26 PRODUCTS AND MARKETS · that supplies and distributes oudh in Saudi Arabia, half a tola...

P R O D U C T S A N D M A R K E T S

NON-WOOD NEWS No. 16 January 2008

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cooperatives. Our buyer will inspect theberries and buy the best ones. He thentakes them off and on that day places themin warm water for about an hour; he willthen mash them through the first sieve, atwhich point the stones are removed. Theyare then mashed through a smaller sieve tobreak up the fibre inside the berries. A pulpis formed which is packed and shipped infrozen containers over to the UnitedKingdom,” says Ronan.

The frozen pulp is then sold on to juicebars, smoothie bars, health shops andsupermarkets.

Greenpeace champion the açaí berrybecause although they are aware that awide range of sustainable and effectiveinitiatives are needed to prevent thecontinuing destruction of the Amazon, theyaccept it as an important environment stepforward as the berry is derived from a non-timber forest product within the Amazonrain forest and it gives the people asustainable way of maintaining theirlivelihoods. (Source: FreshPlaza [theNetherlands], 18 June 2007.)

ACROCOMIA TOTAI

El cocotero, mbocayá o nuez del Paraguay(Acrocomia totai) es una planta de lafamilia de las arecáceas, nativa delParaguay. El aceite de la semilla y la pulpase utilizan en la alimentación y en lafabricación de jabones.

A. totai es una palmera de entre 15 y 20m de altura, con uno o, en raras ocasiones,varios estípites de unos 20 a 30 cm dediámetro, cubierto de una corteza lisa yoscura, dotada de espinas fuertes y rectas.El sistema radicular es extenso y profundo.Muestra hojas palmadas, en forma deabanico, con el raquis duro y espinoso. Elfruto es una drupa globosa. No requiere deun clima cálido o húmedo para

AÇAÍ

Brazilian super food going down a stormin the United KingdomA Brazilian berry straight from the Amazonrain forest called açaí (Euterpe oleracea)has quickly become the world’s numberone most powerful and nutritious foodaccording to many environmentalorganizations and leading doctors.

A staple part of the Brazilian diet wherethey consume millions per day, already abig hit in the United States of America witha band of celebrity worshippers, andalthough still very new to the UnitedKingdom market it is fast becoming knownas the “next big thing”.

For many people, the açaí berry isprobably still unknown. But if you have evervisited the new wave of juice bars now onmany high streets, you may have had somein your smoothie or health drink and noteven realized it.

Packed full of antioxidants, high inomega 6 and omega 9 oils, a rich source ofprotein and dietary fibre to name just a fewof the benefits, this is probably why the açaíberry is such a huge success.

Operating from the United Kingdom,Sublime Food Ltd has been importing anddistributing frozen fruit from Brazil for thepast three years. Ronan O’Meara, itsdirector, explains: “The açaí berry has beenconsumed by the indigenous people of theAmazon since time began; the berry is thesize of a large blueberry, purple almostdark black in colour. It grows wild in theAmazon rain forest, which is the only placeon earth where it grows. It has three timesmore antioxidants than blueberries andpomegranates. Antioxidants are vitalbecause they mop up free radicals whichcan cause cancer and cell damage.”

With his brother living and running ajuice bar in Brazil for the past nine years,these two brothers have formed a uniqueinternational partnership where they are atthe forefront of importing the açaí berry tothe United Kingdom. “Once the berries arein season there are huge quantities; anarea about half the size of Switzerland iscompletely covered in açaí trees. Berriesare picked by small teams, often husbandand wife that look after areas that areunique to them. One member of the teamwill climb up the tree, cut the branch orpull the berries off and drop them to theperson waiting below who will put theminto baskets. The baskets are then takendown the river to the local buyers, often

desarrollarse. Crece en diferentes tipos desuelo, aunque parece preferir los arenosos,bien drenados, aún en zonas de altitud,pero no crece en suelos anegados.

Los aceites de la semilla y la pulpa seemplean en la fabricación de jabones,llamados de coco. La pulpa es comestible,de ella se extrae un aceite ligero y con sufermentación se elabora un licor de saboragradable. El interior del tronco se muelepara obtener una harina muy fina y sabrosay el cogollo se consume como palmito.

Las hojas de A. totai se usan comoforraje para el ganado; tras unamaceración, se extrae de ellas una fibraútil en la confección de sogas, redes, etc.

El fruto sólo se industrializa en elParaguay y es completamenteaprovechable, se compone de 15 a 20 porciento de cáscara (alimento de ganado,combustible de hornos). La pulpacomprende el 30 al 40 por ciento del pesodel fruto y su tenor oleico varía desde un 20hasta un 36 por ciento (expeller utilizado enalimentación de animales). El exocarpiocompone el 30-40 por ciento de la fruta(combustible de calderas, materia primapara carbón de alta calidad). Un 7 a un 12por ciento lo compone la almendra, que esoleosa en un 50-60 por ciento (expellercomestible para animales y sereshumanos).

