Children’s Right to a goodPhysical Environment

Central concepts and Problem definition

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Save the Children fights for the rights of children. We deliver immediate and lasting improvements to the lives of children worldwide.

Save the Children works for: - a world which respects and values each child - a world which listens to children and learns - a world where all children have hope and opportunity

Code number: 2002-2747 Save the Children Sweden and the author 2002

Author: Lillemor Andersson-Brolin Editors and production management: Eva Clarhäll and Anna-Carin Carlsson Cover illustrator Matilda Carlsson Graphic design: Ulla Ståhl Cover Graphic design: Annelie Rehnström

First edition: 2 Printed by Save the Children Sweden

This publication is partly financed by Sida (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency). Sida has not taken part in its production and does not assume any responsibility for its content.

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Background

In the coming years, the rights of children to a healthy physical environment will have a high priority at Save the Children Sweden. A new programme focusing on the role of the physical environment is going to be developed.

As part of the preparation of the programme, seven reports have been produced, of which this is one. The objective is for these reports to serve as a “package” of basic information. Central concepts are defined, problems analysed and actors described. Possible activities at different levels are identified and related to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and other international agreements, such as Agenda 21 and Habitat Agenda action plans.

The reports are:

Children’s Right to a Good Physical Environment. Central Concepts and Problem Definition. Code no 2002-2747 (Also available in Swedish: Barnsrätt till god fysisk miljö – centrala begrepp och problemdefinition. Code no 2002-2748)

Children’s Rights and the Physical Environment. A Review of Current Knowledge. Code no 2002-2749. SEK 100.

The Rights of the Child and the Physical Environment. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and other Relevant International Agreements. Code no 2002-2750

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child Reporting System and the Physical Environment. Code no 2002-2751

Children’s Rights from an Environmental Perspective. Implications for Action.Code no 2002-2752

Children and the Environment. Actors on the International Arena. Code no 2002-2753

Barn och miljö. Aktörer i Sverige (Children and the Environment. Swedish Actors - this document is only available in Swedish). Code no 2002-2754

All these documents may be ordered from Save the Children Sweden, SE-107 88 Stockholm, Sweden. Telephone number +46 8 698 90 20, fax +46 8 698 90 25. Or visit our on-line bookshop: www.rb.se/bookshop. There will be a charge for postage and handling.

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Contents

Purpose 5

Some Central Concepts 6 Environment 6 Environmental Destruction and Environmental Problems 7 Eco-cycle, the Eco-cycle Society and Critical Load Limits 7 Life-cycle Assessments 8 Environmental Debt 8 Nature and Natural Resources 8 Ecology 9 Human Ecology and Social Ecology 10 Environmental Psychology and Development Ecology 11 Accessibility 12 Sound Development 12 Intergenerational Justice 13

The Right of Children to a Good Physical Environment – Both a Social Issue and an Environmental Issue 14 What Environmental Health Problems have been Observed? 14 - Environmental Health Problems in Developing Countries 15 - A Swedish Study – An Example 17 - Environmental Health Problems – Some Comments 19 Children’s Development and Environment 19 Paying Attention to Children’s Potential to Influence 21 More Attention Paid to the Perspective of Gender 22 Different Ages – Different Problems 22 Children with Physical Disabilities Continue to be Invisible 23

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Purpose

The purpose of this document is to provide some basic information which may be valuable in connection with issues concerning children and the environment. Firstly, there is a description of some of the concepts which recur frequently in an environmental context and in general literature. It is not the intention that these concepts and definitions should be accepted indiscriminately. Rather, they should function as sensitising concepts, i.e. as a basis for discussion or to provide guidance in one direction or another.

Many of the concepts have their origins in the sciences, especially biology. This raises issues of an epistemological nature. One such example is the way the concepts may be interpreted from a sociological perspective and their consequences. Another immediate question is how to reconcile “green environmental issues”, i.e. issues which, principally concern the protection of the countryside, and “brown environmental issues” which concern the local environment, physical planning, buildings, infrastructure and the urban environment.

In the second part of the report, we try to reproduce the discourse, i.e. those subjects, problems and issues concerning children and the environment that recur frequently in research and debate, but which also affect other subjects. The purpose in this case as well is to stimulate discussion and ideas on relevant, local issues, but also on the national and international work that is needed.

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Some Central Concepts

Environment

Since the beginning of the 1970s, the “environment” has become an in-word. It is used in many different contexts. Even when it is not defined clearly and unambiguously, it is associated, often rather vaguely, with something positive. Some people who regard themselves as friends of the environment were asked how they defined the environment, and a typical answer was:

“For me, environment is something positive. Environment is associated with nature, and is something which we must not destroy or violate.”

In an everyday context, it does not really matter how the word ‘environment’ is defined as long as the concept is not misused. However, when working on a theme focusing on environmental issues, more precise and neutral concepts are needed.

