.

Representatives from Ministries/Departments

Executive Director, Central Social Welfare Board.

Executive Committee

Chairperson, CSWB

Chairperson of State/Union territories State Social Welfare Boards; -

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Assam, Rajasthan, A&N Islands

207

Notes Representatives of Ministries/Department of Government of India (of the

level of JS) - Ministry of Women and Child Development, Ministry of

Health & Family Welfare, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of

Finance, Ministry of HRD, D/o Secondary & Higher Education, Ministry

of Social Justice & Empowerment, Financial Advisor, Ministry of Women

and Child Development

Professionals - Dr. Amitabha Sen, Dr. Sreerupa Mitra Chaudhury

Executive Director, Central Social Welfare Board.

5.3.6 STATE SOCIAL WELFARE BOARDS

A total of 33 State Social Welfare Board are functioning in each state capital and

union territory of the country with an object to implement various schemes for the

welfare and development of women and children through registered voluntary

organisations. The State Board is headed by a non-official Chairperson who is a

renowned woman social worker of the State. The State Board Members are

nominated on the Board by Central Board and State Government in the ratio of

50:50. These Members normally represent each district of the State.

5.3.7. PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES

5.3.7. a) Short Stay Homes for Women and Girls

Under the scheme, grants are given to Voluntary Organizations, to set up Short

Stay Homes for women and girls, with a view to protect and rehabilitate those

women and girls who are facing social, economic and emotional problems due to

family problems, mental stress, social ostracism, exploitation or other causes are

being forced into prostitution and are in moral danger. The scheme provides

following services / facilities.

(1) Temporary shelter to the needy women and girls from six months to three

years

208

Notes(2) Case work and counselling services

(3) Medical care and psychiatric treatment

(4) Occupational therapy, skill development training and rehabilitation services

(5) Educational, vocational and recreational activities

(6) Follow up by counsellors for those women who have left the Homes, needs to

be done to ensure their well-being and safety

Children accompanying the mother or born in the Home, may be permitted

to stay in the Home up to the age of seven years after which, they may be

transferred to children’s institutions or provided foster care services. The Home

should have an average of 30 inmates at a time with facilities for a minimum of 20

and maximum of 40 residents.

An annual schematic grant to a Short Stay Home varies from Rs 7,00,000

and above for recurring items like maintenance, honorarium of staff, rent of

building, contingencies, medical, rehabilitation and one time grant of Rs 50,000

for non-recurring items like office furniture, bedding and other skill development

equipments. The rent for Short Stay Home varies keeping in view its location in

A, B or C class cities.

5.3.7.b. Family counseling Centres

Under the FCC scheme, counselling, referral and rehabilitative services to

women victims who are in moral danger within the family or society at large

including those affected by disputes, marital discord or maladjustment is provided

free of charge.

The Family Counselling Centre works in close collaboration with local

authorities e.g., Police and institutions like Short Stay Homes and is expected to

intervene in ‘crisis’ cases and in cases of atrocities against women. The Institution

should appoint two counsellors, holding Masters Degree in Social Work or

Psychology. At least one counsellor should be a woman.

209

Notes

5.3.7.c. Condensed course of education for children

The Scheme of Condensed Courses of Education was initiated by CSWB

in 1958 to cater to the needs of adult girls / women who could not join mainstream

education system or were school dropouts. The scheme aims to provide

educational opportunities to girls / women above the age of 15 years along with

additional inputs of skill development /Vocational training. The main focus of the

scheme is to ensure that contents of the course are need-based and modified

according to local requirement, simultaneously targeting various stages of

educational levels of primary / middle / high school and matriculation / secondary

level courses. The programme also aims at instilling confidence among adult

women through education making them able citizens. Selection of candidates is

required to be done by a committee comprising the institution and the Principal /

representative of a local government school of the area where the course is to be

held. The Scheme is being implemented through Voluntary Organisations and

educational institutions, having requisite infrastructure and experience in the field

of women / social development and education across the country.

5.3.7.d Awareness Generation Projects for Rural and Poor Women

Central Social Welfare Board is implementing Awareness Generation

Project programme with the aim of creating awareness in the community on issues

relating to the status, rights and problems of women. Its main objectives are to

identify the needs of rural and poor women, to increase their active participation

in decision making both in the family and community on development issues

including atrocities on women and children.

The objective of the scheme is to increase awareness amongst women on a

set of selected topics so as to both inform and educate them. Topics that can

form part of the camp are:

i. Status of women

210

Notesii. Women and law

iii. Women and health

iv. Community health and hygiene

v. Women, technology and environment

vi. Women and the State Government

vii. Religion, culture and women

viii. Women and economy

ix. Women and social action

x. Panchayats and Gram Sabhas,

xi. National integration and communal harmony

5.3.7.e. Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme for the Children of Working

Mothers

With increasing employment opportunities for women and the growing

need to supplement household income, more and more women are entering the job

market. With the breaking up of joint family system and the increasing number of

nuclear families, working women need support in terms of quality, substitute care

for their young children while they are at work. Creche and Day Care Services are

not only required by working mothers but also women belonging to poor families,

who require support and relief for childcare as they struggle to cope with burden

of activities, within and outside the home.

Schematic Pattern

The Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme was revamped in 2006. The

present scheme will provide assistance to NGOs for running crèches for infants

(0-6 years) and would provide assistance to ensure sleeping facilities, healthcare,

supplementary nutrition, immunisation, etc. for running a creche for 25 infants for

eight hours i.e. from 9:00 a m to 5:00 p m.

5.3.7.f. Innovative Schemes

211

Notes

Although the Central Social Welfare Board has many structured

programmes and schemes for the development of women and children, there are

several issues relating to women and children that are not covered by the existing

schemes and programmes of the Board. Voluntary organizations working in the

field come across problems, which require special interventions. The Central

Social Welfare Board initiated the Innovative Programme for providing coverage

to such groups of women and children whose needs could not be addressed by

existing schemes. Under this scheme an institution is expected to prepare a project

proposal giving details of the area, the requirement of the proposed project, areas

of intervention, methodology, tools, budget, etc.

Areas of Intervention

Counselling services

Skill development through vocational training

Awareness / empowerment camps on various issues for women and

adolescent girls

Health services

Legal aid services

Educational courses for drop-out girls / women

Relief activities for victims of natural and man-made calamities

Disaster management

5.4. INDIAN COUNCIL FOR CHILD WELFARE (ICCW), TAMIL NADU

ICCW is a registered, secular, apolitical, non-profit & a non-governmental

organization, with the sole objective of serving children in distress who are

orphans and destitute. Guided by the aspiration of true Indians, ICCW pursues its

mission with both excellence & compassion.

5.4.1 VISION

212

NotesA society for its children by giving first priority to their needs, rights and

protection thereby ensuring opportunities for the fullest development of the innate

potential of every child leading to the well being and happiness of both.

5.4.2. MISSION AND OBJECTIVES

To ensure for the children their basic human right to survival, physical,

mental and social development and opportunity to grow to their fullest

potential.

To work for the protection of children against neglect, abuse and

exploitation.

To initiate, support or undertake any activity for betterment of families and

communities, which will ultimately enhance the quality of life for children.

To initiate, undertake or aid directly or through District Councils or

Institutional Members, schemes for furtherance of Child

Welfare/Development in Tamil Nadu.

To promote dissemination of knowledge and information and to educate

public opinion of Child Welfare/ Development programs on a scientific

basis.

To promote enactments of legislation relating to matters concerning

children and their welfare and to work towards the implementation of the

provisions.

5.4.3. PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES OF ICCW

5.4.3.a) Protection Rights

i. Crises Intervention Center for Prevention of Child Abuse & Neglect

Child Abuse is a serious violation of Child Right. Children are abused physically,

emotionally and sexually. In many instances the child is abused by Family

members, by Teachers, by Employers and others. It is closely connected to the

attitudes and child rearing practices. Physical punishment, although harmful to the

development of Children, is considered necessary by parents and teachers. Society

is not even willing to acknowledge the presence of sexual abuse.

213

NotesThe center was started in 1994 with a small assistance by the Government of

Tamil Nadu, Department of Social Defense. The main objective of the center is to

rescue children from abusive circumstances and place them in a positive

environment where their rehabilitation will be ensured. Simultaneously the center

aims to create awareness among the stakeholders and thereby prevent abuse of

Children.

ii. Child Line- 1098

CHILD LINE is an emergency 24 hrs free phone service committed to

respond to children in difficult situations & link them to long term services. The

caller can either be the child or a concerned adult. Child Line India Foundation

(CIF) set up by Government of India is responsible to initiate Child Lines. This

facility is currently available in 77 Cities in India. Government of India funds this

programme.

Chennai Child Line: Chennai Child Line was started on 30th April 1999 as a

Government and NGO network. The Council is one among the two collaborative

organizations maintaining round the clock call receiving centre. Child Line works

very closely with the Police, Government Departments and functionaries

operating under Juvenile Justice Act 2000. Job of Child Line as a collaborative

organization responds to calls on 1098, provide emergency interventions, link

children with services and document every call.

Child Line Cuddalore: Child Line India Foundation (CIF) initiated this service

after Tsunami in the year 2005, and is managed entirely by the council.

iii. Prevention of Child Beggary- Juvenile Guidance Bureau

Having found a large number of children forced into begging in the City of

Chennai, the Council has been taking serious efforts since 1994, with a view to

stop them from begging and prevent their exploitation, to help to rehabilitate and

promote development, to mainstream the children into formal schools after they

214

Notesacquire the required learning skills and to provide orientation and family

counseling to parents to motivate them to take up alternative professions that

would fetch them an income.

iv. Adoption Scrutiny Services

Regulation of Inter Country Adoption in India came into effect through a

Supreme Court Judgment in 1984. One of the guidelines of the judgment is that a

notice should be issued to recognized Scrutiny Agency in every case filed in

Courts for a child being adopted, in order to report if the guidelines have been

adhered by the parties and whether it is in the best interest of the child to be

placed with said family. The Council was recognized as the Scrutinizing Agency

for Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry by the High Court of

Madras in 1985.

The Court directs the Council to scrutinize every application filed before

the Court both for purposes of Inter Country Adoption and In- Country Adoption.

The Scrutiny Officer visits the concerned institution/family, sees the child and

examines the documents and statements and submits its report to the court. The

purpose of the Scrutiny is to verify that the said adoption is in the interest of the

child and to verify that the said organizations have followed all the guidelines and

norms stipulated by various authorities in all stages of the adoption process.

v. Action program on Child Labour at Srivilliputtur, Virudhunagar Dt.

One major problem infringing on the right of children is the problem of

Child Labour in the Match and Fire Works Industry in the District of

Virudhunagar.

Child labourers are the most sought after employees in the Srivilliputhur

Match Industries in Virudhunagar District. Children between the age group of 7 to

14 years are employed for various purposes in this industry. It has been a

215

Noteschallenge to change the practice of employing children. The Action Programme

on Child Labour, was started in 1992 in 10 villages in Srivilliputhur Block and has

since made great strides in creating awareness & in reducing the number of child

labourers in this area.

The Project started with the support from International Labour

Organization ILO and later with Aide at Action. At present the project is entering

phase II by empowering the community to care for the children.

vi. Child Labour Relief Project, Vellore

Child Labour in Beedi Industry has been declared hazardous and has been

prohibited by the Child Labour (Abolition & Regulation) Act 1986. However, the

practice of employing children for rolling beedis continued. In order to prevent

this heinous practice and ensure the rights of children, the Council launched a

special project in Vellore in the year 1985. Till 2005, ICCW continued to work in

16 villages for eradicating child labour in the Beedi sector. The project has

evolved as a support programme for promoting quality education and active

community participation. Objectives of the Project are to protect the rights of

children and ensure their right to education and development. Main focus is

working towards sustainability through community participation.

5.4.3.b. SURVIVAL RIGHTS

i. Creche Program

The Council is one of the pioneer organizations providing early childhood

care in TamilNadu. In 1954 a Balwadi programme was started to provide health

care, nutrition and pre-school education for children of 3-5 yrs old, coming from a

weaker section of the society. In 1976, a scheme for Creches, focusing on the

needs of pre-school children of working mothers. The Council converted its

Balwadis into Creches & explained the programme to 127 creches in 14 Districts.

216

NotesObjectives of the Project is to provide day care services for children below 5 yrs

of working women belonging to poorer sections of society and to provide holistic

care for the children's physical, mental and emotional development.

ii. Mother & child Welfare Project at Usilampatti, Madurai Dt.

Indian Council for Child Welfare, Tamil Nadu initiated its fight against the

practice of Female Infanticide in 1988 with a small grant from National Children's

Fund. Working in the 309 hamlets of the Usilampatti Taluk, the project has gone

through many phases. The Project in the year 2006 has entered into the 17th year

and has not recorded any case of female infanticide, since the year 2000. The

present focus of the project is to consolidate these changes and support the

community to evolve collective decision making mechanisms so that the changes

can be institutionalized.