En cuanto a producción de aceitesvegetales, esta especie nativa que posee elParaguay, es la segunda en rendimientopor hectárea en el mundo entero, sólosuperada por la palma africana. Losaceites de pulpa y almendra de coco tienenla ventaja de ser aceites de fácil conversióna biodiesel. (Aportación hecha por: MauraIsabel Díaz Lezcano, Escuela TécnicaSuperior de Ingenieros de Montes,Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, CiudadUniversitaria, 28040, Madrid, España.Correo electrónico: [email protected])

AQUILARIA

Oudh – the sweet smell of tradition Oudh is considered a supreme fragrance inthe Gulf countries. In Bahrain, it is burnedas a mark of respect and hospitality and isa traditional gesture of welcoming andhonouring guests. In fact, oudh isconsidered an important feature at mostsocial occasions.

Oudh, which simply means wood inArabic, has an extraordinary pedigree. Alsoknown as aloes and agarwood, oudh is

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found in the forests of Southeast Asia andis an aromatic resin found in certainspecies of Aquilaria and Gyrinops trees.The resin is produced by the tree as animmune response to a fungus –Phialophora parasitica – that invades thetree and over many years spreads throughit. It is believed that it takes as long as 300years for the fungus to spread through thebark of the tree. Unlike the otherwise palewood of the tree, infected sections are darkand extremely heavy. In fact, the Chineseand Japanese terms for oudh translate as“the wood that sinks in water”.

The best grade of oudh is hard, nearlyblack and very heavy. In general, oudhbecomes inferior as it becomes lighter intone, flecked with diminishing amounts ofresin. The only reliable way to test forquality is to burn a small bit and evaluatethe complexity and richness of thesmouldering wood.

Oudh is cut, sliced, polished and burnedover coal in traditional incense burnerscalled mabakhir. Chips of this fragrantwood are a prized, almost pricelesscommodity and burning it is one of theregion’s most distinctive traditions.

In most Gulf countries it is customary topass the hand-held charcoal brazier ormabkharah of smouldering oudh at socialgatherings. Oudh is burned oversmouldering bits of coal in the cup that isnormally lined with sheet metal. In somehomes oudh is burned in an electricmabkharah instead of over coal forconvenience. The mabkharah is alwayspassed counterclockwise and people waftthe smoke over themselves to perfumetheir clothes.

The tradition of burning oudh has notwaned even among young Bahrainis whounderstand and appreciate the culturalsignificance of this age-old custom. Indianoudh is a favoured choice with mostBahrainis but because of its high priceCambodian oudh burns in most Bahrainihomes. On average, a middle-incomeBahraini home would spend up to BD50 onoudh per month whereas the well-heeledwould spend up to BD150 per month onpurchasing oudh for daily use. Onekilogram of oudh normally costs betweenBD2 000 and BD8 000 or more, dependingon the variety

The voracious demand for oudh isoutstripping supply, thus making this sweetincense more precious than gold.

The agarwood harvesting countriesstretch across Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia,

Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Java, VietNam and India. There are more than 2 000varieties of oudh in the world. Traditionally,India was one of the largest producers;however, Assam, once the source of themost valued oudh, has now exhausted itswild stocks and supplies the market onlyfrom plantations. In Viet Nam, agarwoodtrees are commercially extinct in the wildand in Thailand almost no trees remainoutside the national park.

Oudh comes in different forms fromwood chips to powder mixed with oil andshaped into round balls. While it is burnedin mabakhir for fragrance, oudh oil ordehn-al-oudh is packaged in a bottle as apersonal fragrance. Oudh-basedfragrances are just as treasured acommodity as oudh.

Traditionally, brides use oudhfragrances on their wedding day as theyhave an individuality that is missing ininternational brands, but they are alsomore expensive. Oudh gives a powerfulscent that lasts for 24 hours.

According to Malik Al Oudh, a companythat supplies and distributes oudh in SaudiArabia, half a tola (approximately 11.7 g) ofdehn-al-oudh from India can costanywhere between BD300 and BD600depending on the richness and maturity ofthe oil. Eyad Saud, sales manager at SaudiArabia’s Arabian oudh company inBahrain’s Seef Mall says, “One tola ofCambodian oudh costs anywhere betweenBD6 and BD32. This is one of the cheaperand swift-selling varieties here in Bahrain.”

Considering the steep price of a smallvial of oudh fragrance, it is no wonder thatwearing such fragrances is restricted tospecial events. All oudh shops, whetherthey are small kiosks peppered in themajor malls in Bahrain or large specialityshops, carry ornately packed oudhfragrances in exquisite bottles that are atestament to the fact that the tradition ofusing this age-old prestigious fragrancelives on. (Source: Gulf Weekly [Bahrain], 19September 2007.)

DVD ON GAHARU

Gaharu or eaglewood, an importantnon-timber forest product, is a well-known source of high-quality incense. Itis formed when damaged Aquilaria treesproduce a fragrant protective resin thatgradually hardens and turns into blacklumps. Because of its high market price(up to US$2 000/kg), the substance issought out by many. Systematic huntingfor the species starts from Sumatra,Kalimantan and Papua New Guinea. Thehigh market pressure has led touncontrolled, destructive andunsustainable exploitation of thespecies, threatening its existence.

A recent film raises the alarm on howthese market demands are threateningthe very existence of eaglewood. It looksat its unique sustainable harvestingsystem as practised by the Punan ofMalinau, East Kalimantan. Not only dothey have traditional regulations forland use and forest protection, but thePunan are also actively engaged in usingAquilaria for reforestation.