The Swedish term for ‘environment’ comes from the French ‘milieu’, meaning centre, or the Latin ‘medius locus’, meaning in the middle of an existing place. The following definition of ‘environment’ can be found in the Encyclopaedia Britannica:

“Environment is the complex of factors (physical, chemical, and biotec) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival.” 1

1 In Swedish reference books, environment is defined as an interrelationship between the surroundings and the people, animals, plants and other organisms existing therein. Nothing is written about the appearance of this interrelationship, but it may be assumed that it is referring to a biological perspective. (As a technical ecological term, environment is on a par with biotope.) In most cases, the term environment in this context therefore needs to be further specified in order to be useable in issues which go beyond the purely biological.

In a Swedish environmental text book (“Litet miljölexikon” by Rosman Jahja, 1995) environment is defined as “external conditions which affect all life”. In other words, it could be placed on a par with outside factors which are not exactly the same as the above definition. The difference may be academic but is still worth noting. The fact that the one concept is associated with interrelationships and the other with factorsmay mean that the concepts may complement each other. The English concept consequently corresponds to the Swedish definition of environment given by Jahja. The emphasis is placed on environmental factors which have an influence and not on the interrelationship.

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It is possible for the choice of definition to be adapted to the context in question. Irrespective of which choice is made, however, it is important to avoid any confusion and misunderstandings, to know what the environmental concept stands for and to ensure that the concept is not made superficial or misused. The same also applies when specifying the environment concept. English reference books refer to the ‘environment’ as being divided into physical, chemical, and biotec environment, reflecting a biological approach. An alternative suggestion is to subdivide ‘environment’ into the dichotomy of social environment and physical environment, and then to go further and subdivide physical environment into human-influenced environment and natural environment. Such a categorisation emphasises social and societal factors in a different way and is therefore more appropriate as a basis for analyses of issues concerning children and the environment. Natural Environment

Social environment Physical Environment Human-influenced Natural

Environment Environment

Environmental Destruction and Environmental Problems

Environmental destruction and environmental problems are the effects of changes brought about by human activity. In many cases these are not conscious actions intended to destroy the environment, but rather unintentional side effects. Environmental destruction is associated with the destruction of the natural environment. Specific examples of environmental destruction are deforestation, desertification, erosion, emissions of greenhouse gases and toxification of the ground, sea, flora and fauna. The term ‘environmental problems’ is used more generally and can refer to mould, damp and tobacco smoke in the home, in school or in public places. Such problems can have devastating effects on people’s health, on buildings and other products.

Eco-cycle, the Eco-cycle Society and Critical Load Limits

The main reason for an increasingly serious situation is the fact that the production of goods and thus energy consumption has increased significantly since the Second World War. The energy is mainly obtained from fossil fuels, resulting in various types of emissions (exhaust gases, flue dust and waste heat). When the products have been used, they become waste which is incinerated, dumped and dispersed. Consequently, the natural eco-cycle has been broken and replaced by industrialisation’s “linear flow of materials” from raw material via product to waste. There are limits to the level of fallout or emissions nature can tolerate. These limits are generally known as critical loads. Exceeding these limits can result in irrevocable changes, a development

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which must be arrested by helping to turn industrialised societies into eco-cycle societies.

An eco-cycle society is a society based on the principle that the resources which are extracted from nature should be reused, recycled or dealt with without damaging the countryside, and that the consumption of non-renewable resources should be minimised (Jahja, 1995: 28). Such a society is a prerequisite for lasting, sustainable development (see more below).

Life-cycle Assessments

The influence of people on the environment and the environment’s influence on people may be immediate or only observed after an extended period of time. From a children’s rights perspective, it is important that the long-term effects are not neglected. Life-cycle assessments (LCAs) can therefore be relevant in many contexts. In such assessments, the environmental impact of a product is analysed over its entire lifetime, from the source of the raw material to the final treatment of waste. An assessment of the impact includes the effects on health, ecological effects and occasionally even social effects.

Assessments of this kind have been the subject of criticism. This is both because assessment is a complicated process and because assessments which have been conducted to date have been on the basis of the existing infrastructure. In comparisons with alternative solutions, these may be assessed at a later date as less beneficial. However, these are methodological problems which should be possible to resolve in order that the life-cycle assessments can be improved and carried out to a greater extent than is currently the case.

Environmental Debt

To achieve a rough estimate of the extent of the environmental destruction, the concept ‘environmental debt’ has been created. This is the cost of restoring repairable environmental damage. The cost for stemming and, to a certain extent, repairing the global environmental destruction is calculated at approximately USD 125 billion per annum. The environmental debt is, of course, actually a debt owed by the present generations to coming generations and may as a result be a useful and productive concept when analysing both prerequisites and consequences.