The women's programme is moving towards sustainability and assuming

responsibility for the community at large

Training in Life skill for adolescent boys and girls.

Supporting the emergence of a strong federation of Self Help Groups

capable of protecting and promoting the rights of children particularly girl

children.

iii. Prevention of Female Infanticide at Salem & Dharmapuri Dts.

In 2000 Census, Tamil Nadu emerged as a state having very low sex ratio

between men and women, in the Districts of Salem, Dharmapuri and Theni

(Salem- 929, Dharmapuri- 928, Theni- 979). The reason for the difference was

ascribed practice of Female Infanticide and its newer form of Female Foeticide

prevalent in the Districts. Against this, the Tamil Nadu government invited the

Council to lead a advocacy program against the practice of Female Infanticide and

for promoting the rights of girl children.

217

NotesThe central focus of this program is to sensitize the community regarding rights of

the children and create awareness among the local people & community based

organizations working in the Districts. The adolescent girls who are in the

threshold of life, community leaders and women's groups are targeted for training

as change agents. In all the advocacy and training programs emphasis is being

given to the protection of child rights, particularly girl children.

5.4.3.c. RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION

i. Information, Documentation and Research Center

The Center started in 1993, as a need was felt for information and

documentation specifically on children's issues. The main objective of IDRC are

compilation, documentation and dissemination of information on women and

children in India particularly in Tamilnadu and to make it available to all

concerned with child development. The center has a library, which provides

valuable background materials for research.

ii. Advocacy

The aim of the project is to spread awareness on child protection rights

among children and to sensitize, stakeholders in particular and civil society in

general on the need and importance of child protection against neglect, abuse,

exploitation, discrimination as also protection in times of calamities.

Through this project, ICCW has created a cadre of sensitizing and trained

facilitators in every districts of Tamil Nadu so that they will in turn conscientize

and empower the children and the community in the respective Districts and also

acquaint themselves with possible intervention strategies to help create an

enabling protective environment. As ensuring Child Rights and Child Protection

rests largely with adults, sensitizing workshops for adult stakeholders in each

District are being conducted.

218

Notes

5.4.3.d. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

i. Kumbakonam Project

Subsequent to the terrible fire accident at Krishna School in Kumbakonam,

ICCW, TN has undertaken the above project. Started in December 2005 the aim

of this project is to strengthen the capacity of Schools in the areas, to prevent the

disasters, to deal with emergencies and develop counseling skills among teachers.

ii. Tsunami Project

Tsunami struck the Tamil Nadu coast on 26th December 2005. Since then the

Council has been working in four Districts- Kanyakumari, Nagapatnam,

Cuddalore & Kancheepuram. The range of work covers direct assistance to

children repairs and reconstruction in Schools, assistance to families for livelihood

building of houses etc. through this project, ICCW does the following activities

Counselling and financial assistance of monthly sponsorship to 2356

orphans or single parent children in all the four Districts.

3 feeding centers for infants in Kanyakumari.

Repairs, additional building works, supply of furniture, out door play

equipments and teaching aids in 37 schools in 3 Districts.

Assistance to 61 ICDS Centers with training for the Angalwadi workers

and supply of teaching aids.

Formation of Children's Club in Villages.

219

Notes5.4.2.e. DEVELOPMENTAL RIGHTS

i. Residential Center for disadvantaged and differently abled Children

A large number of rural based disabled children hailing from the poor

socio-economic background are deprived of opportunities for medical and other

rehabilitation services. The Council through its well-knit District level Councils

and network of other NGO's receive such children at the Chennai based residential

Child Care Center. They are provided with services like surgeries, physiotherapy,

orthotics aids, counseling, special school and sponsorship assistance.

ii. Sponsorship

This program of the Council aims at providing children with financial

assistance and counselling services. This is provided mainly to help them pursue

formal education & vocational training later. The programme focuses on children

from the economically weaker sections. These children are usually stopped from

going to school and are sent to work or placed in institutions such as orphanages,

children's homes etc., The Council helps such children through this program to

live their own families and continue their education. Special preferences are given

to physically challenged children and girls.

Apart from financial support and counseling, need-based training

programmes, health camps, leisure and cultural events are also organized every

year for the children and parents. The programme covers children in the City of

Chennai and girl children of Usilampatti and Chellampatti Blocks of Madurai

District. As part of the Tsunami rehabilitation 2047 children receive support under

this scheme.

iii. Counseling and Guidance Services of Handicapped Children

The main objective of this wing is to provide psychological support and

guidance to physically and mentally challenged children. They and their

220

Notesimmediate families are helped to accept the disability and motivate them to

become active participants in the rehabilitation process. The services provided are

early identification of disabilities, counselling services, referral services,

institutional placements, and medical care. The wing provides financial assistance

for their education and organizes awareness and health camps. Parents are

encouraged and guided to avail the existing facilities with Government and in the

community.

iv. Karur Education & Development Project

Indian Council for Child Welfare Tamilnadu accepted the invitation from

E.LECLERC, a French importer of textiles and their local suppliers Corporate

Alliance for Social Initiative (CASI) to be a partner in their efforts to build a

quality school for the children of Karur district, a center for weaving. The school

is located at Panchamadevi Village. Indian Council for Child Welfare Tamil Nadu

has agreed to be their partner till the school and vocational training centre are

functioning successfully. Later, it is proposed to handover the project to CASI.

Objectives of the Project

To promote holistic development through quality education in a joyful

learning environment particularly to the children of textile workers and to

prevent child labour.

To provide vocational training to children in trades related to textile

industry and ensure their employability as adults.

To enhance the capability of parents to understand the needs of their

children.

221

Notes5.5. NEHRU YUVA KENDRA SANGATHAN (NYKS)

5.5.1. History and the beginning

In the year 1987-88, Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan(NYKS) was set up as

an autonomous organization under the Government of India, Ministry of Youth

Affairs and Sports, to oversee working of these Kendras. NYKS is the largest

grassroots level organization; one of its kind in the world. It channelizes the power

of youth who are in the age group of 13-35 years on the principles of voluntarism,

self-help and community participation.

Over the years, Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan has established a network

of youth clubs in villages, where Nehru Yuva Kendras have been set up. NYKS

has targeted to identify areas of harnessing youth power for development by

forming Youth Clubs, which are village level voluntary action groups of youth at

the grassroots level to involve them in nation building activities. The core strength

of NYKS lies in its network of youth clubs. Youth Clubs are village based

organizations working for community development and youth empowerment.

Youth Clubs are composed of youth members ranging between the age

group of 13-35 years. The basic objective for creation of youth clubs is to render

community support through developmental initiatives involving activities with

particular focus on youth empowerment. The implementation of programmes and

activities of youth clubs is based on local needs and requirements by mobilizing

resources from various government departments and other agencies, which

include both national, State level and multilateral institutions. The youth clubs and

its member volunteers form the base of the NYKS's vast national rural network.

222

Notes5.5.2. Regular Programmes of Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan

a) Youth Awareness Campaign

Through this programme each NYK identifies 5 sports/ games suitable to

local talent/ aptitude of the youth, and 5 social themes for awareness and activity

campaigns. While the campaign is on, new clubs are also formed in the villages

untouched so far in the district. In the campaign emphasis is added on turning the

lesser active clubs into more active and vibrant ones

b) Meeting of Youth Leaders

Objective of such meetings of the NYK workers and experts with the rural

youth leaders of the clubs is to enable them to plan various programmes and to

formulate strategy to tackle contingencies and to review the ongoing activities for

mid-course corrections if needed.

c) Capacity Building of Youth for Social Sector programmes/ activities

Through this programme, the NYK in a district trains representatives of

various youth clubs to take up concern with the public on those five social issues

which were identified earlier in the Youth Awareness campaign. The training

enables the youth to be effective disseminator of knowledge, information and

motivational talks/ subject matter on the identified social issues that touch and

influence lives of the local people intimately.

d) Skill up gradation Training Programme (SUTP) for women in 100

Border / Tribal / Backward Districts

The programme aims at enhancing skills of women for self-employment.

223

Notese) Incentive to Youth Clubs

Objective of this programme is to recognize the community work rendered

by youth clubs through monitory incentives to the top ranking youth clubs, and to

develop competitive spirit among the youth clubs.

f) Meetings of District/State Advisory Committee on Youth Programmes

(DACYP/SACYP)

The DACYP meetings for every NYK with the District Administrative

authorities are meant to inform the district development offices about the annual

action plan of the NYK, the programmes and funds sanctioned by the Union Min

of Youth Affairs and Sports for the youth of the district, and to report about the

progress of the action plan. The DACYP, chaired by the Deputy Commissioner/

Distrist Magistrate/ Collector, also decides about the use of the NYK and its

network for delivering to the people certain development plans and activities of

the state government. Making linkages for the purpose of information, monitoring,

course-correction, and creation of more youth programmes through convergence

of resources is another objective of the DACYP. Similarly, the State Advisory

Committee for Youth programme (SACYP) does the similar job but at the state

level and with the cumulative strength of all NYKs in the state.

g) Provision of Sports Material for Youth Clubs

Objective of the programme is to provide basic sports material to youth

clubs for undertaking sports activities and to popularize sports.

h) Block and District Level Sports Tournaments and Sports Material

Purchase

Through this programme each NYK organizes sports tournaments on the

identified games for the youth clubs in its network in the district. It also provides

224

Notesan opportunity to winners of the lower rung league matches to participate in the

upper level tournaments like intra-Block and inter-Block tournaments at the

district level.

i) District/state Youth Awards (Individual)

The objective of the programme is to give public recognition and

felicitation to those youth leaders who have shown exemplary volunteership and

outstanding work or a set of works for the community in one or many sectors of

development.

j) Celebration of Important National and International Days

This programme aims at generating awareness about the importance and

significance of various national and international days. Through such celebrations

NYK endeavors to inculcate values and ethics of the days among youth.

k) Celebration of National Youth Day and Week (12th of January to 19th

of January)

Objective of this programme is to generate awareness on the importance of the

philosophy and teachings of Swami Vivekananda and to promote voluntary action

programmes.

l) Work Camp (Shram Daan)

This is one of the most important values-promotion programmes of NYK,

and has been conducted throughout the history of NYK scheme and the NYKS.

Through this programme, the NYK promotes spirit of volunteerism, dignity of

labour and co-operation among the members of the youth club for creating

community assets.

225

Notesm) District Youth Convention

The District Youth Convention is planned to sensitize youth on the social

and national issues and to prepare certain features of Annual Action Plan of the

next year through mutual discussion on the local needs and requirements.

n) Documentation at District & State level

Documentation of all activities, data, events and processes of

empowerment of youth in the district is an important activity by itself; and this

programme takes care of this imperative of the NYK work.

Certain youth clubs are selected every year for financial grants to

encourage voluntary service by the youth in the community and to provide

assistance to such youth clubs. The objective of this programme is to recognize

the voluntary services of youth clubs for community development.

o) Exhibition for Youth on Handicraft (Yuva Kriti) and State Cultural

Festival

Objective of the programme is to provide opportunity to young artisans

and artists to exhibit their talents and to promote folk culture, folk lore and folk

dances.

p) Rajiv Gandhi Adventure Scheme

Objective of the programme is to provide opportunity to rural youth for

participation in adventure activities and to promote adventure activities among the

rural youth.

226

Notesq) Youth Festival for North Eastern Region

This festival was started as a programme in the current financial year.

Purpose of holding this mini youth festival in the North East is to recognize the

special talents, traditional richness and cultural heritage of societies in the North

eastern states of India. The programme recognizes the talent and skills of the

artists and artisans of that area; shares and appreciates traditional and cultural

heritage of the tribes in the North east and encourages the young participants to

develop friendship with the people belonging to other parts of the country.

r) National Convention of NSVs and NYSs

Objective of the programme is to create among the National Service

Volunteers awareness about the national and social issues of critical importance.

s) Need Based Special Programmes

Objective of this programme is to support local need-based projects, to provide

the financial assistance to the field offices for undertaking projects in the area of

natural calamities, man-made disaster, etc.

5.6. YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION (YMCA)

5.6.1. History of YMCA

For over 150 years, the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) has

spread its wings across the world. Founded on June 6, 1844 in London, the

Association is now one of the world's largest volunteer organizations, spreading

the message of fellowship and brotherhood. Today, YMCA has more than 10,000

local associations in 130 countries, with thirty million members.

