3 Problem-solving processeslogica.ugent.be/dirk//_francq1803.pdf · 3 Problem-solving processes 3.1...

3 Problem-solving processes

3.1 Aim and introductory remarks

3.2 Problem-solving processes: first elements

3.3 An example

3.4 The rules and the permissions and obligations

3.5 Answerable questions

3.6 Variants, extensions and comments

3 0

3.1 Aim and introductory remarks H

backbone of formal approach to problem solving



· aim: explication of problem solving processes (psps)




· backbone: solve {?{A, ∼A}} by deriving A or ∼A from Γ by CL





· empirical means (observation and experiment)






· + new available information (not originally seen as relevant)

(easy extension)







(easy extension)

· + corrective and ampliative logics, handling inconsistency, . . .

includes forming new hypotheses

adaptive logics: control by conditions and marking definition

(easy extension)







(easy extension)




(easy extension)

· + devise new empirical means: future research

(seems within reach)







(easy extension)




(easy extension)

· + devise new empirical means: future research

(seems within reach)

· + model-based reasoning, . . . : future research

H

Plan H

given a logic (or a set of logics) L, we can handle the heuristics

(see previous lecture)

Plan H



viz. define the procedure

for solving {?{A, ∼A}} by deriving A or ∼A from Γ by L

Plan H



viz. define the procedure

for solving {?{A, ∼A}} by deriving A or ∼A from Γ by L

adaptive logics enable us to explicate the reasoning behind many psps

(see next lecture)

H

Background H

• philosophy of science: Nickles, Meheus, Batens

• erotetic logic (varying on Wisniewski)

• logic · adaptive logics

· prospective dynamics

· procedures

Background H

• philosophy of science: Nickles, Meheus, Batens

• erotetic logic (varying on Wisniewski)

• logic · adaptive logics

· prospective dynamics

· procedures

problem determined by (changing) constraints

· conditions on the solution

· methodological instructions / heuristics / examples

· certainties (conceptual system . . . )

H

Formal approach H

formal but not logic with the usual connotations

Formal approach H


· proofs – success

· psp (problem solving process) – success?

Formal approach H



· arbitrary sequence of applications of rules


· goal directed

Formal approach H




· infinite consequence set


· goal directed

· unique aim (possibly unspecified at outset)

Formal approach H





· useless subsequences


· goal directed


· unsuccessful subsequences

Formal approach H






· deductive


· goal directed



· also other forms of reasoning

Formal approach H






· deductive

· CL


· goal directed



· also other forms of reasoning

· multiplicity of logics

H

H

differences partly rely on confusion

· proof search is goal-directed process (and is a psp)

· proof search is not always successful

· no arbitrary sequences result of proof search

· proof search for one formula from given premises

(but set of problems solvable by certain means)

· unsuccessful subsequences in proof search

no ‘useless’ subsequences in goal-directed proofs

· that all logic is deductive (or is CL) is a plain prejudice

3.1 3

3.2 Problem-solving processes: first elements H

terminology: psp refers to explicandum and to explicatum

3.2 Problem-solving processes: first elements H

terminology: psp refers to explicandum and to explicatum

• psps contain unsuccessful subsequences

· justified at some point in the psp

· not justified any more at later point

· and vice versa

‘unsuccessful’ is a dynamic property

H

H

• psps require prospective dynamics + derived problems

H


· prospective dynamics (previous lecture)

now breath first (better w.r.t. problems)

H




· derived problems:

{?{A, ∼A}} (problem). . .[B1, . . . , Bn] A (if B1, . . . , Bn true, then also A)

H




· derived problems:

{?{A, ∼A}} (problem). . .[B1, . . . , Bn] A (if B1, . . . , Bn true, then also A){?{B1, ∼B1}, . . . , ?{Bn, ∼Bn}} derived problem