Rehabilitating this precious resourceis making inroads in the nationalconsciousness. The private sector stressesthe need to balance gaharu exploitationwith cultivation. Meanwhile, researchon inoculation methods in order toenhance garahu production is wellunder way.

For more information, please contact:

Ms Aloisa Zamora-Santos, Information

Management Officer, Non-Timber Forest

Products Exchange Programme for South

and Southeast Asia (NTFP-EP), 92-A

Masikap Extension, Barangay Central,

Diliman, Quezon City 1101, the Philippines.

Fax: +63 2 4262757; e-mail:

[email protected]; www.ntfp.org



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BAMBOO

Bamboo as a plant and a resource Bamboo belongs to the Gramineae familyand has about 90 genera with over 1 200species. Bamboo flowers rarely and inirregular cycles, which are not yet clearlyunderstood. Thus taxonomists do notalways agree on the identification ofbamboo species and genera, but moderngenetic analysis may shed new light onbamboo taxonomy.

Bamboo is naturally distributed in thetropical and subtropical belt betweenapproximately 46° north and 47° southlatitude, and is commonly found in Africa,Asia and Central and South America. Somespecies may also grow successfully in mildtemperate zones in Europe and NorthAmerica. Bamboo is an extremely diverseplant, which easily adapts to differentclimatic and soil conditions. Dwarf bamboospecies grow to only a few centimetres,while medium-sized bamboo species mayreach a few metres and giant bamboospecies grow to about 30 m, with a diameterof up to 30 cm. Bamboo stems are generallyhard and vigorous and the plant can surviveand recover after severe calamities,catastrophes and damage. Young bambooshoots were the first sign of new plant lifeafter the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima andNagasaki in Japan.

Bamboo shoots and culms grow from thedense root rhizome system. There are twomain categories of rhizomes: monopodialand sympodial. Monopodial rhizomes growhorizontally, often at a surprising rate, andthus their nickname of “runners”. Therhizome buds develop either upwards,generating a culm, or horizontally, with anew tract of the rhizomal net. Monopodialbamboos generate an open clump withculms distant from each other and can beinvasive. They are usually found intemperate regions and include the generaPhyllostachys and Pleioblastus. Sympodialrhizomes are short and thick, and the culmsabove ground are close together in acompact clump, which expands evenlyaround its circumference. Their naturalhabitat is tropical regions and they are notinvasive. The main genus is Bambusa.

Bamboo has received increasingattention over the last two decades for itseconomic and environmental values. InAfrica, Asia and Latin America, it is closelyassociated with indigenous culture andknowledge and is widely used for housing,forestry, agroforestry, agricultural activities

and utensils. In countries undergoingeconomic development, traditional bambooculture gradually disappears. However,industrial development of bamboo isoffering a new opportunity for youngergenerations to retain and continuedeveloping cultural traditions related to thecultivation, harvesting and use of bamboo.

The physical and environmentalproperties of bamboo make it anexceptional economic resource for a widerange of uses and for poverty reduction. Itgrows quickly and can be harvestedannually without depletion and deteriorationof the soil. Bamboo can grow on marginalland not suitable for agriculture or forestry,or as an agroforestry crop. It has a relativelylight weight, because the culms are hollow,and unlike wood can be easily harvested andtransported without specialized equipmentor vehicles. It splits easily for weaving and isthus easy to handle also for women.Bamboo is often cultivated outside theforest on farms, where it is more easilymanaged. Processing normally does notrequire highly skilled labour or specialqualifications and can be started by poorrural communities at a minimal cost. Forthe same reason, it can offer income-earning opportunities for handicappedpeople.

Bamboo use and trade have been growingrapidly in recent years. Bamboo is becomingpopular as an excellent substitute for wood inproducing pulp, paper, board and charcoal. Itis widely used in construction, either in itsnatural form or as a reconstituted material(laminated boards and panels). In addition,bamboo shoots have become a popularvegetable, with Asian cuisine spreadingquickly around the globe. (Source: Worldbamboo resources. A thematic studyprepared in the framework of the GlobalForest Resources Assessment 2005. Rome,FAO. 2007.)

Bamboo bicycles in Ghana Accra, Ghana. The Bamboo and RattanDevelopment Programme under thePresident’s Special Initiative Programme(PSI) has introduced bamboo in themanufacture of bicycles for ruralcommunities. The programme is aimed atraising awareness about the use andbenefits of bamboo and rattan in povertyalleviation and socio-economicdevelopment of rural communities.

This initiative was made known during ameeting on Tuesday organized by theForestry Service Division in collaborationwith the Earth Institute (EI) at ColumbiaUniversity in the United States of Americaon how to use bamboo in the manufacture ofbicycles in Ghana. Three research scientistsfrom the United States – Dr David T. Ho, DrJohn Mutter and Dr Craig Calfee – are tospend ten days in the country todemonstrate how to use bamboo in makinga bicycle.

Dr Ho said that the bicycle, made tocarry a load of 100 kg, was designed forfarmers in rural communities forsustainable transportation. He said financewas the main problem facing the project,adding that there should be a fund thatwould take up two-thirds of the cost ofproduction so that local people could affordthe bicycles. (Source: Joy Online [Ghana],26 June 2007.)