Nature and Natural Resources

The terms ‘nature’ and ‘environment’ are closely linked with one another. The English word ‘nature’ is said to have 66 different meanings. In many countries, particularly in the Nordic region, the concepts ‘nature’ and ‘environment’ are associated with something unspoilt providing pleasant

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experiences and love. This has deep historical roots. Life on the land, proximity to animals and nature has long been portrayed as the ideal environment for children to grow up in.

Attitudes to nature are equivocal, however. Admittedly, the natural environment is greatly appreciated, but the love is not as unreserved as among ethnic groups who are heavily dependent on the natural environment for their survival. These groups display both great respect and afford nature a central roll in myths and religions. Norms and traditions are developed to prevent the over-utilisation of nature.

With the growth of industry, however, the scientific view is gaining more and more ground. While we continue to enjoy the unspoilt and clean natural environment we also perceive it as a non-feeling, non-thinking resource made up of atoms.

When looking at nature as a resource, the concept renewability has become highly topical. Renewable natural resources are part of an eco-cycle with what is, from a human perspective, a foreseeable cycle period. The extent to which natural resources are renewable is highly relevant when it comes to analyses with inter-generational and children’s rights perspectives.

Flow resources, fund resources and stock resources The resources may be categorised for instance as flow resources, fund resources and stock resources. In principle, flow resources are inexhaustible (solar insolation, the atmosphere and water in the hydrological eco-cycle), fund resources have to be looked after and can give continuous returns (e.g. water, ground cover, plants and animals), while stock resources are non-reproducible natural resources becoming increasingly depleted every time they are extracted. They may be recyclable (such as sand, gravel, minerals) or non-recyclable (e.g. fossil fuels such as coal and oil).

Ecology

Ecology is the science of the interrelationship between living organisms and their surroundings2, and the concept ‘ecology’ was coined as early as 1869. Up until the 1950s, we generally only studied the ecology of individual species, which set its stamp on the way concepts came to be defined.

2 It is worth pointing out that the concept ‘ecology’ is also affected by the way environment is defined. If environment is defined as the interrelationship between an organism and its surroundings, ecology becomes the “the science of the environment”. However, if environment is defined as surrounding factors which influence a living being, it is better to define ecology as “the science of the association between living beings and the surrounding environment”.

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Gradually, however, an ecological outlook has also gained ground within the social and behavioural sciences. The focus is man’s relationship with the physical environment or space in the broad sense. The term ‘ecology’ is defined in the Encyclopaedia Britannica as “The study of the relationships between organisms and their environment”.

Human Ecology and Social Ecology

Human ecology and social ecology are two closely related scientific disciplines. They are based on theories from geography, sociology, social sciences, the humanities, technology and medicine. Both disciplines seek knowledge on the interplay between people and their surroundings. Although they have developed in several different directions, they both include space and/or the physical environment in their analyses. The discipline which emerged in Chicago under the designation human ecology (but which in Sweden, for example, is known as ‘social ecology’) concentrates on urban phenomena, “the brown environment”. Examples include urban living environments and living conditions. Issues concerning urban diversification and segregation have always been central.3

In a sociology dictionary, “human ecology” is described as

“The study of the relationships between individuals, social groups, and their social environment. Originally, they applied concepts taken from plant and animal ecology in their development of urban ecology… In its later forms human ecology rejects any simple application to human societies of the competitive and evolutionary mechanisms by which biologists explain the distribution of species in varying physical environments…”

This description is interesting. It demonstrates both the problems and the possibilities of applying biological concepts within a social science. For a long time, the discipline was the subject of criticism, which primarily amounted to the fact that an ecological conceptual device was not applicable to social processes. Concepts such as balance and equilibrium could lead social analyses in the wrong direction and result in conservative conclusions. Social ecology answered its critics by being descriptive and not normative. This did not help much, and it has only become fully accepted in the last few decades, which probably has something to do with the fact that an ecological outlook has generally received significantly greater scope than previously.

3 The Swedish “human ecology” is much younger. It has a broader perspective, concentrates more on “the green environment” and its main purpose is to study the role of people in the eco-system.

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Environmental Psychology and Development Ecology

Issues concerning the interrelationship between people and the physical environment are also analysed within psychology and education. Within both environmental psychology and development ecology, the importance of the physical environment in the interrelationship between children and the environment is being charted. In some cases, the focus is on the local environment, while in other cases macro systems are also studied. Environ-mental psychology is a blank sheet. In the Journal of Environmental Psychology, the concept is defined as

“transactions and interrelationships between people and their sociophysical surroundings including man-made and natural environments”4

Sociological and psychological approaches complement each other. While environmental psychologists have their sights set on individuals, social ecologists and human ecologists often look for patterns at a social level. Similarities and differences between social classes, children and adults or different ages, genders and ethnic groups are compared and analysed. Segregation is a key concept.