It was George Williams, a businessman, and a group of friends who initiated the

YMCA to care for the spiritual and physical needs of young men who came from

227

Notesrural Britain to find a living in the oppressive conditions of London's urban

society. The YMCA movement achieved a major breakthrough in 1851 when an

industrial exhibition was held in London. Over sixty million people flocked from

all over the globe to the Crystal Palace. They were given free literature about the

YMCA by the central organization. They took the idea back to their own

countries and formed similar associations there. The Americans were the first to

set up a YMCA outside London. The first YMCA in the United States was set up

in December 1851 at Boston. They were followed by Canada. It was from the

North American YMCA movement that the first professional YMCA secretary

came to India in 1889.

Sir George Williams and his group of friends were all committed to the

Christian Faith. They wished to share their faith with the young men who were

caught up in social problems of their day. George Williams was the youngest of a

large family. His parents were farmers near Bridgewater in Somerset, England. He

worked for some time as an apprentice with a small tailor in Dulverton. He

experienced a 'conversion' on Ludgate Hill near St. Paul's Cathedral, London. It

was here that the YMCA was founded. Today, the YMCA membership is open to

men and women of all faiths and of none.

5.6.2. Indian YMCA Movement

The YMCA received a rather reluctant welcome in India, unlike in

England and America. The concept of the YMCA appeared strange in the socio-

religious and cultural milieu prevailing in India in those days, when there was

hostility to anything alien. Initially, the Association started working among the

educated urban middle class, identified as the most articulate and self-conscious in

British India, which provided intellectual, social and political leadership to the

country. It took nearly two decades, from 1881 to 1910, for the YMCA to

acclimatize itself and find avenues for developing its programmes in India. With

the passing of time and the ensuing changes, the YMCA came into its own in the

service of Indian youth, making a permanent contribution to the building of

228

Notesmodern India. The first Indian YMCA was set up in 1857 in Calcutta, followed by

Bombay in 1875 and others in Calcutta, Madras and Trivandrum. Within 15 years,

there were 35 associations in places like Shimla, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Nagpur

and Pune. With the opening of Madras YMCA, membership was available to all

Indians, irrespective of race, caste or creed. Today, membership also includes

women.

5.6.3. The origin of the YMCA movement in India

The YMCA tradition is not new to India. Way back in 1857 synchronous

with the First War of India’s independence, the very first YMCA in Asia took

roots in the-then Calcutta, the second Capital of the British Empire. In 2007 the

Indian YMCA movement joined the YMCA Calcutta in celebrating the 150 years

of the YMCA in India. The National Council of YMCAs of India was formed on

Madras on February 21, 1891 through the initiative of David McConaughy, who

also became the first National Secretary of what then was called the Indian

National Council of YMCAs, the forerunner of the National Council of YMCAs

of India. The national headquarters shifted to 5, Russell Street in May, 1902 and

in 1964, it finally shifted to the old one-storey Massey Hall where it was located

till 1975 with the very last relocation thereafter till date in the three-storied Bharat

Yuvak Bhavan on Jai Singh Road, New Delhi-110001 in 2002.

5.6.4. The genesis of the national council of YMCAs of India

David McConaughy convened an All-India Convention of the 35 local

associations along with a few smaller associations set up in the London Mission

area of Travancore by lay Missionaries, Dr. E. Sherwood Fry of Neyyoor. The

Convention, during February 20-21, 1891 at the Madras Association of the

YMCA in Esplanade adopted a Resolution for constituting a National Council.

The first Indian National Committee comprised 17 persons. The headquarters for

the National Committee was in Madras for one year and the Convention

unanimously elected Mr. S. Sathianadhan as Chairman, W.R. Arbuthnot as Hony.

229

NotesTreasurer and David McConaughy as its first Secretary. The national headquarters

was situated in Calcutta between 1891 and 1964 at 9, Russell Street and later at 5,

Russel Street, finally shifting to New Delhi in 1964 at Bharat Yuvak Bhawan, 1,

Jai Singh Road. The National Council celebrated its centenary in 1991. The first

Indian Bishop V.S. Azariah was the first Indian YMCA Secretary and K.T. Paul

OBE, an associate of the Mahatma Gandhi, the first Indian National General

Secretary in 1916.

5.6.5. Spread of the Indian movement

The India YMCA Movement has 588 affiliated and 450 non-affiliated

local associations across nine Regions of the country with the membership

standing at around 2 lakhs, comprising both men and women. There are at present

140 YMCA Professional on the national cadre of Secretaries in India. The Indian

YMCA is the second largest network of YMCAs in the world next only to the

USA and is an affiliate of the World Alliance of YMCAs and the Asia and Pacific

Alliance of YMCAs which groups 27 member-movements. The Indian YMCA is

a Christ-centred, youth-focused and mission-oriented movement. The YMCA

mission in contemporary India was defined and adopted at the XXIXth National

Triennial Convention of the National Council of YMCAs of India at Madurai,

Tamil Nadu in 1998.

5.6.6. Spectrum of activities of YMCA

a. Youth work

Catch ‘them young’ Programmes

HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention Juvenile Delinquency

Prevention

National/Regional Youth Assembly Capacity-Building and

Empowerment

National/Regional Youth Forum Vocational Training and Career

Guidance

230

Notes Youth and Tourist Hostel/Transit Guest rooms Leadership

Development

Youth and Cultural Exchange

b. Women and children

Capacity-Building and Empowerment

National/Regional Women’s Assembly Gender Equity

National/Regional Youth Forum Gender Sensitization Programmes

High School YMCAs (Hi-Ys) Girl Child

University YMCAs (Uni-Ys) HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention

Camps and Retreats Leadership Development

Street Children Programme Children’s sit-and-draw and Inter-School

Contests

Mahila Mandals Entrepreneurship /Self-Help Group (SHG)/ Micro-

Credit Group (MCG)

c. Mission and development centres

Civil-Society Building

Training of Trainers (TOT) Community Development

Rural Regeneration Human Right Promotion

Boys’ Home 'Keep City Clean’ Campaign

Mission Concerns and Review Justice and Peace Concerns

Ecumenical Formations Substance Abuse Prevention

Christian Emphasis Citizen’s Forum

Justice and Peace Concerns Spread of Information through Media and

Publications

Free Eye-Camp Night Schools, Anganwadis and Balwadis (Pre

Schools)

d) Sport and games

231

Notes Aquatics

Kabbadi and Kho-Kho Basketball

Shuttle-badminton Cricket

Snooker and Billiards Football

Volleyball Gymnastics

Weight-lifting Hockey

Table Tennis Judo, Karate and Taekwondo

College/School of Physical Education

e) National issues

Model Parliament

Inter-faith Dialogue HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention

Literacy Programme Environmental Protection

Informal Education Disaster Response and Management

Minority Issues Interface with Christian MPs and

Legislators

Promotion of National Integration and Communal

Harmony

f) International relations

Inter-Movement Cooperation

Global Celebrations Experiential Interface Youth Exchange

Programmes

Asia Pacific Consultations and Workshops Staff and Lay Leaders

Exchange Visits

Indian Students Hostel in London YMCA/YWCA Week of Prayer and

World

Fellowship

Leadership at World Alliance and Asia and Pacific Alliance

5.6.7. Activities of YMCA Chennai

232

Notesa) Sports

i. Outdoor Activities: Most of the Madras YMCA Branches have got

facilities for outdoor games like Volleyball, Tennis, Basket ball, etc.

YMCA also trains people in Karate, Kung fu, Taek woo do, swimming

and yoga.

ii. Indoor Activities: All the branches in the city have got facilities for

indoor games like table tennis, billiards, Carom and shuttle. YMCA also

trains people in these games.

iii. Athletics and Sports Meets: The Physical Activities Committee of

Madras YMCA conducts regularly a sports meet for Children below 12

years and other events periodically especially for youth.

iv. Gymnasium: Once a popular feature in our YMCA, will resume shortly as

a modern gymnasium at Vepery Youth Centre.

v. Clubs

A Club for High School Students: It is a club for High School students, which

meets once in a month where debates, seminars, quiz programmes are conducted

for their all- round development. They are taken out for camps and picnics and

to participate in regional and National level meetings.

A Club for University Students: It is a club for University students, which also

meets once in a month in all the branches and participates in debates, seminars

and quiz programmes. Members of University club also get an opportunity to

attend World meets, International camps as well as training programmes

organized by YMCAs throughout the world.

Men’s Club for business and professional category of members: It is a club

consisting of membership from business and professional category of members to

233

Notesserve the community through the Madras YMCA. Many members had the

privilege of visiting many YMCAs abroad.

Masters Club to learn the art of public speaking: It is a club for people to learn

the art of public speaking, which meets once a week at a few branches. This club

has produced some of the top class bureaucrats and politicians of our country.

5.6.7.b Social/ Entertainment:

Cultural and Social activities: In almost all the branches, social and

entertainment programmes are regularly conducted for the benefit of the members.

The Cultural and Social activities committee of Madras YMCA conducts a folk

dance competition every year regularly for the school children to promote the

traditional dance of our country.

5.6.7.c. Community Services

The Madras YMCA runs three community centers in the city for the benefit of the

slum dwellers and the under-privileged children. Apart from this, two orphanages

and two schools are run for the benefit of the poor people. Different trades are

taught to help them earn their livelihood.

5.7. CHURCH’S AUXILIARY FOR SOCIAL ACTION (CASA).

5.7.1. History

At the stroke of midnight, on 15th August 1947 India awoke to freedom. The cost

of this freedom was phenomenal in terms of loss of property and human lives as a

consequence of partition. The exchange of population across borders forced

millions to live in alien surroundings and subhuman conditions. In this hour of

agony and grief, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru requested his very close friend Bishop

Picket to initiate a response from the Indian Protestant and Orthodox Churches.

On his request, the National Council of Churches in India responded by forming

the ‘NCC Relief Committee’ for immediate response as an expression of

solidarity with the suffering masses, which later went on to become the Church’s

Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA).

234

Notes

5.7.2. Growth

Though its initial focus was on providing immediate relief to victims of

natural and human induced calamities, CASA has today grown into a premier

relief and development organization in the country, acting as the outreach arm of

24 Protestant and Orthodox Churches in India. Its primary objective today is to

strengthen the poor and promote the efforts of marginalized groups of the Indian

society towards sustainable development leading to social justice and self-

sufficiency. While CASA is a Christian organisation constituted and supported by

the Churches, its outlook is secular and it is mandated by the Indian Protestant and

Orthodox Churches to carry out its interventions irrespective of religious, ethnic,

caste or political considerations.

CASA’s registered headquarters are located in New Delhi. It has

established 3 Zonal offices in the cities of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, and 18

sector offices in Guwahati, Imphal, Aizawl, Dimapur, Shillong, Bhubaneshwar,

Ranchi, Lucknow, Indore, Raipur, Udaipur, Nagapattinam, Cuddalore,

Tirunelveli, Allapuzha, Bapatla, Port Blair and Shimla, from where its country-

wide programmes are implemented and monitored by more than 500 employees.

We are operational in more than 4,500 villages with around 350 partner

organisations. Financial support for our programmes comes mainly from Indian

Churches, Government Agencies, and from multilateral grants made by

ecumenical resource channelling agencies from overseas, corporate bodies and

socially-concerned individuals who make a small but significant financial

contribution to the programmes of CASA.

5.7.3. Organizational Vision

235

NotesCASA's vision is inspired by the Christian faith and values. CASA

visualizes a society in which peace, justice and equality prevail and wherein all

citizens – irrespective of caste, creed, language and religion – love in peace and

communal harmony. CASA also envisages a society where the poor, women, the

marginalized and the underprivileged lead a quality life with dignity and have

equal opportunity for their involvement in the development process which is value

based and sustainable, and also have an appropriate environment to develop their

fullest potential.

5.7.4. Mission

CASA actively supports and works for a just and sustainable society by

creating opportunities for the participation of socially and economically

marginalized sections in the development process through networking, alliance

building and strengthening of their organization. CASA also supports local self-

governance, peace and reconciliation and sustainable livelihood measures and

responds to the environmental issues, natural and manmade disasters and strives to

bring the victims to the mainstream while upholding the human dignity. CASA

promotes gender mainstreaming at all appropriate levels, mobilizes resources in

favour of the poor and optimises all potentials and capacities existing within the

organization and other partners.

5.7.5. Geographical area of work

CASA works in almost all the states in India. It has its presence in 26

States and Union Territories in India. They are:

CASA’s registered headquarters are located in New Delhi. It has

established 3 Zonal offices in the cities of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, and 18

sector offices in Guwahati, Imphal, Aizawl, Dimapur, Shillong, Bhubaneshwar,

Ranchi, Lucknow, Indore, Raipur, Udaipur, Nagapattinam, Cuddalore,

236

NotesTirunelveli, Allapuzha, Bapatla, Port Blair and Shimla, from where its country-

wide programmes are implemented and monitored by more than 500 employees.

We are operational in more than 4,500 villages with around 350 partner

organisations.