Bamboo for housing construction A book describing the methods of usingbamboo for construction of houses,authored by Lionel Jayanetti and PaullFollat, was released recently at theauditorium of the National EngineeringResearch and Development Centre (NERD),Ja-ela, Sri Lanka.

A model house built using all-bamboomaterials was also formally opened.

The Deputy Minister of Science andTechnology said that since bamboocultivation is not widespread, there will bea new industry in the Sri Lankan market.“Prices of material in the constructionindustry are soaring, hence bamboo will bean ideal alternative for building materials,especially in the hotel trade. It is high timefor us to start cultivation.”

The Science and Technology Minister,Prof. Tissa Vitarana said that this would bea good start not only in the buildingconstruction industry, but also for makingfurniture so that forest devastation may beprevented. (Source: TRADA International;[email protected])

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Bamboo chip-based particleboarddeveloped Pressed particleboard created from a blendof plastic chips and bamboo has beeninvented by the Kagawa Prefecture SangyoGijutsu Industrial Technology Centre inJapan. Suitable for application inconstruction, a particleboard that is made of70 percent bamboo chip material accordingto weight has the same strength attributes astypical wood-based products. The releasedate of the product has not been announcedand studies are in progress to find outwhether the size and shape of the chips haveany relevance to strength. (Source: MalaysianTimber Industry Board [in Friday Offcuts, 21September 2007].)

Animal species associated with bamboo The association of animal species withbamboo has been explored in a number ofstudies. The best-known animals dependenton bamboo are the giant panda (Ailuropodamelanoleuca) and red panda (Ailurusfulgens). Their diet consists almostexclusively of bamboo shoots and leaves.Several other mammals and birds live in asymbiotic relation with bamboo forests. Thesouthern bamboo rat (Kannabateomysamblyonyx) lives in groves of Guadua andsome introduced bamboo species. Bambooflowering and seeding lead periodically to anexplosion of the rodent population, resultingin famine and social cataclysms in variousparts of the world. Local populations innortheast India suffer particularly from therat outbreaks triggered by bamboo flowering.The dynamics of the rat populationfluctuations have still not been well explored.

Interestingly, the majority of bamboo-dependent birds and mammals are endemicto the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil. Atleast 27 species of birds are considered to be

associated with bamboo in the forest. Somespecies live almost entirely in large bamboostands. Others may migrate to otherecosystems, but may depend on bamboo forfeeding and breeding. Most of the birdspecies feed on bamboo nodes, internodesand the insects on foliage. Some species feedextensively on bamboo seeds and do notreside in bamboo forests during non-seedingperiods.

Studies of bird association in the AmazonBasin show that 25 of approximately 440 birdspecies (about 6 percent) live in Guaduabamboo thickets. The degree of dependenceon bamboo varies among bamboo-dependent species; they may depend on it forfeeding, breeding, shelter and protectionfrom predators. Depletion of bambooecosystems threatens species biodiversity: ithas been observed that birds and mammalsare less abundant than before in the AtlanticForest. (Source: World bamboo resources. Athematic study prepared in the framework ofthe Global Forest Resources Assessment2005. Rome, FAO. 2007.)

BUTTERFLIES

East Africa feels the butterfly effect Beating the air with her homemade net,Aicha Ali chases a swirling black andturquoise butterfly. Far from indulging in afrivolous pastime, this Kenyan mother isearning crucial family income. ArabukoSokoke on the Kenyan coast is known for itsrare species of butterflies, which adevelopment project called Kipepeo(butterfly in Swahili) is helping export toexhibits and museums in Europe and NorthAmerica.

Forest dwellers in the neighbouringUnited Republic of Tanzania have alsobenefited from such butterfly-farminginitiatives, which not only increase the localcommunity’s economic wealth but also helpprotect the environment.

“I need the forest to feed the butterflies,”Aicha explains.

Only a few years ago, she and most of the100 000 villagers living around ArabukoSokoke “had a negative perception of theforest”, says Kenyan scientist MariaFungomeli. They saw it as little more than arefuge for the monkeys and elephantsattacking their farms and a hostile growththat should be cut down to harvest timber,says Fungomeli, assistant director at theKipepeo project.

Deforestation is threatening what is thelargest block of coastal forest remaining inEast Africa as well as the rare animalspecies it shelters.

But what conservationists call “thebutterfly effect” has started to pay off, bothfor Arabuko Sokoke and its inhabitants.About 800 families now live thanks to thesale of butterflies. Flying handkerchiefs,emperor swallowtails and African bluetigers are some of the rare species collectedat Kipepeo, fetching between US$1 and $3 apiece for visiting tourists. One villager nowearns between $15 and $23 a month fromhis work with Kipepeo, double what he usedto make selling timber. Another villager isequally adamant about the changesbutterfly farming have brought to herlifestyle. “We did go hungry now and then,but now we can meet the needs of thechildren: medical care, school fees,uniforms,” she says, sorting pupae at theproject’s collection centre.