However, we can state that both approaches differ from the scientific or biological definition of environment. In simple terms, it can be said that sociologists and psychologists use the concept “environment” to describe the conditions in which people grow up and “physical environment” to describe physical factors in the environment in which people grow up.

4 De Jonge provides a still more specific description: “Environmental psychology examines the interrelationship between environments and human behaviour. The field defines the term environment very broadly including all that is natural on the planet as well as social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments. When solving problems involving human-environment interactions, whether global or local, one must have a model of human nature that predicts the environmental conditions under which humans will behave in a decent and creative manner. With such a model one can design, manage, protect and/or restore environments that enhance reasonable behaviour, predict what the likely outcome will be when these conditions are not met, and diagnose problem situations. The field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. It explores such dissimilar issues as common property resource management, wayfinding in complex settings, the effect of environmental stress on human performance, the characteristics of restorative environments, human information processing, and the promotion of durable conservation behaviour. The field of environmental psychology recognizes the need to be problem-oriented, using, as needed, the theories and methods of related disciplines (e.g., psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, ecology)” De Jonge (Environmental Psychology, 1999).

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Accessibility

From a psychological or sociological point of view, it is not only interesting to survey the factors in the physical environment that affect children and young people, but also how elements in the physical environment are spatially organised and how accessible they are. And this accessibility is not solely tied up with physical properties, but also with social, cultural and economic factors.

“I am always late as I have to take a bus which has compartments where men and women are separated. And there are so few of these buses,” explains 12-year-old Fahima who lives near Peshawar in Pakistan.

For a child with physical disabilities, accessibility can mean something different.

“I would really like to go to school, but it isn’t possible. I cannot manage without a wheelchair and there is a long, long flight of steps up to the school, over there on that hill...” says Daniel who lives in one of Rio’s favelas.

Of course, accessibility is also relevant when it comes to nature and the green environment. Sweden’s Minister for the Environment, Kjell Larsson, says in an interview:

“We want to improve people’s access to nature. It can enhance the quality of life and contribute to an improvement in public health. Rambling around in the countryside we have around us creates a feeling of freedom... For me, natural areas close to centres of population are areas you can get to on a bicycle. Around 5 kilometres from the city.” (Dagens Nyheter 18 January 2002).

Sound Development

The concept ‘sound’ or ‘sustainable development’ was launched by Gro Harlem Brundtland and the Brundtland Commission in 1987. In Agenda 21 it is maintained that sustainable development is the overall objective for all social development. Such a development is characterised as satisfying the needs of today without jeopardising the potential for future generations to satisfy their needs. The realisation of such a development requires wide-ranging analyses and measures in several areas. In ecological terminology, sustainable development is “improving the quality of human life within the framework of the capacity of the supporting ecosystems”.

One of the seven Millennium objectives adopted by the international community (UN, IMF, OECD and the World Bank Group) is for each country to implement a strategy for sustainable development by 2005. To date, fewer than half the countries in the world have adopted their own strategies, and even fewer implement them. In order to evaluate progress there are six

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indicators. One of these is the proportion of people who have access to clean water. Others are the proportion of forested land, biodiversity, energy efficiency, GNP per unit of energy consumed and carbon dioxide emissions per capita.

The notion of sustainable societal development encompassing ecological, social and economic aspects, and of these aspects being closely related, is gaining more and more ground. An ecologically sustainable society is the objective, and in order to achieve this objective it is necessary for economic and social preconditions to be satisfied. One precondition is for people to assume responsibility for good management of the natural environment and to use raw materials and energy efficiently. Economising with resources needs to be integrated in all social activities.

Intergenerational Justice

Other prerequisites for sustainable social development include fair distribution between countries and the existence of justice between generations. Many people in poor countries are heavily dependent on a clean environment. They should not be exposed to pollution in the natural environment as a result of the consumption habits of rich countries. At the same time, the present generation must not over-utilise and abuse existing natural resources. There has to be intergenerational justice.

The generational perspective received considerable attention during the conference held by the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in Berlin during the summer of 2001. The principle of inter-generational justice is for both children living today as well as future generations to have the right to have their needs met and their rights respected. The rights of one generation must be placed in relation to the rights of previous, current and future generations. During the Berlin conference, there were also discussions on various conditions for the application of this principle. Children and young people must be involved, problems must be illustrated from a long-term perspective and there must be access to adequate knowledge.

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The Right of Children to a Good Physical Environment – Both a Social Issue and an Environmental Issue

Judging by existing concepts, the physical environment comprises many different phenomena. For this reason, trying to narrow down “environmental problems” as a basis for a work programme is not particularly productive without specifying concepts. Many different themes and problems are observed, many different types of research pursued and many different measures implemented. The problems and issues vary between developed and developing countries, but also between and within nations. The environmental descriptions can, however, be divided into a couple of rough categories.