H

Lines occurring in a psp H

problem lines: problem = non-empty set of questions

Lines occurring in a psp H

problem lines: problem = non-empty set of questions

declarative lines

· conditional: [B1, . . . , Bn] A

· unconditional: [∅] A, viz. A

H

H

a stage of a psp: sequence of lines

a psp: chain of stages

next stage obtained by adding new line

marks may change (governed by marking definitions)

relation between stages governed by procedure

H

rehearsal

· the complement of a formula

· a-formulas and b-formulas (a and b)

· formula analysing rules and condition analysing rules

· pp(A, B) (A is a positive part of B)

· the Prem rule

· EM, EM0 and Trans

· direct answer to a question / problem

H

Specific rules H

Where {?{M, ∼M}} is the main (or original) problem:

Main Start a psp with the line:

1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

Specific rules H



1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

Target rule (to choose a target that one tries to obtain)

Target If P is the problem of an unmarked problem line, and A is a

direct answer of a member of P, then one may add:

k [A] A Target

Specific rules H



1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

Target rule (to choose a target that one tries to obtain)

Target If P is the problem of an unmarked problem line, and A is a

direct answer of a member of P, then one may add:

k [A] A Target

Derive problems:

DP If A is an unmarked target from problem line i

and [B1, . . . , Bn] A is the formula of an unmarked line j,

then one may add:

k {?{B1, ∼B1}, . . . , ?{Bn, ∼Bn}} i, j; DP

3.2 3

3.3 An example H

main problem: ?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}

premise set: {∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u}

H

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

2 [∼(p ∨ q)] ∼(p ∨ q) Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

2 [∼(p ∨ q)] ∼(p ∨ q) Target D3

3 [∼p, ∼q] ∼(p ∨ q) 2; C∼∨E D3

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

2 [∼(p ∨ q)] ∼(p ∨ q) Target D3

3 [∼p, ∼q] ∼(p ∨ q) 2; C∼∨E D3

4 [p ∨ q] p ∨ q Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

2 [∼(p ∨ q)] ∼(p ∨ q) Target D3

3 [∼p, ∼q] ∼(p ∨ q) 2; C∼∨E D3


5 [p] p ∨ q 4; C∨E D5

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

2 [∼(p ∨ q)] ∼(p ∨ q) Target D3

3 [∼p, ∼q] ∼(p ∨ q) 2; C∼∨E D3


5 [p] p ∨ q 4; C∨E D5

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

H

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

pursued answer: q

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

4 and 6 have no premise in their path

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E D12

12 [q, t] q 11; ∨E I12

12: inoperative line

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E D12

12 [q, t] q 11; ∨E I12

13 [u] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E D12

12 [q, t] q 11; ∨E I12

13 [u] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E D12

12 [q, t] q 11; ∨E I12

13 [u] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main


6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

7 {?{q, ∼q}} 4, 6; DP

8 [q] q Target

9 (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q) Prem

10 [q ∨ u] ∼t ∨ q 9; ⊃E

11 [q] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E D12

12 [q, t] q 11; ∨E I12

13 [u] ∼t ∨ q 10; C∨E

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

cleaning up for lack of space

H

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP

21 [∼s] ∼s Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP

16 [t] t Target

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E S22

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP R22

21 [∼s] ∼s Target R22

22 ∼s Prem

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E S23

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP R23

16 [t] t Target R23

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E S22 R23

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP R22


22 ∼s Prem

23 t 19, 22; Trans

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E S23 R24

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP R23

16 [t] t Target R23

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E S22 R23

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP R22


22 ∼s Prem

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

8 [q] q Target

. . . . . . . . .

