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OVERVIEW ON LINGUISTICS

A. Introduction

Linguistics is the study of language. It does not only study particular

languages, but also the system of human communication. Because language has a

complex structure, linguistics has many branches of study. The parts of

linguistics concerned with the structure of language are divided into some

subfields, they are called phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and

pragmatics. Moreover, in terms of language structure, linguistics falls into some

branches, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics (or

anthropological linguistics), neurolinguistics, and applied linguistics. Since

language is very dynamic, then appeared many terms on the study of language,

such as: meta-linguistics, linguistics and computer, semiotics, etc.

The main purpose of the study of Linguistics is to enhance our

knowledge. Since language is a fundamental need for all human interactions, so

the main goal of the study of language is to increase our knowledge and

understanding related to the world. Furthermore, this compilation on Linguistics

is dedicated for brief overview on linguistics.

B. Discussion

1. Human Language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol that are used/shared by

the members of a community for communication or interaction. There are many

assumptions on the source of human language. It is believed that human language

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came from God, the nature and the human itself. Human language is

very unique ans special, it has some properties differentiating with animal

language. Firs, displacement -the ability to use time refence. Second,

arbitrariness -there is not correlation between the sound (name of the object)

with the real objects. Third, productivity -constantly create new expressions and

utterances. Fourth, cultural transmission -a language is continued from one

generation to the next generation. Fifth, duality -the same articulation among

some different words.

2. Phonology

Phonology is a branch (subfield) of linguistics which studies the sound

of language and how the sound is produced by the organs of speech (articulatory

organs). The articulatory organs are such as lips, tongue, alveolar, palate, etc.

Phonology has two branches; Phonetics and Phonemics. Phonetics is the study of

how sounds are produced through organs of speech with regarding the meaning

while phonemic is the study of how sounds are produced through organs of

speech without considering the meaning. The writing form of phonemic should

be in detail while the phonetics writing form is just in general.

There are two kinds of sounds, consonant and vowel sounds. Consonant

sound can be seen from three different perspectives. First, based on the place of

articulation, can be differentiated into seven categories: bilabials, labiodentals,

dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars, and glottals. Second, based on the manner of

articulation, consonant falls into seven categories; stops, fricatives, affricates,

nasals, liquids, glides, glottal stops and flaps. Third, Based on the strength of the

sound, consonant sounds can be divided into two: voiceless and voice sound. In

the other hands, vowel sounds can be seen from four angles (perspectives). First,

based on the tongue height: High, mid, low sounds. Second, based on the tongue

advancement: Front, center, and back sounds. Third, based on the muscular

reaction: non-tense (relax) and tense sounds. The last, based on the rounding of

the tongue: round and unrounded sounds. Generally, we also use what is called

diphthongs, a single sounds consist of a combination of two vowel sounds.

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3. Morphology

Morphology is one of linguistics’ branches that studies the form of

language. In each word, we have the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical

function known as morpheme. There are two kinds of morpheme. First, free

morphemes, a single morpheme which may stand alone as a word and have

meaning. Second, bound morphemes, a morpheme that usually sticked to another

words form because it may not stand alone. Free morphemes is divided into two

categories: lexical morphemes, words having the main content of the sentences

or phrase, and functional morphemes, functional words (conjunctions,

prepositions, articles and pronouns). Bound morphemes can be divided into two

types, they are derivational morphemes (to change the category of the words)

and inflectional morphemes (to make clear the aspects of the grammatical

function of a word).

4. Semantics

Semantics is the branch of linguistics which is study the meaning of

words, phrases and sentences. In understanding the meaning, we will face two

terms, they are conceptual and associative meaning. In semantic, there are some

roles: first, Agent and theme. Agent is something performs the action, while

theme is something affected by the action. Second, Instrument and experiencer.

The third, location, source and goal.

There are some analysis of lexical relations: (1). Synonymy, two or

more words that have the same or closely meanings, (2). Antonymy, two or more

words that have opposite meanings, (3). Hyponymy, in which the meaning of one

or two words are included in the meaning of another word, (4). Prototypes, the

characteristic instance of a category, (5). Homophones, two or more different

written words that have the same pronunciation, (6) Homonyms, one form of

words (written/spoken) that have two or more unrelated meanings, (7). Polysemy,

two or more words with the same meanings, (8). Word play, generally used for

humorous effect (9). Metonymy, the meaning of two or more words are

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essentially based on similarity.

5. Syntax

Syntax is the subfield of linguistics which studies the structure and

ordering of sentence component. It is the study of how to put words together to

form phrases and sentences. In learning Syntax, we usually make three diagrams,

it is a visual explanation of syntactic structure within a sentence/phrase. There is

also phrase structure rules, the rules stated that the structure of a phrase of a

specific type will consist of one or more words in a particular order. In order to

turn those structures into recognizable words, we need lexical rules that specify

which words can be used when we write grammatical words. Another roles is

called a movement rule, the process of moving one part of the structure to

another different position.

6. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is one of linguistics branches studying the speakers’

meaning. This study relates to the indirect meaning, so the understanding of the

context is really emphasized. In pragmatics, we also use the term of reference,

the using of pronoun to refer to something/people, Inference, the use of another

thing’s name to refer another different thing, Anaphora, referring back,

Presupposition, what a speaker/writer assumes had already been known by the

listener/reader. Then, Speech act is used to describe some actions (requesting,

commanding, questioning, inform, etc). The last term is Politeness, considering

of someone’s position in a conversation.

7. Discourse Analysis

Discourse Analysis is one of linguistics’ branches which is typically

concerned with the study of language in texts and conversation. The term of

discourse is usually known as language beyond the sentence. In terms of

Interpreting discourse, we deal with some terms. First cohesion, the connections

that exist in texts. Second, concept of coherence, it is not what words or

structures have, but that is what is in people’s mind. So people are who make the

sense of information they get. The next is speech events, the variation way of

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what people say and do to communicate their meaning in different situations.

Furthermore, in Learning discourse, we will face the theory proposed by

Paul Grice, the co-operative, which makes the conversation more effective based

on the information needed. The point in the theory is what is called Gricean

maxims; the quantity, quality, relation, and manner maxim. The action indicates

that we are concerning those maxims while being a participant in a conversation

is called hedge. The term of implicature is also really common in understanding

the conversation, that is when someone implies something in conversation. The

key to understand the implicature is the background knowledge of the

conversational context.

8. Neurolinguistics

Neurolinguistics is the subfield of linguistics which studies the

relationship between language and the brain. There are two specific area of

language in the brain, the first is called Broca’s area. It is the part relating to the

speech producing. The second is Wernicke’s area which concerns with the speech

comprehension. The damage on the both areas effecting on a specific language

impairment. Some people are also damaged from another language disorder

which is known as Aphasia, a damage of language function which causes the

difficulty in understanding or producing language. Many researches have been

done on the brain study, one of them is known as dichotic listening test. It is one

of experimental techniques which proved that the left hemisphere is more

dominance for syllable and word processing rather than right hemisphere.

Further, by understanding how language is processed in the brain, linguist

differentiated some particular sensitiveness of language learning known as the

sensitive period for language acquisition, it is generally well known as the term

critical period.

9. Anthropological linguistics

Anthropological linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the

relationship between language and culture, in which the language knowledge

take role as a source of information in the study of culture. This study also

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concerns with the interferences of human culture toward the process of language

production and changing or the influent of language toward culture.

10. Psycho Linguistic

Psycho Linguistic is the subfield of linguistics which studies how

language is processed in the mind. For first language acquisition, there are some

acquisition schedules on a child, they are: (1). Cooing, the beginning use of

speech-like sounds, (2). Babbling, the producing of many different vowel and

consonant sounds, (3). The one-word stage, starting to produce many kinds of

recognizable single-unit utterances, (4). The two-word stage, the using of two

different words in the same time, (5).Telegraphic, the child can get the word

order correct and other linguistics inputs such as morphology, syntax, etc are

begun. For second language acquisition, there are many factors effecting, such as

environment, teaching methods, child improvement, motivation, etc. Among all

of the factors, the most important aspect is learner’s motivation. There are two

kinds of motivation, internal and external motivation. Internal motivation comes

when they need to study the L2 because they like it. External factors is also

important, means that they want to learn the L2 to achieve some purposes, such

as social and communication purposes. Furthermore, input of language is really

needed in this process. Children will get their communicative competence

through the process. The competences are in grammatical, sociolinguistics, and

strategic competence.

11. Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics studying the relationship

between language and society and how language is used in society.

Sociolinguistics may help us to understand why people speak differently in

various social contexts, and help to understand the social relationships in a

community. In understanding the society, people may have sociolinguistics

competence which is enables the hearers and the speakers in understanding and

distinguishing the social context. We know hat people also adjust the way they

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talk to their social situation. Therefore, sociolinguists also studies the dialect,

accent, vocabulary and another linguistics features based on the region.

12. Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics which explores the relations

between theory and practice in language. It is used to identify problematic or

challenging issues involving language in many different contexts, then to find out

practical solutions that may be useful for the people in those contexts. For

instance, we will be able to find an ideal methods and techniques to teach the

students in a more effective and efficient way. The others advantages of learning

applied linguistics are to develope specialized knowledge of theory and practice

in target areas of language teaching, technology, and sociolinguistics/intercultural

issues as well as to develop an ability to apply our knowledge to professional and

practical tasks in teaching and other areas.

13. Language and Machine

In this global day, machine is used as the mean of communication and

information. Therefore, linguistics also covers the study in language and

Machine. Machine is used for translating and spreading the information.

C. Conclusion

Language is a complex structure, therefore linguistics has many

branches of study. Since Linguistics covers the knowledge of the language as

well as the knowledge beyond the language (meta-linguistics). Thus, it is

important for students in English Language Teaching Programme to study and

have a deep understanding on all of the subfields of linguistics.