The first relates to descriptions of ill health as a result of pollution in the physical environment, i.e. what are normally referred to as environmental health problems. The second relates to descriptions of “clean nature” as a source of wellbeing and health. Both types of description are based on an assumption, sometimes spoken and sometimes unspoken, that it is necessary to protect and preserve the ecological balance. While pollution of nature in developed countries is strongly associated with industrial production and over-consumption, it is poverty, in combination with unequal distribution of resources, that is the main cause of many environmental problems in developing countries. Measures for dealing with these problem may consequently take on a different appearance in developing and developed countries.

Other types of descriptions are those which raise issues regarding the role of the physical environment on children’s growth, their intellectual, emotional and social development. These often deal with opportunities and obstacles, whether the environment inspires security, whether it promotes social contacts and whether children are given an outlet for their curiosity, creativity and playfulness. These are issues that can be described as environmental-psychological or socio-ecological and fall outside the framework of what is traditionally meant by environmental issues. These issues do not therefore have the same impact in the environmental debate. On the other hand, they are taken up in the social debate. In recent years, for example, housing segregation and its consequences have been the subject of lively discussions in political circles. There are also several research projects that illustrate physical planning from a child’s perspective.

What Environmental Health Problems have been Observed?

WHO’s definition of environmental health is: “Environmental health includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents and the effects (often indirect) on health and well-being of the broad

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physical, psychological, social and aesthetic environment, which include housing, urban development, land use and transport”.5

This is a broad definition which is, of course, closely associated with being practicable around the world. The serious threats to health vary considerably. Likewise, it is almost always possible to trace a number of general risk factor categories in problem descriptions: outdoor and indoor air pollutants; polluted water and ground; food that spreads infection or contains traces of mercury, cadmium, lead or other environmental pollutants; chemicals in the home; radiation and noise. People are often exposed to several of these risks at the same time, although the combinations and the gravity may vary.

In order to make a serious assessment of the issues at the top of the agenda, it is necessary to conduct a thorough study. A quick overview of literature from Europe and North America, however, points to the pollution of air and water, together with the increased use and the distribution of chemicals, being the issues that attract the greatest attention in the field of environmental health. In poor countries, the areas that tend to be highlighted are polluted water, poor waste management and other sanitary shortcomings, while air pollutants caused by traffic are not cited to the same extent.

In a number of cases, the health risks are undisputed. In other cases it is difficult to identify a relationship6. The belief that children run a greater risk than adults seems to be a common trend, however.

Environmental Health Problems in Developing Countries

In less developed countries, children’s ill health is more closely related to the physical environment than in developed countries. More than half of all illnesses in the least developed countries are linked to the physical environment (Satterthwaite, D. Hart, R. et.al. The Environment for Children, London, Earthscans 1996). For the youngest children, this figure is believed to amount to two-thirds. This is largely due to the fact that diarrhoea and respiratory infections, the most common illnesses among babies, are environmentally related. Water and sanitary conditions explain a lot.

5 The definition should be viewed in the light of the WHO’s definition of health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not only the absence of illness or weakness”. The definition is not that dissimilar from the term high quality of life, which is the same as living an active life, having mutual and close relationships with other people and feeling a basic sense of happiness (Siri Naess). It is also worth noting that both concepts have been criticised for being difficult to measure and assess in practical terms. Despite this, there have been several praiseworthy and useful attempts. 6 For example, links have been established between high levels of air pollution and mortality rates, although it is not possible to indicate a lower limit for risks associated with air pollution.

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It is generally recognised that a large proportion of the illnesses that affect children can be connected to the quality of the water. Clean water for all children is one of UNICEF’s most important objectives. The importance of the quantity of water is not mentioned as often. When it is difficult to obtain water, however, it is necessary to save it, which means worse sanitary conditions, thereby increasing the risk of a number of illnesses. Proximity and access to water are consequently highly relevant issues, which need to receive greater attention than has been the case to date.

The existence and use of latrines is another major environmental health issue, particularly for children. When people relieve themselves in the open, this can entail health risks, not least for small children who are inquisitive, crawl around or sit on the ground happily putting things in their mouths. Despite this, the issue has not succeeded in making any general inroads. Often, obstacles and setbacks have been cultural in nature. Building latrines has been regarded as a technical project. Many latrines are designed for adults and not for children. Neither is access to latrines or toilets in pre-school and at school a matter of course. In many cases, schools continue to be built without toilet facilities or without consideration to gender and habits.

Refuse tips, inadequate sewage systems and stagnant pools of water constitute other sources of infection, and children who play in such environments are exposed to serious health risks.