14 [u, t] q 13; ∨E S23 R24

15 {?{u, ∼u}, ?{t, ∼t}} 8, 14; DP R23

16 [t] t Target R23

17 (r ∧ t) ∨ s Prem

18 [∼s] r ∧ t 17; ∨E

19 [∼s] t 18; ∧E S22 R23

20 {?{s, ∼s}} 16, 19; DP R22


22 ∼s Prem

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP

cleaning up for lack of space

H

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP

26 [u] u Target

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP

26 [u] u Target

27 t ⊃ u Prem

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP

26 [u] u Target

27 t ⊃ u Prem

28 [t] u 27; ⊃E S28

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans S29

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP R29

26 [u] u Target R29

27 t ⊃ u Prem

28 [t] u 27; ⊃E S28 R29

29 u 23, 28; Trans

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E S30

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans S29 R30

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP R29

26 [u] u Target R29

27 t ⊃ u Prem

28 [t] u 27; ⊃E S28 R29

29 u 23, 28; Trans

30 q 24, 29; Trans

{∼s, ∼u ∨ r, (r ∧ t) ∨ s, (q ∨ u) ⊃ (∼t ∨ q), t ⊃ u} H

1 {?{p ∨ q, ∼(p ∨ q)}} Main R31

. . .

6 [q] p ∨ q 4; C∨E S30 R31

. . .

23 t 19, 22; Trans

24 [u] q 14, 23; Trans S29 R30

25 {?{u, ∼u}} 8, 24; DP R29

26 [u] u Target R29

27 t ⊃ u Prem

28 [t] u 27; ⊃E S28 R29

29 u 23, 28; Trans

30 q 24, 29; Trans

31 p ∨ q 6, 30; Trans

3.3 3

3.4 The rules and the permissions and obligations H

Prem, FAR, CAR, EM, EM0, Trans, Main, Target, DP

permissions + further comments on some rules

(marking definitions follow)

H

H


1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

H


1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

Target If P is the problem of an unmarked problem line,

and A is a direct answer of a member of P,

then one may add:

k [A] A Target

H


1 {?{M, ∼M}} Main

Target If P is the problem of an unmarked problem line,

and A is a direct answer of a member of P,

then one may add:

k [A] A Target

Prem If A is an unmarked target, B ∈ Γ, and pp(A, B),

then one may add:

k B Prem

H

Formula analysing rules (bring one closer to a target):

[∆] a[∆] a1 [∆] a2

[∆] b[∆ ∪ {∗b2}] b1 [∆ ∪ {∗b1}] b2

FAR If C is an unmarked target,

[∆] A is the formula of an unmarked line i,

[∆] A / [∆ ∪ ∆′] B is a formula analysing rule,

and pp(C, B),

then one may add:

k [∆ ∪ ∆′] B i; R

in which R is the name of the formula analysing rule.

H

Condition analysing rules (reveal other means to reach a target):

[∆ ∪ {a}] A[∆ ∪ {a1, a2}] A

[∆ ∪ {b}] A[∆ ∪ {b1}] A [∆ ∪ {b2}] A

CAR If A is an unmarked target,

[∆ ∪ {B}] A is the formula of an unmarked line i,

and [∆ ∪ {B}] A / [∆ ∪ ∆′] A is a condition analysing rule,

then one may add:

k [∆ ∪ ∆′] A i; R

in which R is the name of the condition analysing rule.

H

Eliminate some problems without answering them:

EM0 If [∆ ∪ {∗A}] A is the formula of a line i that is neither

R-marked nor I-marked, then one may add:

k [∆] A i; EM0

EM If A is an unmarked target,

[∆ ∪ {B}] A and [∆′ ∪ {∼B}] A are the respective formulas of

the unmarked or only D-marked lines i and j,

and ∆ ⊆ ∆′ or ∆′ ⊆ ∆,

then one may add:

k [∆ ∪ ∆′] A i, j; EM

H

eliminate obtained elements from a condition (and solved questions

from a problem)

and

summarize remaining problems (and paths):

Trans If A is an unmarked target,

and [∆ ∪ {B}] A and [∆′] B are the respective formulas of the

at most S-marked (not R-, I- or D-marked) lines i and j,

then one may add:

k [∆ ∪ ∆′] A i, j; Trans

H

handle derived problems:

DP If A is an unmarked target from problem line i

and [B1, . . . , Bn] A is the formula of an unmarked line j,

then one may add:

k {?{B1, ∼B1}, . . . , ?{Bn, ∼Bn}} i, j; DP

H

no instruction for applying EFQ

in view of the intended applications

(deriving predictions, finding explanations, etc.)




the only exception seems to be: answering {?{Γ `CL A, Γ 0CL A}}




the only exception seems to be: answering {?{Γ `CL A, Γ 0CL A}}

but every possible application seems to require CL−.