5.7.6. CASA’S Approach to Development

CASA since its inception in 1947 has been working for eradication of

poverty and injustice. In this quest, it has always sided with the poor and the

marginalized. Initiated as a relief organization, today CASA is involved in disaster

response, management and people centered empowerment oriented interventions

throughout the country. The work of CASA has had significant impact on issues

of its concerns—addressing structural poverty being the key area. In its

determination to always be on the side of the poor and the marginalized, CASA

has sought to be relevant through adopting a process of organizational and context

assessments on a periodic basis. This periodic assessment has enabled CASA to

be contextual, relevant and led to integration of the needs and aspirations of its

reference community in its organizational and programme functions. This is

reflected in its shift from a need based approach IN THE 1980s to issue based

movement oriented one in the 1990s and subsequently now to Rights Based

Approach (RBA) from the dawn of the new millennium. The Participatory

Strategic Planning (PSP) and other process have resulted in identification of key

thrust areas and articulation of the perspective plan for the current decade. This

perspective plan of CASA articulated for the period 2003-2013 establishes RBA

as the key instrument for addressing poverty, inequality and injustice and the need

for its integration in the work of empowering the poor.

The Core Programme of CASA (direct intervention) initiated in the early

1980s initially focused on building and strengthening Community Based

Organizations (CBOs) of the marginalized sections. These organizations are the

pivot for addressing issues affecting the life of the reference communities through

a process oriented approach and are owned and managed by the community itself.

237

Notes

The thrust in the 90’s was on linking efforts at the micro level with macro

actions for sustainable change. The role of CASA also significantly changed to

that of a facilitator. Networking, advocacy and collective action towards

strengthening people’s movements became the major strategies for development

action.

The core programme areas have created platforms which play an important

role in facilitating peoples’ movement by promoting dialogues, discussions,

collective action and required support in terms of knowledge, awareness and

skills. The resource centers at different locations (in Core Programme areas) are a

strategic intervention in the people centered, owned and process oriented approach

to empowerment pursued by CASA and known as the PAT Centres (People’s

Action for Transformation).

The Cross Cutting Thematic Areas of CASA’s programmatic interventions are :

a) Humanitarian

b) Development Initiatives to address Structural Poverty

c) Gender Mainstreaming

d) Climate Change

e) Local Capacities for Peace and 'Do No Harm'

5.7.7. Development Programmes and Activities of CASA

It can be divided into three categories.

a) Direct Programmes: The Core Programme

The Core Programme of CASA, which are the direct interventions by the

staff of CASA among the reference communities. There is a Round Table

mechanism consisting of some of the key resource agencies in the ecumenical

field, which support these interventions. CASA tries to address the issue of

structural poverty through Rights Based Approach and strengthening people's

238

Notesorganisations in the villages. There are 33 Village Resource Centres, known as the

PAT Centres (People's Action for Transformation) across the country which

implements these programmes. The Core programme is operational in as many as

4.500 villages across the country.

b. Package Programmes: Collective Forms of Cooperation (CFC)

The Second category is the CFC (Collective Forms of Cooperation),

popularly known as the “Package Programme”, where CASA does not implement

the programmes directly but plays the role of an accompanier. It supports smaller

NGOs and channelise the resources for the programme interventions received

from various resource agencies. CASA supports these NGOs in a long term basis

for a maximum period of 10 years. There are as many as 350 partner organisations

have been supported by CASA in the CFC interventions so far.

This was initiated in the year 1988 as an enduring partnership with a

shared conviction and commitment between CASA, the Programme implementing

Organizations (PIOs) and EED as the resource-sharing partner.

The following are the CFC Programmes of CASA (alphabetically arranged):

Community Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP)

Development Initiative in Western Orissa

Development Programme in North East India (DPNEI)

Empowerment of NGOs in West Bengal

Food for Community Development Programme

Local Capacities for Peace, South Asia

Lymphatic Filariasis Programme in Orissa

Material Aid Section (MAS)

Rajasthan Development Project – Phase III / Rajasthan Vikash Manch

Regional Inter Agency Partnership (RIAP) between India, Bangladesh,

Nepal and Sri Lanka)

West Bengal Community Based Disaster Preparedness Programme.

239

Notes3. Bilateral Programmes

There are certain strategic partnership programmes of CASA which are

carried out with certain partners with specific focus and strategy where both

CASA and the concerned partner organisation share the financial as well as

human resources to achieve a common goal. Some of the Bilateral programmes of

CASA is being carried out with the HRLN (Human Rights Law Networks), CHRI,

etc.

5.8. CARE INDIA

5.8.1. Introduction and History

CARE has been working in India for over 60 years, focusing on ending

poverty and social injustice. CARE India does this through well-planned and

comprehensive programmes in health, education, livelihoods and disaster

preparedness and response. Our overall goal is the empowerment of women and

girls from poor and marginalised communities leading to improvement in their

lives and livelihoods. We are part of the CARE International Confederation

working in 84 countries for a world where all people live in dignity and security.

5.8.2. CARE International Vision

CARE International seeks a world of hope, tolerance and social justice,

where poverty has been overcome and people live in dignity and security. CARE

International will be a global force and a partner of choice within a worldwide

movement dedicated to ending poverty. CARE International will be known

everywhere for their unshakable commitment to the dignity of people. In India,

CARE seeks a society which celebrates diversity, where rights are secured,

citizenship realized, and human potential fulfilled for all.

5.8.3. CARE India Mission

240

Notes

CARE India facilitates the empowerment of women and girls from poor

and marginalised communities in the fight to overcome poverty, exclusion and

social injustice. CARE India nurtures leadership internally and among partners to

achieve this mission.

5.8.4. Programmes of CARE India

a) Girls’ Education Programme

CARE’s Girls’ Education Programme (GEP) has been in operation for

over 10 years Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha and Haryana and plays a vital role in

achieving CARE’s long term goal of reaching out to 2 million women, girls, and

other marginalised people to enhance their abilities to exercise greater choice in

personal and public spheres by 2014. GEP seeks to improve opportunities for girls

and women through their increased participation in formal and alternative

education systems.

GEP builds upon innovative pilot projects and strategic partnerships that

have made important improvements in access to and quality of education for girls,

especially among poor, marginalised and vulnerable girls. Realising that there are

multi-tiered bottlenecks around issues of access, availability and quality of

education, the programme, in partnership with the government of India, addresses

the problems on many levels, including both within the formal school system and

though a number of alternative approaches to schooling.

b) Udaan (Flight School)

Udaan (Flight) school was piloted in Uttar Pradesh in the year 1999 in the

district of Hardoi, through an accelerated learning model, for older out-of-school

girls, ages 9-14, which allows students to complete primary school in 11 months

in a residential setting. Udaan School in Uttar Pradesh has currently the eleventh

batch of girls who are going to pass out of the school into mainstream formal

241

Notesschools. The success of this model has been replicated by CARE in another state,

Orissa, in one of its tribal dominated districts, Mayurbhanj which targets the most

disadvantaged tribal girls residing in remote inaccessible habitations.

c. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBV)

KGBVs are special residential schools started by the government under the

Sarva Shaksha Abhiyaan (SSA) government umbrella programme, for older girls

from socially disadvantaged communities who were never enrolled in or had to

drop out of primary school. CARE builds the capacity of KGBV teachers in Uttar

Pradesh and Gujarat to deliver quality education in an equitable manner. CARE

provides training in mathematics, computers and language to addresses knowledge

and skill gaps, and encourage schools to adopt more inclusive methods of

instruction.

CARE’s work in these schools has contributed to high student

achievement rates, better student/teacher relationships, and increased student self-

confidence. The success of introducing learner-centered instruction is evident

from the fact that the main advocates of the approach are the KGBV teachers

themselves.

d) Girls’ Leadership Initiative

CARE views education programmes for India’s marginalised children as a

critical component of the fight against poverty. Power Within aims to enable 10

million girls around the world to complete their primary education and develop

leadership skills that will empower them to work with their families, communities

and countries to overcome poverty. In India, Power Within has enormous

potential to influence government at all levels, reach large numbers of girls, and

address gaps in CARE’s development efforts, while building on and expanding

the scope of our many accomplishments.

242

NotesCARE focuses on creating agency for girls, which refers to the aspirations,

resources, actions and achievements of individuals themselves. CARE helps these

girls to stand up to the dynamics of the broader social structures that condition

girls’ and women’s choices. These include the institutions that establish the

‘norms’ about who holds power over whom or what, such as kinship, economic

markets, religion, educational systems, political culture, and ownership/control

over resources. It also works with girls and women to negotiate their needs and

rights with others, including men.

Development of leadership skills amongst marginalised girls is a cross

cutting theme, and CARE’s programme activities for leadership development is a

part of strategies for quality education and community mobilization. The three

pathways of leadership – diverse skill development, social networks and civic

action are being weaved together to give girls a complete experience and

opportunity for self development and growth.

e) Join My Village

The Join My Village initiative intensifies CARE’s program on maternal

and newborn health with a focus on integrating gender interventions in 1000

villages covering a population of 11, 66,535 in 15 development blocks of

Barabanki. Efforts include increasing community involvement in improving

maternal and newborn health by engaging individuals and households in the

delivery of public health services, leading to a sense of ownership by the

community. In addition, there is a focus on strengthening and empowering the

Village Health and Sanitation Committees (VHSC) as well as Mothers Groups

(MG). The project involves men as parents for better maternal and neo-natal

health outcomes and for gender equity. On the other hand the project works on

building capacities of frontline service providers so that they can provide quality

services to the community. The staff and service providers are encouraged to

share their inhibitions, shed their biases and work towards involving men as

partners in maternal and newborn health uptake.

243

Notes

f) Realisation of Citizenship through Good Governance

The project has been initiated to address women's citizenship issues in the

two states - Tamilnadu and Odisha. This is done through an engagement with

CBOs like Self Help Groups. Both these states differ in their socio-economic

conditions yet the situational realities of women are almost the same. They are

mostly dispossessed. The project, has, thus, undertaken a research study (in areas

with adequate representation of CARE Impact population) to understand

knowledge gaps that women face when attempting to realise their rights as voters

in the Indian democratic system. It asks the following questions: what are the

spheres of influence? (in terms of how women exercise their franchise); what

constraints do women face?( in terms of exercising their franchise in an

independent manner); what are the real priorities for women? (in terms of

expectations from their elected representatives); how do variables like number of

years of membership in a SHG, literacy and age influence the decision making

process?.

g) ECD

ICDS is the largest initiative of Government of India with a mandate of

providing holistic services to young children for Pre-School Education, Health

and immunization at the level of Anganwadi centers (AWC). The period of Early

Childhood represents the most significant and demanding stage in the

developmental continuum of an individual. The first 0 to 6 years of a child’s life

are globally acknowledged to be the most critical years with the pace of

development being extremely rapid. GEP has been actively operational in

implementing programmes for ECCE.

In Bihar, GEP is implementing an ECED programme known as ‘Linked

for Learning’. The overall objective of the programme is to ensure that

marginalised, especially lower caste children in the age group 3 to 8 have a

244

Notessmooth transition from home to formal schools. Linked for Leaning intends to

bring together the home, preschool (Anganwadi) and formal school to collaborate

for making the three environments child centred, facilitate child’s transition from

one to another and promote learning. It will develop 50 model sites along with the

government; these will serve as demonstration sites lessons from which will be

scaled by the government. The key strategies of the project will include

development of locally relevant child centred curriculum, training of parents and

teachers and mobilizing communities and stakeholders.

h) SAKSHAM - Health Programme with the Sex Workers

SAKSHAM project’s key objective is that by 2012, NGOs and CBOs will

have enhanced capacity to apply community mobilisation strategies for reducing

risk of HIV/AIDS and STD contraction amongst marginalised populations,

particularly sex-workers. SAKSHAM works to train institutions and civil society

through programmes to mobilize communities and develop innovative strategies

for reaching sex workers with interventions for HIV/AIDS and STD prevention.