Kipepeo, launched in 1993 with fundsfrom the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, buys only pupae. The villagerstherefore have to breed the butterflies aftercapturing them. George Jefwa closed his

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RODENTS RAVAGE VILLAGES IN MIZORAM, INDIA

Thousands of rats have destroyed ricefields in Mizoram, India, fuelling fearsof a famine in the region. According tothe Mizoram Agriculture Minister, atleast 177 villages have been ravaged byarmies of rats in the state this year.About 70 villages that bore the brunthave now nothing left to harvest. Atleast 65 villages have lost half theirharvest while 42 villages haveexperienced low-intensity destruction.Mizoram, with about 1 million people,is dependent on agriculture. Rice andvegetables are the dominant crops.

Reports of rats destroying farmlandsfollow vast forests of bamboo burstinginto flower in many parts of the state.When bamboo flowering takes place,the rat population shoots up, leadingto an invasion of granaries and paddyfields. The Mizoram government haswarned that a famine is going to hitthe mountainous state.

The phenomenon of bambooflowering occurs every 48 years.(Source: NEWSPost India, 25 September2007.)



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shop down a few years ago to build hisbutterfly “farm”: a large, netted woodencage teeming with multicolouredbutterflies. He has learned to identifydozens of different types of butterflies andmoths and regularly collects their eggsfrom the cage. He then places them in aplastic box for five days and drops the newlymorphed caterpillars on plants, where theyfeed before the penultimate stage of theirtransformation into pupae ready for export.

In Tanzania’s Usumbura mountains,butterflies are also revolutionizing localtraditions. Farmers who had been earning ameagre living producing cash crops such ascoffee and bananas are now reaping therewards of butterfly farming, says theTanzania Forest Conservation Group. Thecommunity will earn $50 000 in 2007 fromthe project, the group said in a recentstatement. “The forests are better protectednow. The community knows that the basepopulations of butterflies and host plantsmust be conserved if the enterprise is tocontinue,” the statement said. “A recentsurvey found much higher conservationawareness among butterfly farmerscompared with those not involved in theventure.”

Kenya’s Kipepeo project has been sosuccessful with the local population that it isstruggling to find buyers for the thousandsof pupae collected in Arabuko Sokoke. “Weget 200 000 pupae a year. But we marketonly 25 percent of them,” says Fungomeli.She explains that gaining new markets iscrucial to keep the project alive and bring onboard those villagers who are still choppingdown the forest’s endangered tropical trees.(Source: Mail and Guardian Online [Kenya],29 July 2007.)

CORK

Plastic, not axes, threatens cork forests Tempio Pausania, Sardinia. If you buy abottle of wine with a metal screw top or aplastic cork, you may be dooming theworld’s cork forests. That is the view ofenvironmentalists and cork producers whohave joined forces to protect cork oaks – and

the unique habitat they provide – fromcompetition in the wine trade.

Alternative “corks” are ever morecommon, as synthetic and aluminium wineclosures have grabbed a 20 percent share ofthe market, up from just 2 percent in 2000,according to wine industry consultantStephane Rein of Rein Consulting. She saysthat could increase to 35 percent by the endof the decade.

“Silicone corks are not a problem forquality wines that will always use cork,”said Battista Giannottu, an agronomist whoworks with a consortium representingSardinia’s cork producers. “But the massmarket, which is 80 percent of the total,might. That’s not just an economic problembut an environmental one.”

The Quercus suber, or cork oak, whichgrows on both the European and Africansides of the Mediterranean, provides theraw material for practically all the 20 billionwine corks used every year. The way cork isharvested – shaved off the sides of trees –means that forests continue to thrive as theygive up their valuable bark.

In Sardinia, the only region in Italy thatproduces cork, the forests are a haven forwild boar, a species of hawk native to theisland and Sardinian deer. The highlyendangered Iberian lynx roams the corkforests of Spain and Portugal, which is theglobal leader in cork production; in NorthAfrica the forests provide a habitat forBarbary deer.

A cork oak must be at least 30 years oldbefore the first harvest and, even then, thegnarled, porous “virgin cork” is not goodenough to make wine stoppers. It will takeanother ten years for the bark to grow backand be good enough to make corks. Thatmeans a poor rate of return compared withother trees that might be planted in suchareas, such as the fast-growing eucalyptuswhich competes with cork oaks for land. “Itisn’t a tree which gives a lot of one thing – itgives a little of a lot of things,” said NoraBerrahmouni of the World Wide Fund forNature (WWF), an environmental groupworking to protect cork forest habitats.

The undergrowth is a patchwork offragrant shrubs, including ones thatproduce the myrtle, a berry gathered tomake Sardinia’s mirto liqueur – an extrasource of forest income.

More than 80 percent of the world’s corkproduction is used for bottle stoppers. Therest is used for building materials and initems such as fishing tackle and badmintonshuttlecocks.

The best-quality cork – which is the leastporous and has no cracks or flaws – makesthe best grade of stopper sold at a premiumfor wines made to be matured in the bottle.Lower grades are used for cheaper wines:cork granules are agglomerated with a typeof glue to make the dense champagne corksthat must withstand the pressure ofsparkling wine. Offcuts are glued to plasticdiscs to make the type of stoppers found insome sherry bottles.

As well as being cheaper alternatives,plastic and metal do not pose the same riskof “corking” the wine – when a chemicalcalled TCA is present in the stopper andgives the wine a “mouldy” odour.