Issues concerning children’s health, water and sanitation have long held a prominent position in UNICEF’s activities and will also find expression in the project “The Child Friendly Cities Initiative”. However, these issues also need to be given a higher priority within other international bodies, business partners, national and local authorities. The conditions for such a development are believed to have improved in recent years. In 1999, for example, WHO formed a Task Force which is charged with checking the impact of environmental factors on children’s health. This Task Force has identified inadequate access to clean drinking water and poor sanitary conditions as global health problems. Even the donor coalition “The Cities Alliance” and other international organisations are attaching ever greater importance to water and sanitation.7

Emissions from motor traffic entails significant environmental problems in developing countries. Lead continues to be used as an additive in petrol here, involving serious health risks, especially for children. Studies from Karachi indicate very high levels of lead in children’s blood. The levels are significantly higher for children than for adults, and widely exceed the threshold values set by countries such as the USA. Apart from the immediate health risks there are also long-term risks, as the lead remains in the environment for a long time after having been spread via car exhausts. Consequently, this is a colossal problem affecting several generations. Against

7 For a more detailed description of these organisations, please refer to the document “Children and the Environment. Actors on the international arena.”

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this background, it is quite clear that the problem requires more attention than is currently the case.

Smokey indoor environments constitute health risks throughout the world. In developing countries, the problem is usually caused by fireplaces and poor ventilation, which is thought to be the most common environmental pollution to which children are exposed. An important observation is that more girls are affected by respiratory infections than boys. A plausible explanation is that girls are indoors for more of the time, and that they are involved in preparing food. Damp housing is another important health issue. These problems are not given much attention, however, either in research or when it comes to concrete measures. When a connection is made between the health of children and building materials, it is usually to show that a particular material is difficult to keep clean from insects and dirt.

The environmental factor which in many cases has the greatest effect on the health of children and adults is food. Consequently, food issues generally receive considerable attention. The problems vary of course. While in the rich countries emphasis is placed on the quality and preparation of food, the greatest problems in many developing countries are malnourishment and starvation. The importance of breast-feeding is an issue which has long received considerable international attention and support.

In industrialised countries, more and more attention is now being paid to the environment as a factor causing stress. Despite congestion and overcrowded living conditions often being significantly more evident in developing countries, however, and despite large numbers of children often being crowded into classrooms that are far too small, this receives negligible attention there.

Several environmental disasters occur every year and receive various degrees of attention, very much dependent on where they take place and the extent to which they can be kept secret. More often than not, mass media interest quickly fades. One exception was the Chernobyl disaster, which made a lasting impression throughout most of Europe. It is clear from a recently published UN report that there is a need to follow up the long-term effects. The UN maintains, for example, that the compulsory movement of families in the vicinity of Chernobyl caused more harm than the effects of the accident itself. Even though the comparisons in themselves are dubious, the study shows the importance of a long-term commitment. For the children, a disaster of this kind can leave its mark on their whole childhood.

A Swedish Study – An Example

Last year saw the publication of the “Environmental Health Report 2001”, the first national account of the situation in Sweden as regards environmental health risks and ill health related to the environment.

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The report contains a large number of research findings demonstrating the role played by the physical environment as regards public health, and the report provides a good picture of the serious environmental problems existing in Sweden. The areas covered are indoor and outdoor pollutants, water, food, hormone-disruptive environmental pollutants, noise, environment-related illnesses and health-related environmental monitoring.

A considerably stricter view has been taken of the effects of air pollutants. Despite this, however, the levels are too high in many places, resulting for example in respiratory infections in children. A poor indoor environment contributes not only to allergies and respiratory infections, but also to lung cancer. Children who are exposed to passive smoking suffer more respiratory infections and ear inflammations, and require hospital care more often than children who are not exposed. Between 20-30% of asthma in small children is estimated to be due to passive smoking. Asthma in children over four years of age can also be linked to tobacco smoke in combination with house-dust mites and fur-bearing animals.

A number of negative environmental effects from chemicals are described in the report. Lead has been used for thousands of years for various purposes. High doses can result in poisoning, but it has been shown that even low doses can have negative consequences on health. Foetuses and small children are particularly susceptible to lead, which can cause damage to the nervous system, delayed development, reduced intellectual capacity and behavioural disorders. The use of lead in petrol and its negative effects on health have long been the subject of attention. In Sweden and several other countries, measures have been taken which have resulted in a significant reduction in the use of lead in petrol.

Mercury is another environmental toxin which can impair the development of the brain, especially in foetuses. High levels of mercury have an effect on children’s speech development, memory and attention. Mercury released into lakes is absorbed by fish. For this reason, recommendations have been issued in Sweden to the effect that pregnant women and women planning to have children in the near future should avoid eating freshwater fish such as pike, perch, pike-perch, turbot, eel and halibut.