These interventions include training that builds capacities of sex workers to

address socio-cultural and political structures which keep them exploited,

disadvantaged and excluded in society, thereby increasing their vulnerability to

HIV/AIDS and STDs.

i) AXSHYA - treatment of Tuberculosis (TB)

AXSHYA works to address identified challenges in the treatment of

Tuberculosis (TB) such as insufficient laboratory capacity for detection and

follow up of requisite drug resistance cases along with funding gaps for

procurement of second line drugs for all Multi-Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB)

cases to be initiated with treatment. The first objective is to establish and enhance

capacity for quality assured rapid diagnosis of Drug Resistant TB (DR-TB) in 43

Culture and Drug Susceptibility Testing (DST) laboratories in India by 2015. The

next objective is to scale-up care and management of DR-TB in 35 States/Union

245

NotesTerritories of India resulting in the initiation of treatment of 55,350 additional

cases by 2015. Another objective is to improve the reach, visibility and

effectiveness of the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) through

civil society support in 374 districts across 23 states by 2015. The final objective

is to engage communities and community-based care providers in 374 districts

across 23 states by 2015 to improve TB care and control, especially for

marginalised and vulnerable populations including TB-HIV co-infected patients.

j. Family Health Initiative

Bihar, one of the poorest states in India, is poised to significantly improve

maternal, newborn and child health outcomes by 2015. Strong government

leadership, movement toward integration and system strengthening through the

Bihar Health Sector Reform Programme (BHSRP), and increased resources create

a unique opportunity for progress. In this context, the Family Health Initiative in

Bihar, with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, catalyses a

dynamic process of developing, testing, and scaling-up innovative solutions that

transform frontline and first level facility family health services, dramatically

increasing coverage and quality of life-saving interventions, improving survival

and health for women, newborns and children throughout the state.

k. SWASTH

As part of Sector Wide Approach to Strengthen Health in Bihar

(SWASTH), CARE is providing Technical Assistance (TA) support to

Government of Bihar (GoB) to develop a comprehensive health sector reform, a

nutrition policy and capacity building within the concerned departments. CARE’s

approach to health sector reform makes concerted efforts to link improved health

status to poverty reduction and human development. The overall strategy adopted

by CARE under this initiative is to enhance understanding and acceptance of the

sector approach in the government. The project is divided into three phases: a)

design; b) interim; and the c) implementation phase. The project is currently in the

246

Notesimplementation phase, though the design phase focused on situational analysis in

Bihar, and made policy recommendations, while the implementation phase

focuses on developing ownership of the policy recommendations. Key focus areas

include: poor and vulnerable sections, health service delivery, nutrition service

delivery, capacity building of health service providers, behaviour change, health

financing, institutional development, and public-private partnership.

l. EMPHASIS

This project has been developed by CARE’s three country offices to

address vulnerability in terms of HIV-AIDS amongst population from low

prevalence countries Bangladesh and Nepal to high prevalence areas in

neighbouring India. The target groups under this project include mobile

populations and their families, with a particular focus on women. The target

locations are the two high mobility routes in the region: (i) from Achcham in

Western Nepal, down through northern India to Mumbai; and (ii) ten selected

unions in Jessore and Satkira districts of Bangladesh, across to Kolkata in West

Bengal in India. The project includes multiple closely linked interventions

focusing on: improving access to HIV prevention and care support for inter-

country mobile populations; capacity building of government, civil society and

community efforts to reduce vulnerability of mobile populations; and facilitating

evidence-based advocacy towards creation of an enabling environment supportive

of reducing vulnerability of mobile populations to HIV-AIDS in India,

Bangladesh and Nepal.

m. Urban Health Initiative

The Urban Reproductive Health Initiative in Uttar Pradesh (the Initiative)

is designed to contribute to India’s efforts to achieve the Millennium

Development Goals, especially its target to achieve universal access to

reproductive health (RH) by 2015. The project aims to increase contraceptive

247

Notesprevalence rate (CPR) by 20 percentage points in four major cities of Uttar

Pradesh.

n. Initiative to Manage People Centred Alliances in Control of TB (IMPACT)

The goal of IMPACT (Initiative to Manage People Centred Alliances in

Control of TB) is to support the Revised National Tuberculosis Control

Programme (RNTCP) to decrease the morbidity and mortality caused by

Tuberculosis (TB), Multi-Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB) and HIV/AIDS co-

infection, in West Bengal in India. The project achieves this goal through several

strategic objectives. First, intensification and expansion of community based

DOTS treatment in the poor performing units; next, strengthening and case-

holding and completion of treatment among re-treatment and MDR TB patients.

The project also works to strengthen the TB-HIV/AIDS coordination at state and

district level to improve cross referrals.

o. The Community Health Care Management Initiative (CHCMI)

The Community Health Care Management Initiative (CHCMI) is an

opportunity for CARE and the Government of West Bengal to collaborate on the

public health agenda through pro-active engagement with PRIs, civil society

organisations and government departments. Some of the constraints that CARE

has experienced during its association with CHCMI will also be addressed

through comprehensive planning to enable this pioneering initiative to have a

sustained impact. The project strengthens health and nutrition interventions

through micro-planning processes across five districts and involves PRIs and

CBOs with proper representation of women from the poorest and most

marginalised groups. The project works to improve the health care delivery

system at the Gram Sansad level through institutional development and

convergence of health and ICDS services and advocates for good practices for

replication in blocks of remaining districts.

248

Notesp. SEHAT

The goal of the project is to improve nutrition and health status of women

and children and enable access to quality education for children from Scheduled

Caste and Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) communities in 500 villages across Sidhi and

Shahdol districts of Madhya Pradesh. The main objectives are to strengthen the

system that addresses malnutrition with utmost emergency, improve quality in pre

and primary education that increases enrollment and attendance and to improve

access to livelihoods.

q. Kutch Livelihood Education Advancement Project K-LEAP

In 2006, CARE and Cargill launched a partnership in Gujarat, India aimed

at improving the quality and accessibility of Primary Education near Cargill

operational areas. CARE believes Education and Economic Development as two

complementary part of the whole project – each seeking to fight endemic poverty

for poor communities especially during the time of weather disasters and market

downturn. This project also understands the need to provide accessible and quality

Education to improve children’s opportunities for the future.

The Education endeavor builds on improving the learning outcomes of

43000 children in 122 formal schools, and especially working with adolescent

girls in 86 Government residential schools as well as in 15 non-traditional learning

centers. K-LEAP develops “model” schools with best practices to reduce gender

disparities in enrolment & improve learning outcomes; which are then replicated

by all schools in the area. The model schools involve working at all levels-with

parents, community, children and teachers. There is a direct engagement with

teachers, building their capacity in using age and grade appropriate joyful and

creative methods in teaching and assessments.

r. Empowerment & Sustainable Livelihood for Women in Delhi Slums

249

Notes

The Economic Development Unit (EDU) is currently undertaking an

initiative entitled Empowerment and Sustainable Livelihoods of Poor Women in

Delhi Slums. The aim is to understand and act on the interplay between Agency-

Structure-Relations (Empowerment) conditions and Rights-Resources-Services-

Opportunities (Sustainable Livelihoods). The idea is to help women and their

households better negotiate their way through development maze and realise

sustainable livelihoods.

s. Cashew Value Chain

CARE is implementing the Women in Value Chain initiative in Tamil

Nadu. The goal is to provide improved livelihood options and skills to

marginalised women in the two cashew-growing districts of Cuddalore and

Nagapattinam. The project aims to achieve this goal by providing income earning

opportunities to these women; improving functional literacy and numerical skills

of women in cashew growing sector; improving women’s awareness on their

rights, entitlements, and reproductive health; and creating member-owned and

managed federations for facilitating women farmers’ access to credit and saving

opportunities, business development, and for institution building and advocacy.

t. Banking on Change

CARE believes that the long-term viability and sustainability of Self-Help

Group (SHG) methodology depends on developing SHG Federations which can

function as effective financial and non-financial intermediaries. An overarching

principle for this project will be to ensure sustainability (institutional, operational

and financial) and effective delivery of financial services to poor households by

working at all levels in the savings-led SHG methodology – SHGs, SHG

Federations and the Promoting NGO Micro finance institutions (MFIs). CARE is

partnering with multiple NGO MFIs and providing grant and technical support to

strengthen governance, management and service delivery thereby enabling them

250

Notesto take up active financial intermediation accessing external funds to offer

customized financial services in a sustained manner to poor.

u. Insure Lives and Livelihoods

CARE’s Insure Lives and Livelihoods (ILAL) project aims to facilitate

insurance services to the disadvantageous communities and coastal districts of

Tamilnadu and the district of Pondicherry Union Territory. The project is a

coalition of private for-profit and non-profit partnerships to help communities to

access formal insurance services in the form of micro insurance. The project helps

the market deliver services appropriate to the needs of low income households

specifically pertaining to the risks threatening their lives and livelihoods. ILAL

works with women, men and broader community groups and institutional

structures. This is to ensure that micro-insurance services address both household

and community vulnerabilities and coping mechanisms to offer protection against

the effects of shocks and disasters. The project aims to reach 75,000 clients (both

men and women) with micro-insurance coverage through 5000 self-help groups,

50 community structures, civil society organisations and banking institutions.

v. Andhra Pradesh Flood Recovery Project

The overall goal of the project is rehabilitation of the flood affected

families in the two worst affected districts of Mehbubnagar and Kurnool. The

purpose of the project is to restore the destroyed houses and livelihoods of the

affected families. The proposed project includes a package of interventions

focused on reconstruction of disaster resilient houses/homes and income

generating and sustaining livelihoods. Resuming farming activities that will help

increase subsistence consumption, provision of farm equipments, livestock, micro

enterprise initiatives and restoration of some vital productive assets are some of

the crucial rehabilitation interventions proposed.

5.9. DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE

251

Notes

5.9.1. Scheduled Caste Welfare - About the Division

The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment is the nodal Ministry to

oversee the interests of the Scheduled Castes. Though the primary responsibility

for promotion of interests of the Scheduled Castes rests with all the Central

Ministries in the area of their operations and the State Governments, the Ministry

complements their efforts by way of interventions in critical sectors through

specifically tailored schemes. Efforts made by State Governments and Central

Ministries for protecting and promoting the interests of Scheduled Castes are also

monitored.

Under the Scheduled Castes Development Bureau, the Ministry

implements Schedules Caste Sub-Plan (SCSP) which is an umbrella strategy to

ensure flow of targeted financial and physical benefits from all the general sectors

of development for the benefit of Scheduled Castes. Under the strategy,

States/UTs are required to formulate and implement Special Component Plan

(SCP) for Scheduled Castes as part of their Annual Plans by earmarking

resources. At present 27 States/UTs having sizeable SC population are

implementing Schedules Caste Sub-Plan.

Another policy initiative for the development of Scheduled Castes is

Special Central Assistance to Special Component Plan, in which cent percent

assistance is given as additive to Schedules Caste Sub-Plan of the States/UTs on

the basis of certain criteria such as SC population of the States/UTs, relative

backwardness of the States/UTs percentage SC families in the States/UTs covered

by composite economic development programmes in the State Plan to enable them

to cross the poverty line, percentage of SCP to the Annual Plan as compared to SC

population percentage of the States/UTs.

The National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation

(NSFDC) set up under the Ministry provides credit facilities to persons belonging

252

Notesto Scheduled castes living below double the poverty line limits (presently

Rs.40,000/- p.a. for rural areas and Rs.55,000/- p.a. for urban areas), for income

generating activities.

Another Corporation under the Ministry viz. National Safai Karamcharis

Finance & Development Cooporation(NSKFDC) provides credit facilities to

beneficiaries viz. Safai Karamcharis, scavengers and their dependents for income

generating activities for socio-economic development through State Channelising

Agencies.

The Ministry implements two Acts for protecting the civil rights of the Scheduled

Castes viz.

i. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and

ii. The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities

Act, 1989).

5.9.2. Welfare of Backward Classes - About the Division

Under the Backward Classes Bureau, the Ministry is mandated to look

after the welfare of Backward Classes, by implementing the schemes for

Backward Classes. The Ministry also deals with the National Backward Classes

Commission (NCBC) which was set up in 1993. The Commission tenders advice

to the Ministry in respect of castes, sub-castes, synonyms and communities for

inclusion in/from the central list of Other Backward Classes.

Backward Classes means such backward classes of citizens other than the

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as may be specified by the Central

Government in the lists prepared by the Government of India from time to time

for purposes of making provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in

favour of backward classes of citizens which, in the opinion of that Government,

are not adequately represented in the services under the Government of India and

any local or other authority within the territory of India or under the control of the

Government of India.

253

Notes

The affairs of Backward Classes were looked after by the Backward

Classes Cell (BCC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs prior to 1985. With the

creation of a separate Ministry of Welfare in 1985 (renamed as Ministry of Social

Justice and Empowerment on 25.5.1998), the matters relating to Scheduled

Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Minorities were

transferred to the new Ministry. Consequent upon the creation of two separate

ministries for Scheduled Tribes and Minorities, the subject matter pertaining to

these two categories were transferred to the respective Ministries. The Backward

Classes Division in the Ministry looks after the policy, planning and

implementation of programmes relating to social and economic empowerment of

OBCs. It also looks after matters relating to two institutions set up for the welfare

of OBCs namely, the National Backward Classes Finance and Development

Corporation (NBCFDC) and the National Commission for Backward Classes

(NCBC).