H

Marking definitions

redundant lines are R-marked: (unconditional A identified with [∅] A)

Definition 1 An at most S-marked declarative line i that has [∆] A as

its formula is R-marked at a stage iff, at that stage, [Θ] A is the formula

of a line for some Θ ⊂ ∆.

Definition 2 An unmarked problem line i is R-marked at a stage iff, at

that stage, a direct answer A of a question of line i is the formula of a

line.

H

the following definitions require:

· target from a problem line

· resolution line

· direct target from

· target sequence

· grounded target sequence

H

inoperative lines are I-marked (not useful for extant problem):

Definition 3 An at most S-marked target line that has [A] A as its

formula is I-marked at a stage iff every problem line from which A is a

target is marked at that stage.

Definition 4 An at most S-marked resolution line of which [∆1] A1 is

the formula for some ∆1 6= ∅ is I-marked at a stage iff, at that stage,

for every grounded target sequence 〈[∆n] An, . . . , [∆1] A1〉,

(i) some target [Ai] Ai (1 ≤ i ≤ n) is marked, or

(ii) {An, . . . , A1} ∩ ∆1 6= ∅, or

(iii) ∆1 ∪ . . . ∪ ∆n ∪ Γ◦s is flatly inconsistent.

Definition 5 An unmarked problem line is I-marked iff no unmarked

resolution line generates it.

H

Dead end lines are D-marked (no further action from such line)

· A is a dead end (A is literal and not a positive part of a premise)

· CAR-descendant of [∆ ∪ {A}] B

Definition 6 An at most S-marked resolution line with formula [∆] A is

D-marked at a stage iff some B ∈ ∆ is a dead end or, at that stage, all

CAR-descendants of [∆] A occur in the psp and are D-marked.

Definition 7 An at most S-marked target line with formula [A] A is

D-marked at a stage iff A is a dead end or no further action can be

taken in view of target A.

H

it can be shown that, for all consistent Γ: H

(i) the procedure applied to Γ and {?{A, ∼A}} results in the answer A,

iff Γ `CL A

and

(ii) the procedure applied to Γ and {?{A, ∼A}} stops without the main

problem being answered, or results in the answer ∼A iff Γ 0CL A



iff Γ `CL A

and



for the predicative case:

if the procedure applied to Γ and {?{A, ∼A}} stops without the main

problem being answered, or results in the answer ∼A, then Γ 0CL A



iff Γ `CL A

and



for the predicative case:

if the procedure applied to Γ and {?{A, ∼A}} stops without the main

problem being answered, or results in the answer ∼A, then Γ 0CL A

because

(ii′) the procedure applied to Γ and {?{A, ∼A}} stops without the main

problem being answered, or results in the answer ∼A, or does not stop

iff Γ 0CL A

H

Speed up the procedure by S-marks

· Γ◦s: union of Γ and of the set of conditionless formulas

that occur at stage s of the psp

Definition 8 A R-unmarked resolution line in which [∆1] A1 is derived is

S-marked iff

(i) ∆1 ∩ Γ◦s 6= ∅, or

(ii) for some target sequence 〈[∆n] An, . . . , [∆1] A1〉, {An} ∪ ∆1 is

flatly inconsistent whereas ∆1 is not flatly inconsistent, or

(iii) ∆1 ⊂ ∆n ∪ . . . ∪ ∆2 for some target sequence

〈[∆n] An, . . . , [∆1] A1〉.