But cork producers andenvironmentalists are fighting back. Aimingto cash in on the demand for “green”products, they have started to produce corkscertified as environmentally friendly underthe Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)scheme, an “ecolabel” system alreadywidespread for timber products. Backers ofthe FSC scheme hope that “green” winebuyers will prefer a bottle with the FSClabel. Cork makers hope that it canguarantee their future by differentiatingtheir traditional product from the upstarts.(Source: ENN Daily News, 6 August 2007.)

GUARANÁ

Guaraná fights cancer and global warming Scientists from the University of São Paulo(USP), Brazil, have discovered that guaranáfrom Amazonia, sold on a large scale by thestate of Amazonas from production in Maués(268 km from Manaus), is effective in fightingcancer. The study was published in thejournal, Ciência Hoje, by the Brazilian Societyfor the Advancement of Science (SBPC).

The researcher responsible isveterinarian Heidge Fukumasu, who hasworked on research in tumour regressionthrough ingestion of guaraná since hegraduated from university. Now, with adoctorate from USP and a member of a solidresearch team, the scientist highlighted thatthe decrease in cancer cells occurs in a typeof breast cancer called Ehrlich tumour.

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Fukumasu still does not know thesubstance within guaraná that acts todecrease cancer cell levels. Nevertheless,according to data from the journal,experiments are under way to find out.

Another important study that wasrecently announced was on thedevelopment of cloned guaraná seedlingsthat are more resistant and offer greateryields, aiding both in exportation of theproduct to the national and internationalmarkets as well as reducing deforestation.The experiment by the BrazilianAgricultural Research Corporation(Embrapa), which also investigates theeffects of guaraná, has its lines of researchdirected more towards cloning seedlings toincrease effectiveness of seeds and reducedeforestation in Amazonia. This year, fivenew clones of guaraná have been launchedin Manaus, helping to reduce the total areadeforested in the state for planting guaranáby as much as 90 percent.

Among other variables, the researchstudies the cause and effect relationship ofcloning guaraná plants and felling theforest, and is being conducted byagronomist Firmino José do NascimentoFilho. He stresses that reduceddeforestation is also one of the majoradvantages of clones in relation totraditional seed-bred plants. This is so,says Nascimento Filho, because of the lowenvironmental impact that results from theuse of guaraná clones. (Source: AmazonasEm Tempo, 24 August 2007.)

HONEY

Setting manuka standards A New Zealand honey health sciencecompany and a German university havejoined forces in a bid to set industrystandards for the use of manuka honeyproducts to heal wounds, overcomestomach and skin problems, and potentiallyin the fight against cancer. The move comesin the wake of the discovery by theuniversity’s researchers of the compoundresponsible for manuka honey’santibacterial activity.

Te Awamutu-based Manuka Health NewZealand Ltd and the Technical University ofDresden have formed a partnership toestablish a process to certify levels of thecompound in manuka honey. Announcingthe partnership today, Manuka Health chiefexecutive Kerry Paul said that theuniversity’s Institute of Food Chemistry was

the first to identify the compoundmethylglyoxal (MGO) and prove its highlevels in some New Zealand manukahoneys.

Mr Paul said that the discovery thathoney’s antibacterial ability was directlyrelated to MGO levels was highly significantfor the industry. “We have known for sometime that manuka honey has this property.The term Unique Manuka Factor (UMF) isused to describe this honey’s consistentlyreliable antibacterial effect and UMF hasbeen trademarked by the Active ManukaHoney Association. But we haven’t knownuntil the German discovery what thecompound is that is responsible. The nextstep is to put a standards process in placewith the industry which independentlycertifies MGO levels in honey-based healthproducts.”

Manuka honey was already well knownfor its reliable antibacterial activity, makingit highly effective for overcominggastrointestinal and skin health problemsand improving healing of wounds. However,with the identification of MGO, furtherapplications for manuka honey arepossible, including use as a potentialtumorcidal agent to fight cancer.

A research team led by Prof. ThomasHenle, head of the Institute of FoodChemistry at Dresden, tested more than 80honeys from around the world and foundMGO levels as high as 700 mg/kg in someNew Zealand manuka honeys, more than70 times higher than ordinary honey.Previous research had shown the highestconcentrations in any food or drink wereabout 100 mg/kg in cocoa and coffee.During their research, Prof. Henle’s teamdeveloped assays for measuring MGO inhoney.

Mr Paul said that medical researchershad found MGO had the potential to actspecifically against malignant cells in thebody and has a significant curative effect ona wide range of cancers in animals. Currentresearch on humans shows MGO results incomplete remission in about 40 percent ofmalignancies, with partial remission in afurther 40 percent. More studies are underway to improve treatment techniques.

A Japanese cancer researcher at aGerman university hospital announced lastmonth the results of a study showingManuka Health’s Bio30 propolis extractsuppressed NF1 neurofibromatosis, a typeof tumour affecting one in 3 000 people.(Source: Manuka Health press release[New Zealand], 2 July 2007.)

MEDICINAL PLANTS AND HERBS

Poultry farmers in Uganda take on herbsto control diseases Farmers have embraced medicinal plants intreating poultry diseases. Research carriedout by Makerere University in central andeastern Uganda revealed that about 80percent of poultry farmers know how to usemedicinal plants to treat these diseases.