Dioxins and PCBs are chlorinated environmental pollutants that are hard to break down in the environment. Some studies suggest that they can have subtle effects on a child’s development. The pollutants reach people through food such as oily fish, dairy products and meat. The National Swedish Food Administration therefore recommends that girls and women can eat oily fish from the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Bothnia, Lake Vänern and Lake Vättern no more than once a week.

Knowledge about the effects of brominated flame-retardants is limited, but there is reason to be attentive, as these agents display great similarities to other, better-known environmental toxins (such as PCBs).

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Another risk covered in the report is electromagnetic fields from power lines and electrical appliances. Conclusions from a Swedish study point to a certain excess risk of leukaemia in children living close to power lines. Risks associated with prolonged exposure to mobile telephones are also included on the list of environmental problems that are currently being studied in depth.

Water-borne illnesses are not a major problem in Sweden, relatively speaking. The reasons for outbreaks tend to be faulty technical solutions and designs or outright mistakes. In this respect, the picture differs significantly between developing and developed countries. Food-borne illnesses are also relatively rare in Sweden. The main reasons are micro-organisms in the food combined with incorrect handling and temperature.

The report also looks at the issue of noise as a negative environmental factor, with traffic noise, noisy neighbours or music systems being cited as examples. It states that children and young people are being exposed to noise that can impair hearing to a greater extent than seems to have occurred previously.

Environmental Health Problems – Some Comments

It is clear that attention is traditionally paid primarily to environmental health problems leading to physical illness. It is therefore worth pointing out that possible negative mental consequences of physical and socio-physical environments must not be forgotten in analyses. Examples of this can be found in the section below on children’s development.

Neither should accidents be forgotten, and attention needs to be paid to the role of the environment in traffic accidents, burns, falling injuries and cases of poisoning. The number of accidents among children is high in developing countries, and accidents are particularly common in slum areas and in shanty-towns. It is also worth noting that accidents are the most common cause of death among children in countries where serious illnesses are under control. Approximately half of all accidents involving children in Sweden are traffic related. Consequently there is every reason not to limit the negative environ-mental effects of traffic to air pollutants and their health consequences.

Children’s Development and Environment

In simple terms, it can be said that it is the effects of a polluted environment are the focus for health issues. The purpose is to analyse and attend to environ-mental pollutants in order that the ecological balance can be restored and illnesses prevented.

When looking at the role of the environment in the emotional, social and cognitive development of children, it is usually from a different perspective. Even though the environment occasionally affects both health and

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development, it is often other characteristics in the physical environment which come to the fore. The environment can be seen as a reference framework, where children grow up. Children live, play, spend time with each other and go to school or work somewhere, and the physical environment consists in this case of both the built environment and the natural environment. The younger the children, the more restricted their patterns of movement and the greater the role of the immediate surroundings. Irrespective of age, however, resources are required in the form of money and/or time to move around. What is nearby and what is a long way away will therefore affect children’s possibilities throughout their formative years.

The role of the physical environment on children’s development has been analysed by a number of researchers, and several publications have been issued over the past decade. For example, questions have been asked such as whether the environment inspires security and a feeling of being at home, whether it arouses curiosity and gives rise to the joy of discovery, whether it offers natural experiences, places to play, to meet friends or to be alone. A holistic approach to the environment is often taken, involving a perspective where both the physical and the social environments are included. Recently the focus has increasingly been on children’s rights.

Even though numerous problems are basically similar around the world, they are considerably deeper in developing countries. There is often a lack of both basic security and the most elementary physical conditions. Millions of people who live in slum areas and shanty-towns have no rights to the house or hovel they live in. As a result, their children are not registered at birth either. They are placed outside of society. They have no entitlement to healthcare and are not permitted to attend school. As a rule, slum areas do not provide any security for children. Instead, the environment in which these children grow up is characterised by violence, crime, drugs and alcohol. All these issues are highly relevant but rarely receive the attention they demand.

Lack of security is also a problem in industrialised countries. In this case, the problem is often related to the segregation within cities and to certain suburbs. In recent decades, socio-economic segregation with ethnic overtones has been on the increase in Sweden and other European countries. This development widens the gulf between children and young people. Admittedly, several European politicians and planners have expressed concern, but the efforts made to date are not enough.

Stress is a problem which is interwoven with the social and the physical environment. Stress situations have traditionally been associated with an urban lifestyle, but lately Swedish attention has been focused more and more on stressful school situations.

Overcrowding is another major socio-spatial problem. In Sweden, overcrowding was eradicated by means of a building programme during the 1970s, but according to the mass media this problem is once again relevant for large families with many children. However, Swedish overcrowding is not

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comparable with that of less developed countries. Despite this, it is not an issue which is particularly high on the political agenda in these countries. Instead, households which have the ability to build a house themselves attempt to do so, possibly in a joint house-building project. It is often the overcrowding itself that is the strongest reason for such participation. People want to give their children a better living environment with the potential for seclusion, which is necessary if the children are to be able to study.