3.4 3

3.5 Answerable questions H

A is a set of questions that can be answered by standard means

(for example: observation or experiment)




idea: whenever an unmarked target is a positive part of a direct answer

of a member of A, that question can be answered (outside the proof)

and the answer can be introduced as a new premise




idea: whenever an unmarked target is a positive part of a direct answer

of a member of A, that question can be answered (outside the proof)

and the answer can be introduced as a new premise

whether some ?{A, ∼A} ∈ A is launched depends on pragmatic

(economic) considerations

H

H

“dead end” needs to be redefined: A is a dead end iff it is not a

positive part of a premise or of a direct answer to a member of A.

H



a target A justifies asking the answerable question

· ?{A, ∼A}

H




· ?{A, ∼A}· ?{A ∧ B, ∼A ∧ B}

H




· ?{A, ∼A}· ?{A ∧ B, ∼A ∧ B}· ?{A ∨ B, ∼A ∨ B}

H




· ?{A, ∼A}· ?{A ∧ B, ∼A ∧ B}· ?{A ∨ B, ∼A ∨ B}· ?{B ⊃ A, ∼(B ⊃ A)}etc.

H




· ?{A, ∼A}· ?{A ∧ B, ∼A ∧ B}· ?{A ∨ B, ∼A ∨ B}· ?{B ⊃ A, ∼(B ⊃ A)}etc.

so A need not be an unmarked target in order for ?{A, ∼A} to be

launched

H

H

a launched question is answered outside the psp

H


its answer is introduced as a new premise

H



this is awkward from a logical point of view

so better

redefine A as a set of couples 〈?{A, ∼A}, B〉 with B ∈ {A, ∼A}

B is determined but unknown to the problem solver

H



this is awkward from a logical point of view

so better

redefine A as a set of couples 〈?{A, ∼A}, B〉 with B ∈ {A, ∼A}

B is determined but unknown to the problem solver

that A is the target justifies launching 〈?{A, ∼A}, A〉 just as much as it

justifies launching 〈?{A, ∼A}, ∼A〉 (etc.)

H

H

instruction:

New If A is the target of the unmarked target line i, pp(A, B) or

pp(A, ∼B), and 〈?{B, ∼B}, C〉 ∈ A (where C ∈ {B, ∼B}),then one may add:

k C i; New

obvious from New:

which member of A was launched in view of which target

H

Γ = {(q ∧ r) ⊃ p, ∼s ∨ q, s, . . .} A = {〈?{q ⊃ r, ∼(q ⊃ r)}, q ⊃ r〉, . . .}.

1 {?{p, ∼p}} Main R19

2 [p] p Target R19

3 (q ∧ r) ⊃ p Prem

4 [q ∧ r] p 3; ⊃E R19

5 [q, r] p 4; C∧E S9 R10

6 {?{q, ∼q}, ?{r, ∼r}} 2, 5; DP I10

7 [r] r Target I10

8 q ⊃ r 7; New

9 [q] r 8; C⊃E I10

10 [q] p 5, 9; Trans R19

11 {?{q, ∼q}} 2, 10; DP R18

12 [q] q Target R18

13 ∼s ∨ q Prem

14 [s] q 13; ∨E S17 R18

15 {?{s, ∼s}} 12, 14; DP R17

16 [s] s Target R17

17 s Prem

18 q 14, 17; Trans

19 p 10, 18; Trans3.5 3


• procedural variants

• extensions to other logics

including adaptive logics to handle inconsistencies, abduction,

inductive generalization, . . . (fifth lecture)






procedure was not intended to be maximally efficient in view of its aim:

(i) explicate actual problem-solving processes

(ii) avoid steps that are useless with respect to the main problem, the

premises and the directly answerable questions

(iii) easily generalizable to other logics (devise prospective dynamics)






procedure was not intended to be maximally efficient in view of its aim:

(i) explicate actual problem-solving processes

(ii) avoid steps that are useless with respect to the main problem, the

premises and the directly answerable questions

(iii) easily generalizable to other logics (devise prospective dynamics)

procedure is probably not maximally efficient in its kind

· this requires further research

· it does not undermine the main aim of the enterprise:

to delineate sensible reasoning

3.6 3

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