Prof. Bukenya Ziraba from the MakerereUniversity Department of Botany said theresearch that was carried out in Mbale,Rakai and Mbarara districts shows thatmany farmers are using medicinal plants totreat coughs, diarrhoea, swollen eyes,mites, worms and lice, as well as Newcastleprophylaxis and coccidiosis. Research foundthat medicinal plant species such asCapsicum frutescens (kamulali) andCannabis sativa (enjaga) were used in all thethree districts, while Nicotiana tobaccum(taaba), Aloe sp. (lukaka), Vernoniaamygdalina (omubirizi) and Tagets mihuta(kawunyira) species were used in Rakai andMbarara.

Ziraba says the most common way ofpreparing the medicine is by crushing theplant material, adding water andadministering the concoction orally. Somefarmers prefer to give chickens themedicine by hand, while others put it in acontainer and leave the chickens to drink itwhen they are thirsty. He says that usingmedicinal plants saves farmers lossescaused by outbreaks of diseases. “Sincesome of the farmers cannot afford to buymodern poultry drugs, medicinal plantswork as a substitute,” he says.

Ziraba presented the research during asymposium on drugs discovery from Africanflora, organized recently by the NaturalResearch Network for Eastern and CentralAfrica. (Source: New Vision [Kampala], 14August 2007.)

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Artemisia annua. Artemisinin“promising”as leishmaniasis treatment The antimalarial drug artemisinin showspromise as a treatment for leishmaniasis,according to Indian researchers, whoseresearch was published in the Septemberissue of the Journal of MedicalMicrobiology.

Visceral leishmaniasis – also known askala-azar – is caused by the Leishmaniaparasite and transmitted to humansthrough biting insects such as sand flies.The parasite lowers immunity and causespersistent fever, anaemia, liver and spleenenlargement, and is lethal if left untreated.It infects 500 000 people worldwide,according to WHO. There is no vaccine forthe disease and there are signs ofincreasing resistance to the few effectivedrug treatments.

Researchers evaluated the efficacy ofartemisinin against the Leishmaniadonovani parasite. They found that the drugkills the parasite at both stages of itsgrowth, particularly the disease-causingamastigote form of the parasite. The studyalso indicated that artemisinin was saferthan the existing antileishmanial drugpentamidine, which can cause diabetes,and miltefosine, which has been linked tobirth defects.

Lead researcher Mitali Chatterjee, fromthe India-based Institute of PostgraduateMedical Education and Research, said thatthe advantage of artemisinin is that it isalready a licensed drug, so toxicity studieshave already been completed.

Swapan Jana, secretary of the India-based NGO Society for SocialPharmacology, said the prospect of usingartemisinin was “very encouraging, givenleishmaniasis is endemic in India andexisting antileishmanial drugs show side-effects”.

But Neena Valecha, deputy director ofthe National Institute of Malaria Researchin India, warned that any expanded use ofartemisinin must not affect malaria

management. “We have to consider thatartemisinin is the valuable drug for acuteillnesses like malaria,” Valecha said.(Source: SciDev.Net, 1 October 2007.)

Fighting poverty with herbs and medicinalplants Scientists from all over the world haverecently begun deliberations on the role ofherbal, medicinal and aromatic plants(HMAPs) in improving the livelihoods of therural poor. Addressing researchersattending the three-day regional expertworkshop held at the International Centerfor Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA), in Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic,Dr Mona Bishay, director of the Near Eastand North Africa (NENA) division of theInternational Fund for AgriculturalDevelopment (IFAD) said that severalobstacles hinder the full exploitation of thepotential of HMAPs in reducing poverty andimproving the livelihoods of rural people inthe region: poor local technology;inadequate business and entrepreneurialskills and awareness on qualityrequirements; limited knowledge on theproperties of HMAPs beyond traditionalknowledge; and limited access tointellectual property rights.

Underscoring the need to analyse andfind means to address the obstacles,Bishay said that the most importanthandicap was the inability of the collectorsand growers of such plants to takeadvantage of potential markets, because oflack of access to resources; inadequateextension and training services; lack ofimproved technology and business skills;and insufficient marketing information andlocal organizational skills that could enablethem to take advantage of emergingmarket opportunities.

Dr Mahmoud Solh, Director-General ofICARDA, said it was regrettable thatindigenous knowledge on HMAPs was notbacked up with adequate use of moderntechnology, despite the fact that folkmedicine still serves 80 percent of theworld’s rural population. “The HMAP sectorfaces various challenges and constraints,such as overexploitation of naturallyoccurring species; fragmented approachesand projects that address only limitedaspects of selected HMAP value chains;lack of quality control standards of locallyproduced HMAPs and products; and poordistribution of benefits in value chains,”said Solh. “Our partners in nationalagricultural research and extension

systems possess rich knowledge onHMAPs and this gives us a greatopportunity to add valuable new crops toour joint knowledge of ecogeography andfarming systems in the NENA region,” saidSolh, elaborating ICARDA’s role in researchon HMAPs.

According to Solh, tremendous room forgrowth and export opportunities exists ifquality products are available that cancompete with other suppliers. New scienceand technology can be deployed tounderstand potential new uses forprocessing, transforming and adding valueto natural products – with the purpose ofgenerating income for poor farmers.(Source: Yemen Observer, 17 July 2007.)