Welfare of Backward Classes - Schemes / Programmes

Pre-matric Scholarship for OBC Students

Post-matric Scholarship for OBC

Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for Welfare of OBCs

National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation

(NBCFDC)

Rates of the Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarship for OBCs Schemes

5.9.3. Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities - About the Division

The Disability Division in the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

facilitates empowerment of the persons with disabilities, who as per Census 2001

254

Notesare 2.19 crore and are 2.13 percent of the total population of the Country. These

include persons with visual, hearing, speech, locomotor and mental disabilities.

a) Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / Fitting of Aids and

Appliances (ADIP Scheme)

The main objective of the Scheme is to assist the needy disabled persons in

procuring durable, sophisticated and scientifically manufactured, modern,

standard aids and appliances that can promote their physical, social and

psychological rehabilitation, by reducing the effects of disabilities and enhance

their economic potential.

b) Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme to promote Voluntary Action

for Persons with Disabilities (Revised DDRS Scheme)

To facilitate delivery of various services to persons with disabilities by

voluntary organizations, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is

administering DDRS scheme and providing grants-in-aid to NGOs for the

following projects:-

i. Vocational Training Centres

ii. Sheltered Workshops

iii. Special Schools for the Persons with Disabilities

iv. Project for Cerebral Palsied Children

v. Project for Pre-School and Early Intervention and Training

vi. Home based Rehabilitation Program / Home Management Programme

vii. Project for Rehabilitation of Leprosy Cured Persons (LCPs)

viii. Project relating to Survey, Identification, Awareness and Sensitization

ix. Project for Community Based Rehabilitation

x. Project for Human Resource Development

xi. Seminars / Workshops / Rural Camps

xii. Project for Legal Literacy, Including Legal Counselling, Legal Aid and

Analysis and Evaluation of Existing Laws255

Notesxiii. Environment Friendly and Eco-Promotive Projects for the Handicapped

xiv. Grant for Purchase of Vehicle

xv. Construction of Building

xvi. Grant for Computer

xvii. Project for Low Vision Centres

xviii. Half Way Home for Psycho-Social Rehabilitation of Treated and

Controlled Mentally Ill Persons

xix. District Disability Rehabilitation Centres (DDRCs)

The maximum level of support could be up to 90% of the eligible amount of grant

for the project.

During the 10th Five Year Plan grant-in-aid to the extent of Rs. 335.4 cr. was

released to NGOs under the scheme.

c) Scheme of National Awards for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities

Empowerment of persons with disabilities is an inter-disciplinary process,

covering various aspects namely, prevention, early detection, intervention,

education, vocational training, rehabilitation and social integration etc. Apart from

resources, it requires dedicated efforts of persons and institutions involved in the

process of empowerment. In order to recognise their effort and encourage others

to strive to achieve excellence in this field, separate awards are being presented to

the most efficient/outstanding employees with disabilities, best employers, best

placement agency/officer, outstanding individuals, outstanding institutions, role

models, outstanding creative disabled individuals and for outstanding

technological innovation and adaptation of innovation to provide cost effective

technology.

d) Scheme of National Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities

Under the Scheme of National Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities,

every year 500 new scholarships are awarded for pursuing post matric

professional and technical courses of duration more than one year. However, in

256

Notesrespect of students with cerebral palsy, mental retardation, multiple disabilities

and profound or severe hearing impairment, scholarships are awarded for pursuing

studies from IX Std. onwards.

Students with 40% or more disability whose monthly family income does

not exceed Rs.15,000/-are eligible for scholarship. A scholarship of Rs.700/- per

month to day scholars and Rs.1, 000/- per month to hostellers is provided to the

students pursuing Graduate and Post Graduate level technical or professional

courses. A scholarship or Rs.400/- per month to day scholars and Rs.700/- per

month to hostellers is provided for pursuing diploma and certificate level

professional courses. In addition to the scholarship, the students are reimbursed

the course fee subject to a ceiling of Rs.10, 000/- per year.

e) Schemes arising out of the Implementation of the Persons with Disabilities

(Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995

A number of schemes are being formulated under the Persons with

Disabilities (Equal Opportunities Protection of Rights and full participation) Act,

1995 also. Schemes under implementation at present are as under:-

i. Incentives to Employers in the Private Sector for Providing Regular

Employment to Persons with Disabilities

A Central Sector Scheme of providing one-lakh jobs per annum to the

persons with disabilities, with a proposed outlay of Rs.1800 crore, during

the 11th Plan Period has already been sanctioned from 1.4.2008 by the

Government. Under the Scheme, the Government will make payment of

the employer's contribution to the Employees Provident Fund and

Employees State Insurance for the first three years, as an incentive, in

return of employment of persons with disabilities with monthly wage up to

Rs 25000/- per month.

257

Notesii. Models to promote awareness about accessibility features in public

buildings

Funds are being provided to Universities / Administrative Training Centres

in the States/UTs and State Secretariats etc. for installing lifts, ramps, etc.

to provided barrier free access to persons with disabilities.

i. Composite Regional Centres for Persons with Disabilities (CRCs)

Due to lack of adequate facilities for rehabilitation of Persons with

Disabilities, the Ministry has set up five Composite Regional Centres for

Persons with Disabilities at Srinagar, Sundernagar (Himachal Pradesh),

Lucknow, Bhopal and Guwahati to provide both preventive and

promotional aspects of rehabilitation like education, health, employment

and vocational training, research and manpower development, for

rehabilitation for persons with disabilities etc.

ii. District Disability Rehabilitation Centers (DDRCs)

The Ministry with active support of State Governments is facilitating

setting up District Disability Rehabilitation Centers (DDRCs) to provide

rehabilitation services to persons with disabilities. Centres are being set up

in unreached and unserved districts of the country in a phased manner.

These centers are to provide services for prevention and early detection,

referral for medical intervention and surgical correction, fitment of

artificial aids and appliances, therapeutical services such as physiotherapy,

occupational and speech therapy, provision of training for acquisition of

skills through vocational training, job placement in local industries etc. at

district headquarters as well as through camp approach. 100 new DDRCs

will be set up by 2012.

iii. Awareness Generation Programme

A pilot project for creation of awareness on prevention and early detection

and intervention of various types of disabilities has been taken up. The

project envisages dissemination of information in rural areas through

258

NotesAnganwadi workers and covers 30 districts (17 in Uttar Pradesh and 13 in

Bihar). Recently a pilot project has been taken up in 13 districts of Assam

also. The programme is under implementation.

iv. Technology Development Projects in Mission Mode

With a view to provide suitable and cost effective aids and appliances

through the application of technology and to increase their employment

opportunities and integration in society of the physically disabled, the

above scheme was started during 1990-91. Under the scheme, suitable

R&D projects are identified and funded for developing aids and

appliances. The scheme is implemented through the IITs, Educational

Institutes, Research Agencies and Voluntary Organisations etc. Financial

assistance is provided on 100% basis. The four Technical Advisory

Groups monitor the selection of the projects and also their progress at

different stages in areas of disabilities, namely, Orthopaedic (including

Cerebral Palsy), Visual, Speech and Hearing and Mental. All the projects

those are recommended by the respective Technical Advisory Groups

placed before the Apex Level Committee headed by Secretary, Ministry of

Social Justice and Empowerment.

v. Trust Fund for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities

The Supreme Court in its order dated 16th April, 2004 in the Civil Appeals

No.4655 and 5218 of 2000 had directed that the banks, who had collected

an estimated excess amount of Rs.723.79 crores annually from the

borrowers through rounding off in collection of interest tax, should

transfer it to a trust which would be used for welfare of persons with

disabilities. The Court had constituted a Committee under the

chairmanship of Comptroller and Auditor General of India with Finance

Secretary and Law Secretary as members. The Ministry had sought

directions of the Apex court for transfer of these funds to the National

Trust for Welfare of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental

Retardation and Multiple Disabilities for purposeful utilization.

259

Notes

5.9.4. Social Defense - About the Division

Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment as the name suggests is to

ensure equitable treatment to such sections of society who have suffered social

inequalities, exploitation, discrimination and injustice. The Social Defense Bureau

of the Ministry mainly caters to the requirements of:

Victims of alcoholism and substance abuse

Senior Citizens

The programmes and the policies of the Bureau aim at equipping this

group to sustain a life of respect and honour and to become useful citizens. In this

process, the Bureau plays the role of a catalyst and has promoted voluntary action.

The State Governments, autonomous bodies, NGOs and even the corporate world

are involved in formulating and implementing the policies. All the programmes

are meant to aid, prevent neglect, abuse and exploitation and provide assistance to

those deprived and mainstream them.

5.10. Role of Voluntary Non-Government Organization in Social Welfare

Voluntary social action as advocated by our great leaders, Mahatma

Gandhi, for instance, had vehemently supported collective social action in

preference to the role of state. Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayanan has also

endorsed his views. There has been a long history of community action and self-

help in India and the values of compassion; concerns for collective good and

selfless action will be in evidence in future as well. The need for involvement of

voluntary organizations in development has been duly recognized in official

documents also in the post independence era. Balwant Ray Mehta Committee

(1957) has observed, “Today in the implementation of the various schemes of

community development more and more emphasis laid on non-governmental

agencies and workers and on the principle that ultimately people’s own local

organizations should take over the entire work”. Similarly, rural-urban

260

Notesrelationship committee (1966) has laid emphasis on the role of voluntary

organizations in mobilizing community support for development activities.

Another all-India committee on Panchayati Raj institutions (Ashok Mehta

Committee) appreciated the role of voluntary agencies in these words, “of the

several voluntary organizations engaged in rural welfare, a few have helped the

Panchyati Raj institutions in micro-planning exercise, and cost-benefit analysis

and explore ways and means to induce local participations in planning and

implementation .

AVARD (Association of Voluntary agencies for Rural Development) also

provides consultancies services in project formulation and assists its member

agencies with technical support. Voluntary agencies, if they have requisites

expertise, proven standing ad well-equipped organizations, can assist Panchayati

Raj institutions in the planning process. They can be particularly involved in

formulation of project and schemes. The can also help to create strong public

opinion in support of measures aimed at social change.

The fourth five year plan (1969 – 74) had stipulated , “social voluntary

organizations play an important role in extending welfare activities among the

backward classes, assistance will be given to them for taking up project like

publicity and propaganda for removal of untouchability, running hostels and

educational institutions, organizing welfare and community centers, social

education and conducting training and orientation courses.

The seventh five-year plan also relied heavily on voluntary organizations

to implement anti-poverty and minimum needs programmes as the tasks

introduced in these programmes are so vast that government alone cannot perform

everything. Supplementary effort from the voluntary agencies will be necessary as

expertise of a different attitudes and orientation will need to be mobilized to reach

the target groups. Moreover it may not be advisable to entrust development work

to the bureaucracy. Especially in certain spheres of activity demanding creativity,

innovativeness and the motivation and commitment, non-bureaucratic

261

Notesorganizations may be more suitable. From this standpoint, voluntary

organizations, if equipped with necessary technical expertise can be useful

agencies of socio-economic development. A discernible shift has come about in

government thinking regarding involvement of voluntary organizations in

development since the sixth plan period. There is now a greater thrust and an

urgency to involve these bodies even in prestigious programme like the 20-point

programme through involving them in consultative groups.

While the voluntary agencies have been involved in the government’s

welfare programmes for a long time, the idea that the scope of this cooperation

should be widened has been gaining ground. In October 1982, Prime Minister

Mrs.Indira Gandhi had written to all the Chief Ministers that consultative groups

of voluntary agencies must be established at the state level. The document of the

seventh plan (1985-1990) made this resolve clearer when it had said that during

this plan, serious efforts will be made to involve voluntary agencies in various

development programmes, particularly in the planning and implementation of

programmes of rural development.

Recognizing the strength of voluntary agencies this document said: These

have been inadequate recognition of their role in accelerating the process of social

and economic development. These agencies have been known to play an

important role by providing a basis for innovation with a now models and

approaches, ensuring feedback, and securing the involvement of families living

below the poverty line”.