Play and social interplay have great significance in children’s lives. It is therefore important for there to be areas and premises adapted to the needs of different ages. The rights of children to secure places to play are monitored intensively by international organisations such as the International Play Association, IPA. Even though they have had success in developed countries, the issue is still not given a particularly high priority in the less developed parts of the world. Neither is sufficient attention paid to the needs of youngsters to have their own areas and premises.

As mentioned earlier, motorised traffic is an equally great, if not greater, problem for children in developing countries. It is not just a matter of health. The problem also has another dimension, i.e. the relationship between private motoring and public transport. The potential for children to move about varies considerably. While children in middle class families are generally driven around in private cars, children in poor families have to find other solutions. As a rule, the public transport network is very poorly developed. Children may have to wait for a long time and then push themselves forward in order to get aboard overcrowded buses. Many children have experienced discrimination, fear and unpleasantness.

Traffic issues are highly relevant particularly for children and young people. They do not have the opportunity to choose for themselves like many adults. However, few players have issues concerning traffic solutions and improved public transport on their agenda. This is probably largely due to these issues being politically sensitive and requiring support from government or local authorities.

Paying Attention to Children’s Potential to Influence

From a children’s rights perspective, some issues are particularly important. One such issue is whether research and debate highlight and reflect the rights of children and young people to participate in decisions which affect them.

One chapter in Agenda 21 deals with the right of young people to express their opinions on environmental issues. A large number of environmental groups and networks right around the world are run by young people. However, the rights of younger children are not as pronounced. Children are still regarded as objects, despite in many cases being very committed, highly knowledgeable and having a clear understanding of environmental issues.

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Neither is the right of children to influence their local environment an issue that is particularly high on the agenda among decision-makers. This is despite the fact that children are much more dependent on their local environment than adults and despite this being an important issue in every democratic society. Children and young people often have other preferences and wishes, which may be perceived as a threat by adults. One recurring comment is that there is also a lack of adequate methods for allowing children to participate in the planning of local environments around the home and school. However, projects and programmes where children have actually participated actively have succeeded beyond all expectations.

More Attention Paid to the Perspective of Gender

Another highly relevant issue is the extent to which a distinction is drawn between girls and boys, and whether their different conditions are highlighted. Girls are discriminated against in most contexts, and this is very obvious in developing countries. Girls become ill more often than boys. They do not receive the same care, are often undernourished and do not attend school as often as boys. Gender roles affect daily life from an early age. Girls help in the home considerably more than boys. They are not given the same freedom of movement. In countries where purdha prevails, there may be a total restriction on leaving the house from early in a girl’s life. In more developed countries, the discrimination takes other forms, but it is always important to look at the physical environment and the physical conditions from a gender perspective.

A general conclusion is that such a perspective is currently gaining a foothold within research and within international organisations. Even though it will probably take time before equality between girls and boys has become established in earnest, there are many good examples of progress in a positive direction. One such example is statistics that are subdivided by gender.

Different Ages – Different Problems

The extent to which the issues vary with the ages of children is also interesting. When it comes to issues in the developing countries, it can be established that the emphasis is primarily on the health of small children, while the situation for slightly older children and teenagers does not receive any particular attention.

This is probably linked to the simple fact that the issues of teenagers and puberty are new phenomena. In traditional societies there is often a direct transition from child to adult. With strong and rapid urbanisation, however, there have also been significant changes in developing countries, resulting for example in many young people finding themselves in a risk zone with regard to social inclusion as well as physical and mental health.

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Housing shortages, the lack of meeting places and segregation are some problems that need to be looked at from a young person’s perspective. No matter where in the world the problems are, they contribute to a feeling of not belonging, of being on the outside, which in turn undermines the democratic rights. Even though such issues are receiving more and more attention in Europe, they are still invisible in many developing countries.

Children with Physical Disabilities Continue to be Invisible

Girls and boys with physical disabilities constitute a group requiring special attention. They are to be found in more or less all contexts but are often invisible, forgotten or consciously discriminated against, which can have devastating consequences.

Unless the physical environment is adapted, the rights of these children to healthcare, play, education and social intercourse are jeopardised. Physical disabilities become handicaps. The extent to which the rights of children are realised is, as a rule, very much associated with the attitudes of the world about them. Lack of knowledge and prejudice are the major stumbling blocks.

Planning the physical environment to suit the needs of children with physical disabilities often brings improvements for everyone, and it does not need to be more expensive. This can apply to temporary refugee centres, housing environments, school environments or whole urban areas. However, children with physical disabilities are not a strong pressure group. As a result, issues of this kind are seldom given a particularly high priority.

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