5.11. PROBLEMS FACED BY VOLUNTARY AGENCIES

Despite government and success of voluntary organization in a range of fields

and the excellent work done by them in specific areas, the inborn defects and

262

Notesweaknesses which if overcome would furnish them to function more effectively in

the formulation and implementation of numerous programs proposed for the

welfare of the concerned beneficiaries. Numerous weaknesses affecting voluntary

organizations may be discussed as follows:

a) Lack of dedication in leadership

In the post-independence era, the voluntary organizations faced the crisis of

leadership as the leaders who pioneered voluntary action and worked for it with

spirit of commitment and dedication chose to enter politics to find berths in

legislature and parliament, thus, creating a emptiness for leadership in voluntary

organizations.

b) Connection of leadership in elderly persons

The leadership with some exceptions in concentrated in the hands of elderly

people. Their style of functioning exhibits authoritarianism and frustrates the

younger people who are embodiments of new ideas, initiatives and incentive

nature, which are not allowed to express and practice.

c) Monopoly and interlocking in Leadership

It has been observed that there is a propensity towards momopolization and

interlocking of leadership at the top level of voluntary action groups and

organsiations as is reflected in the same person being the president in one

organization, secretary in the other, treasurer in the third and a member of the

executive in the fourth. This interlocking of leadership may be advantageous in

formulating coordinated policies, programmes, and activities, facilitating

exchange of technical know-how and experience and mobilizing people for a

common goal. But the greatest disadvantage of such leadership that young

generation is not allowed to enter into the organization and leadership. Leaders in

most of the groups would like to enable themselves rather than allow the second

rank leadership to grow. Instances of occupying positions of importance by the

same persons for decades are numerous. The continuation of elected or nominated

263

Notesmembers for very long tenures in any group or agency makes them so powerful

that they prove to be counter democratic.

d) Deterioration in quality of service

The voluntary organizations had to engage themselves in social welfare services

in many areas after independence to meet the desires and hopes of people and

accept all available programmes whether they had the essential human resources

or material or not. With this sudden expansion of their activities without adequate

preparation, the quality of their services was inevitably to deteriorate and was

bound to be below the expected standards.

e) Failures to enlist popular participation

Voluntary organizations are meant to provide opportunities to the citizen for

democratic participation but they have not been able to fulfill this requirement due

to method and manner in which they function, and failed to attract people

interested in productive work and develop channels for people’s enthusiastic

participation. Some of the factors responsible for such a state of affairs are general

backwardness of the people, lack of and an adequate number of dedicated persons,

over importance on targets, and time bound programmes, political interference

and vested interests, easy availability of funds without proper planning and

assessment of felt needs and protection for the community, disbelief of agencies

and workers who not have a base in the community and are unable to win its

support and lack of decentralization which could give a feeling of being partners

in development rather than development being plunge from above.

f) Isolation of most voluntary agencies

Thousands of voluntary organizations functioning at local level throughout the

country, through doing considerable work have no links among themselves and

therefore, feel isolated and their workers lonely and depressed, consequently they

have little influence in the policies and programmes formulated by the

government. Moreover, since their actions are uneven and spread over a variety of

264

Notesfields, they do not seem to meet needs in a large way and make visible impact on

the life of the community.

g) Financial scarcity

Most of the voluntary organizations suffer from scarcity of funds. Government

does not give cent percent grants-in-aid for various programmes. Voluntary

agencies have to make matching contributions, which they are sometimes unable

to manage and are, therefore, unable to avail themselves of the grants. The

voluntary organizations, therefore, need to evaluate funds through their own

resources as well as through various means such as appeals for contributions,

charity concerts, film premiers, sporting events, flag days, sale of greeting cards,

etc., and donations from industrial houses, trusts, temples, wakfs, churches,

charities and religious and other endowments. The un-abating raise in prices due

to unmanageable inflation further complicates their financial position rendering

them incapable of rendering services of standard quality.

h) Absence of former pioneering spirit

Voluntary organizations worked as pioneers in early days but that enthusiasm

seems to have faded these days. They hesitate to undertake new experiments’ and

are content with settling down in certain areas in grooves and are unwilling to

move on, thus, betraying the spirit of dynamic adventurism, which should be the

hallmark of voluntary action.

i) A few organization at rural areas

Few voluntary organizations are working for the development in rural areas as

compared to urban areas due to the backwardness and ignorance of the rural

people and lack of enthusiasm among social workers to work among them in the

absence of availability of minimum comforts though there is alarming need of

voluntary action in performing numerous functions assigned to various

government agencies / institutions which are incapable of executing them for want

of adequate funds and manpower. Voluntary orgnisations, therefore, need to

265

Notesoperate in rural areas on a bigger scale to join the cooperation of village people in

making their lives more affluent.

j) Concentration of organizations in urban areas

Voluntary organizations have grown more in urban areas than in rural areas but

their potentialities in raising resources and supplementing services to be provided

by the municipal authorities have not been properly realized and appreciated. In

urban areas, voluntary associations of philanthropists, interest protecting trade

unions and miscellaneous types of exist in large numbers such as societies for

promotion of various kinds of education, recreational and cultural activities;

professional associations of doctors, lawyers, teachers and other professionals,

tenants associations, slum dwellers’ association, societies helping needy men,

women, children, suffering from social, economic and mental handicaps, senior

citizens’ welfare association, etc. the services of these voluntary organizations can

be best utilized by the municipal governments in raising the quality of lives

citizens.

k) Misuse and misappropriation of funds

There have been serious charges of misuse and misappropriation of funds received

as grant –in-aid from the government, foreign donour and raised through their

own resources by the voluntary organization obliging the government to institute

enquiries into these allegations by appointing commissions of Enquiry and

Committees. For example, Gandhian Institutions and many voluntary agencies of

long standing have no exemptions from this stigma. Political or personal enmity

accountable for their finances and activities to the government and the public and

should be above suspicion. There is no denying the facts that some unscrupulous

elements have made fortunes by floating voluntary organization for their personal

gains and managing grants from the government.

l) Inadequate trained personnel

266

NotesOnce the voluntary organizations were served by unpaid social workers imbued

with the spirit of service and did not require many special education or training.

But the present trend of professionals in social services emphasizes proper

education and training of personnel in the context of scientific and technological

advancements impinging on the quality of services to be provided for various

types of beneficiaries. Unfortunately, the adequate facilities for training of

manpower do not exist and wherever they exist as in National Institute for Public

Cooperation and Child Development and Various Institutes of health and family

welfare, Rural Development, national Council for Educational Research and

Training. Central Social Welfare Board, etc., They are not availed of by the

voluntary agencies for lack of infrastructure and motivation and their location at

the National Level. Training facilities for personnel employed in voluntary

organizations therefore, need to be made available at grassroots level and to

accommodate to the requirements of all types of workers at all levels of hierarchy.

m) Absence of common forum and coordination

Massive amount of voluntary organization existing at local, state and national

level has been provided with no uniform of discussion and to sort out their

common problems of overlapping, duplications, and coordination. There was no

exchange of information, data collection, research, training and publication and to

place before the government their common difficulties. The absence of such

common forum also incapacitates voluntary organizations.

n) Continuations of old virtues

Voluntary organsations are given the credit of providing better service in

comparison to government establishments by virtue of their dedication, human

touch, innovativeness, flexibility in their problems and needs but unfortunately

these virtues of voluntary organsations have windswept over the years inter-alia

due to professionalization of social services which is mainly responsible for the

professionals working in routine style.

o) Casualty in autonomy

267

NotesVoluntary agencies are autonomous organsiations but their autonomy is first

casually when they approach the government for grants-in-aid which stipulates

conditions for their award and utilization and entitles the government to exercise

supervision and control over them and take appropriate action including their de-

recognition and dissolution. They make a fuss in activities damaging public

interest. Moreover, if they have to execute the schemes and programmes

sponsored by the government even if they do not be conventional to their policies,

methods and techniques of implementation, which may cause areas of conflict

between them and the government. But a free and frank discussion on these issues

could resolve the conflict and secure pleasant-sounding relationship and

cooperation to serve the best interest of the society.

The voluntary organizations have played magnificent role in rendering

services to different sections of society and they have bright prospects to continue

with their present programmes and extend them to the areas where they do not

exist with the support of the government of which they are partners and not

contenders in the service of people. If their weaknesses, draw-backs, deficiencies

and disabilities as delineated above are removed and their organsiations and

structure are streamlined and strengthened especially in the matter of periodical

enrolment of fresh members, democratic election of office bearers, provision of

right type of leadership, decentralization and delegation of authority, qualified and

trained personnel, people’s participation in the formulation and execution of

programmes, appropriate use of funds, forum for discussion of common problems,

mechanism of coordination, non-interference of politicians, abolition of vested

interests, the enlistment of dedicated and devoted workers, social accountability

and self-evaluation, etc., they are bound to recapture their old pioneering spirit

and serve the society with greater vigour earning the thankfulness and

appreciation of both the government and the society.

5.11.1. Working issues in the voluntary sector

268

Notes

Voluntary and Community Sector organisations are operating in an ever-

changing environment, facing problems of short-term and insecure funding.

Terms and conditions generally range from close to the average to the very

minimum. Yet some offer better than most with longer maternity leave or annual

leave entitlements. Others can offer better flexibility and more development

opportunities. Over one third of staff are based in establishments with 10 staff or

fewer; typically organisations without a specialist personnel department.

Part time working and temporary contracts are slightly more common in

the voluntary sector than in other sectors (10.8% of staff are on temporary

contracts, compared to 4.9% in the private sector). Many voluntary sector workers

opt for temporary contracts more out of necessity than choice – almost 30% of

those on temporary contracts in the VCS said they wanted permanent status,

compared to 24% for the whole economy.

Recruitment is a major issue for the sector, according to the NCVO, with

47% of voluntary and community organisations experience problems recruiting

paid staff. This is especially the case for care workers, project and support

workers and problems are mainly due to skills shortages.

This isn't the same everywhere in the sector though. The Voluntary and

Community Sector relies heavily on the skills, commitment, motivation and

enthusiasm of its staff and volunteers. These things are all what makes the sector

unique, but should not be at the expense of decent terms and conditions.

5.11.2. PROBLEMS AND ISSUES FACED BY NGOs

No uniform selection procedure leads to

Lack of transparency

Involvement of large number of incapable NGOs

Increased programme administration cost

269

Notes Lack of domain knowledge, experienced manpower & financial

resources.

Majority have no link with “civil society”.

Lack of standardized practices.

Vague outputs & no monitoring mechanism;

Limited number of capable & overstretched NGOs.

No written guideline to streamline working relationship with field offices.

Frequent hijacking of programme, indifferent outputs.

Even to form an NGO, they require proper approval from the government

of India and getting that approval is not an easy task. They need to meet all

the criteria that are set by the government of India and this might be

difficult for some of them to meet the requirements.

NGOs do not have enough funds to run their operations. They are always

dependant on those good-hearted people who are interested in social

service and those who wish to give funds and support for offering free

education in India for the poor children and to help the poor.

Fund raising for an NGO in India is not an easy task so they will have to

think and find different ways of raising funds to execute their programs

and to help the poor people. This is a great challenge for all NGOs as

without funds they will not be able to do anything.

Sometimes they would start a project only based on the funds they have.

Even after planning so well and much in advance there are many cases in

which their programs would be stopped half way just because of lack of

enough funds.

5.11.3. Problems faced by NGOs in India

Indian NGO sector’s major weaknesses include

Limited financial and management expertise

Limited institutional capacity

Low levels of self-sustainability

270

Notes Isolation/lack of inter-organizational communication and/or coordination;

small scale interventions

Lack of understanding of the broader social or economic context.

5.11.4. Organizational problems of NGOs

a) Decision-making processes. Research into this area produced a number of

common problems and dilemmas that NGOs experienced. One of the most

mentioned was that of the decision-making processes. Tensions often

occurred between staff and senior managers because of the staff

expectations that they would be equal partners in the decision-making

process (Mukasa, 2006).

b) Problem of governance of the organizations: Another common problem

was to do with the governance of the organizations and the relations

between board members and staff. These stemmed largely from the boards’

inability or unwillingness to carry out their responsibilities of governing the

organizations. Board members often lacked the time or the expertise to be

able to carry out these responsibilities effectively. As a result, senior staffs

were often left to make policy decisions with little or no support from board

members (Mukasa, 2006). Governance and decision making; The

governance picture of many NGOs is quite complex. Most nonprofits are

governed by self-perpetuating, largely self-appointing boards of directors.

“Though trustees are not elected by society at large, their essential purpose

is to hold an organization in trust for the benefit of society, as specified in

its papers of incorporation and grants of tax exemption” (Lewis, 2005).

c) Problem about staff: Other problem is about staff; such as; recruitment,

assignment and layoff as well as human resources development and

administration and finally everyday management of staff (Vilain, 2006).

NGOs were found to be weak at staff career development. Often

organizations lacked a career structure in which staff could develop. In

addition they were not good at budgeting for staff training. In situations

271

Noteswhere the organizations were expanding rapidly, it created problems for

many who were unable to keep up with the demands of their work. Not all

people working for non-governmental organizations are Volunteers. Paid

staff members typically receive lower pay than in the commercial private

sector. Their members usually do not get paid in any way and only invest

little of their leisure in order to fulfill their duties. Sometimes they only

have little organizational and professional skills (Mukasa, 2006). The poor

quality of training or lack of importance attached to training NGO workers

has been discussed elsewhere (Ahmad, 2002)

d) Fund raising activities were often the source of much tension in

organizations. The strategies and images used to raise funds from the public

were often felt to compromise the nature of the work done by other

members of staff. These images often depicted beneficiaries as helpless

victims in need of assistance, which other staff felt was inaccurate and

lacked respect for the beneficiaries (Mukasa, 2006).

e) The difficulties of managing NGOs with operations in several countries

also raised concerns. The difficulties came from the inability to define

proper lines of autonomy on policy issues. Field staff often felt isolated

unsupported and felt there was a lack of understanding of the issues they

were dealing with at field level. In addition, they often found it difficult to

be loyal to headquarters. Headquarters staff on the other hand, felt that field

staff had too much power which needed to be controlled if all the interests

within the organization were to be adequately addressed (Mukasa, 2006).

f) Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the

part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding include membership

dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or

national governments, and private donations. Even though the term 'non-

governmental organization' implies independence of governments, some

NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding Wikipedia, 2006).

272

Notes

g) The most commonly identified weaknesses of the sector include; limited

financial and management expertise, limited institutional capacity, low

levels of self-sustainability, isolation/lack of inter-organizational

communication and/or coordination, lack of understanding of the broader

social or economic context (Malena, 1995).

h) NGOs can have members but many do not. NGOs may also be a trust or

association of members. The organization may be controlled by its

members who elect the Board of Directors or Board of Trustees. NGOs

may have a delegate structure to allow for the representation of groups or

corporations as members. Alternately, it may be a non-membership

organization and the board of directors may elect its own successors

Wikipedia, 2006).

i) The structural growth problem: Once they are successful, small businesses

world-wide commonly face the problems of replacing one-person

management (or family management) with a more institutionalized

structure. The founder is used to having total control and doing things his or

her way. It is difficult to persuade her/him to create independent

management or expert roles, or to respect the authority and autonomy of

independent managers and experts once they are in place. Their styles,

ethos, and values are often severely challenged by the formality and the

bureaucratic discipline that is imposed by this volume and variety of

external funding from public organizations. The accountability problem;

This has both a `real’ and a `perceived’ dimension. The `real’ problem is

quite clear and is articulated repeatedly; who are these people accountable

to? (Moore & Stewart, 1998).

j) The evaluation problem: This is most immediately a problem for donors,

but failure to resolve it reflects back on NGOs eventually, and should be

perceived as their problem. Performance evaluation; is relatively easy in

273

Notes`post-office’ type organizations where (a) activities are routine; (b)

objectives are few and clear; (c) there is no great distinction between

immediate òutputs’ , medium-term èffects’ , and long-term ìmpacts’ ;

and (d) outputs, effects or impacts can be measured relatively cheaply and

reliably without the measurement process itself distorting the objectives of

the organization or the goals of the staff. Few public organizations are like

post-offices. Many, including many development NGOs, are very different:

their activities are experimental rather than routine; their goals are often

intangible (such as changing the consciousness of clients or the opinions of

policymakers); they may be operating in the face of official obstruction and

hostility; and it may be difficult to find other organizations with which their

performances can usefully be compared in any quantitative sense. (Moore

& Stewart, 1998).

k) The economies of scale problem: Most NGOs are very small. They lack

easy and cheap access to the specialist knowledge they require. For

example, they may be aware that `staff development’ is important, but have

little idea about how to do it (Moore & Stewart, 1998).

l) Volunteer relationships: “Volunteering means any activity in which time is

given freely to benefit another person, group or organization”.

Organizational volunteering can further be defined as proactive (e.g.,

signing up to serve meals at a shelter every Sunday) rather than reactive

(e.g., stopping to help an accident victim after a car accident) and entails

commitment of time and effort (Lewis, 2005)

m) Mission, effectiveness, and accountability: For NGOs to thrive, it must

fulfill a mission that is valued by the community, staff, board, and founders.

NGOs must create value within operational and environmental constraints

that are at once more complex than those faced by corporations and more

opaque than those confronted by government (Lewis, 2005).

274

Notesn) Main future needs: More funds and more staff, and above all the former, is

more or less universal. Older voluntary organizations desire more paid

staff. Younger voluntary organizations appear in relatively greater need of

information and management advice. The desire for more volunteers is very

widespread. (Marcuello, 2001)

5.12. LET US SUM UP

Social welfare has its roots in voluntary action and had been sustained by

it from several centuries in the past up to the present. India has a glorious of

organizing voluntary work for social cause. This lesson has clearly brought out the

programmes and activities of various welfare organization of national and

international repute. This lesson has not only listed out the programmes and

schemes that are offered to poor and needy but also the problems faced by

voluntary organizations in general and the problems of Indian NGOs in Particular.

Numerous weaknesses affecting voluntary organizations are lack of dedication in

leadership, connection of leadership in elderly persons, monopoly and

interlocking in Leadership, deterioration in quality of service, failures to enlist

popular participation, isolation of most voluntary agencies, financial scarcity,

absence of former pioneering spirit, a few organization at rural areas,

concentration of organizations in urban areas, misuse and misappropriation of

funds, inadequate trained personnel, absence of common forum and coordination,

continuations of old virtues and casualty in autonomy.

Problems faced by NGOs in India are limited financial and management

expertise, limited institutional capacity, Low levels of self-sustainability,

isolation/lack of inter-organizational communication and/or coordination; small

scale interventions and lack of understanding of the broader social or economic

context.

Organizational problems of NGOs are decision-making processes, problem

of governance of the organizations, problem about staff, difficulties in mobilizing

275

Notesfund for welfare activities, the difficulties of managing NGOs, funding, the

structural growth problem, the evaluation problem, the economies of scale

problem, volunteer relationships, mission, effectiveness, and accountability.



a. How many NGOs are receiving financial assistance and guidance from the

Social Welfare Board?

b. Jot down any four programmes implemented by the Social Welfare Board


a. What is Child Line?

b. By whom the Child Line India Foundation (CIF) is set up or established

and in how many cities this facility is available and funded by whom?

c. Mention the programmes / projects related to SURVIVAL RIGHTS of the

children by ICCW, Tamilnadu.


a. List out any five regular programmes of Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan

b. Jot down the rationale of the District/state Youth Awards (Individual)


a. Mention the three key activities of YMCA Chennai


a. What is the key area of the work of CASA?

b. Jot down any three Cross Cutting Thematic Areas of CASA’s

programmatic interventions


a. Mention any five programmes of CARE India

276

Notes


a. Mention any four the Schemes / Programmes under implementation for the

Welfare of Backward Classes

b. How many persons are supported under the Scheme of National

Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities?

c. Jot down any three schemes under implementation at present for the

empowerment of Persons with Disabilities?


a) The Social Defence Bureau of the Ministry mainly caters to the

requirements of what:

b) What is aim of the programmes and policies of the Social Defence Bureau

of the Ministry?


a. Enumerate the numerous weaknesses affecting voluntary organizations

b. List out the Problems faced by NGOs in India

c. Jot down the organizational problems in NGOs?


Dharamm Paul Chowdhry (1962), Social Welfare Administration through

Voluntary Agencies, Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi, Lucknow.

Helmuth Heisler (1977), Foundations of Social Administration, The

Macmillan Press Ltd., London and Basingstoke.

Joseph Heffernan, Guy Shuttlesworth and Rober Ambrosino (2011), Social

Work and Social Welfare: An Introduction, Publisher - Cengage Learning.


Sons.

277

NotesPaul Chowdhry, D. (2000), Social Welfare Administration, Atma Ram &

Sons, Delhi, Lucknow.

Rino J.Patti (2000), The Handbook of Social Welfare Management, First

Edition, SAGE Publications.

Sachdeva, R. (1992), Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabat.

Sanjay Bhattacharya (2005), Social Work – An Integrated Approach, Deep &

Deep Publications Private Limited, New Delhi

5.15. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


a. How many NGOs are receiving financial assistance and guidance from

the Social Welfare Board?

Presently more than 18,000 NGOs are receiving financial assistance and

guidance from the Board.

b. Jot down any four programmes implemented by the Social Welfare

Board

i. Condensed courses of education and vocational training

courses for women and girls

ii. Awareness generation projects for rural and poor women

iii. Family counselling centres/voluntary action bureau

iv. Hostels for working women


a. What is Child Line?

278

NotesCHILD LINE is an emergency 24 hrs free phone service committed to

respond to children in difficult situations and link them to long term

services. The caller can either be the child or a concerned adult.

b. By whom the Child Line India Foundation (CIF) is set up or

established and in how many cities this facility is available and funded

by whom?

The Child Line India Foundation (CIF) is set up or established by

Government of India and this facility is currently available in 77 Cities in

India. Government of India funds this programme.

c. Mention the programmes / projects related to SURVIVAL RIGHTS

of the children by ICCW in Tamilnadu

i. Creche Program provides health care, nutrition and pre-school

education for children of 3-5 yrs old coming from weaker

sections of the society.

ii. Mother & child Welfare Project at Usilampatti, Madurai

District to fight against the practice of Female Infanticide.

iii. Prevention of Female Infanticide at Salem & Dharmapuri

districts.


c. List out any five regular programmes of Nehru Yuva Kendra

Sangathan

i. Provision of Sports Material for Youth Clubs

ii. National Convention of NSVs and NYSs

iii. Youth Festival for North Eastern Region

iv. District Youth Convention

v. Celebration of National Youth Day and Week (12th of January

to 19th of January)

279

Notesd. Jot down the rationale of the District/state Youth Awards (Individual)

The objective of the programme is to give public recognition and

felicitation to those youth leaders who have shown exemplary

volunteership and outstanding work or a set of works for the community in

one or many sectors of development.


Mention the three key activities of YMCA Chennai

i. Sports

ii. Social/ Entertainment

iii. Community Services

iv.


a. What is the key area of the work of CASA?

The work of CASA has a significant impact on issues of its concerns—

addressing structural poverty being the key area.

b. Jot down any three cross cutting thematic areas of CASA’s

programmatic interventions

i. Development Initiatives to address Structural Poverty

ii. Gender Mainstreaming

iii. Climate Change


a. Mention any five programmes of CARE India.

i. Girls’ Education Programme

ii. Insure Lives and Livelihoods (ILAL) project aims to facilitate

insurance services to the disadvantageous communities and coastal

districts of Tamilnadu and the district of Pondicherry.

iii. Empowerment and Sustainable Livelihoods of Poor Women in

Delhi Slums.

280

Notesiv. Family Health Initiative in Bihar to significantly improve maternal,

newborn and child health outcomes by 2015.

v. Women in Value Chain initiative in Tamilnadu provides improved

livelihood options and skills to marginalised women in the two

cashew-growing districts of Cuddalore and Nagapattinam.


a. Mention any four the Schemes / Programmes under implementation

for the Welfare of Backward Classes

i. Pre-matric Scholarship for OBC Students

ii. Post-matric Scholarship for OBC

iii. Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for Welfare of OBCs

iv. National Backward Classes Finance and Development

Corporation (NBCFDC)

b. How many persons are supported under the Scheme of National

Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities?

Under the Scheme of National Scholarships for Persons with

Disabilities, every year 500 new scholarships are awarded for pursuing

post matric professional and technical courses of duration more than one

year.

c. Jot down any three schemes under implementation at present for the

empowerment of Persons with Disabilities?

i. Incentives to Employers in the Private Sector for Providing

Regular Employment to Persons with Disabilities

ii. Models to promote awareness about accessibility features in

public buildings to provided barrier free access to persons with

disabilities.

281

Notesiii. Composite Regional Centres for Persons with Disabilities

(CRCs) to provide both preventive and promotional aspects of

rehabilitation like education, health, employment and

vocational training, research and manpower development,

rehabilitation for persons with disabilities etc.


a. The Social Defence Bureau of the Ministry mainly caters to the

requirements of what:

The Social Defense Bureau of the Ministry mainly caters to the

requirements of the victims of alcoholism and substance abuse and Senior

Citizens.

b. What is the aim of programmes and policies of the Social Defence

Bureau of the Ministry?

The programmes and the policies of the Bureau aim at equipping the

victims of alcoholism and substance abuse and Senior Citizens to sustain a

life of respect and honour and to become useful citizens.


d. Enumerate the numerous weaknesses affecting voluntary

organizations

Numerous weaknesses affecting voluntary organizations are lack of

dedication in leadership, connection of leadership in elderly persons,

monopoly and interlocking in Leadership, deterioration in quality of

service, failures to enlist popular participation, isolation of most voluntary

agencies, financial scarcity, absence of former pioneering spirit, a few

organization at rural areas, concentration of organizations in urban areas,

282

Notesmisuse and misappropriation of funds, inadequate trained personnel,

absence of common forum and coordination, continuations of old virtues

and casualty in autonomy.

e. List out the Problems faced by NGOs in India

Problems faced by NGOs in India are the limited financial and

management expertise, limited institutional capacity, Low levels of self-

sustainability, isolation/lack of inter-organizational communication and/or

coordination; small scale interventions and lack of understanding of the

broader social or economic context.

f. Jot down the organizational problems in NGOs?

Organizational problems in NGOs are decision-making processes,

problem of governance of the organizations, problem about staff,

difficulties in mobilizing fund for welfare activities, the difficulties of

managing NGOs, funding, the structural growth problem, the evaluation

problem, the economies of scale problem, volunteer relationships, mission,

effectiveness, and accountability.

283

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