Desarrollo y conservación de ipeca(Psychotria ipecacuanha) (Brotero) Stokesen Costa Rica La raicilla, nombre vernáculo en Costa Ricade la ipeca (Psychotria ipecacuanha) familiaRubiaceae, es una planta nativa de Américausada económicamente por la industriafarmacológica mundial. La distribuciónnatural se extiende desde la planicieoriental de Nicaragua pasa por el sur através de Centroamérica (Costa Rica yPanamá) y el norte de Sudamérica, hastaBrasil (Estado de Rondonia y Matto Grosso).

Constituye desde el siglo 20 el productoforestal no maderero (PFNM) de mayorimportancia económica de lasexportaciones de cultivos no tradicionalescon categoría de planta medicinal de CostaRica. Su cosecha comenzó a partir depoblaciones silvestres en la Región HuetarNorte, Costa Rica, a partir de la década de1950 y constituye el primer cultivocomercial implementado para coberturadel bosque.

La ipeca es una planta herbácea, con untallo semileñoso, delgado y retorcido, entre20 y 30 cm de largo. El rizoma es tuberoso yposee una envoltura áspera, de 0,5 a 1 cmde grosor y de 15 a 17 cm de longitud.

El producto comercial es la raíz, quedespués de su deshidratación presenta uncolor grisáceo, un particular olor a moho ytiene la característica de presentar anillosen su superficie. La importancia económicaen la industria farmacológica yhomeopática se debe a la presencia dealcaloides isoquinolínicos, como la emetina,cefaelina, psicotrina, éter metílico depsicotrina y emetamina, con usosmedicinales como emético paracontrarrestar la disentería amebiana, comoexpectorante. Las poblaciones silvestres

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varían ampliamente en el contenido dealcaloides totales, de acuerdo con la época;en Panamá, por ejemplo se registranresultados medios entre 1,657 y 3,536 porciento.

Las poblaciones cultivadas tienen laventaja de producir mayor cantidad dealcaloides y una biomasa de raíz seca enpromedio de 2,3 toneladas por hectárea.

En un estudio realizado por el CIPRONA(Centro de Investigación de ProductosNaturales) de la Universidad de Costa Ricasobre el contenido de alcaloides totales depoblaciones cultivadas mayores a 2 añosde cultivo por medio de estolones, selograron resultados en promedio de 2,65por ciento de alcaloides totales, con 1,92por ciento de emetina y 0,72 por ciento decefaelina.

El tiempo para ejecutar la cosecha de laipeca varía de 3 a 4 años, aumentando losrendimientos en biomasa y el contenido dealcaloides totales, en Costa Ricacomúnmente se cosecha entre 2,6 hasta 3años.

En estudio realizado por el CentroInternacional de Investigación Forestal(CIFOR) en el año 2000 sobre la situaciónde desarrollo de la ipeca como estudio decaso de un producto no maderero delbosque (PNMB) en Costa Rica se determinóla existencia de un área de 45 hectáreas decultivo y una cosecha potencial de 103toneladas de raíz seca, situación que enesa fecha mantenía precios bajos, 7dólares EE.UU. por kilo de raízdeshidratada, precio reportado en lasestadísticas nacionales, por lo tanto elprecio pagado al agricultor fue menor, loque determinó un desinterés por el cultivo.

Es importante resaltar la producción delaño 2000 y compararla con la producciónhistórica exportable de Costa Rica, unpromedio de 20 toneladas por año (1961 a1985), situación que se vio aumentada porel interés por parte de los agricultores yempresarios en el cultivo gracias a losincentivos gubernamentales para eldesarrollo de cultivos no tradicionales, loque provocó exportaciones entre 115 y 180toneladas entre 1989 y 1996 Esta situaciónprovocó anomalías y se descubrierondistorsiones por parte de las compañíasexportadoras en las cifras sobreexportaciones de la raíz de ipeca,provocando una fiscalización del sector yponiendo en duda la confiabilidad de lasestadísticas oficiales.

El hecho de un mercado contraído y debajos precios internacionales, condujo a la

reducción de las exportaciones del año2002 a 7 toneladas y el desinterés de losagricultores en el cultivo de la ipeca yfinalmente en el año 2006 se presenta unaausencia de materia prima en el mercadointernacional provocando un nuevo interéspor parte de las empresas importadoras delos países consumidores: Alemania,Francia, Austria, Bélgica, Estados Unidosde América, elevando el precio hasta 50dólares EE.UU. por kilo seco a nivel deagricultor.

En el 2007 no existen volúmenessuficientes de materia prima paraabastecer las necesidades del mercadointernacional. Esta situación conduce a queBougainvillea Extractos Naturalespromueva una iniciativa de desarrollo deproducción con agricultores de la RegiónHuetar Norte para incentivar el cultivo aprecios razonables, con un contrato derespaldo para producir extractos fluidospara el mercado internacional con elobjetivo de contribuir con la estabilidad deun mercado internacional que se hacaracterizado por precios inestables en eltiempo, provocando situaciones adversaspara el agricultor y por ende, para laindustria farmacológica.

La importancia de esta iniciativa eslograr contribuir a dar valor agregado anivel local, ya que los PFNM históricamentese han exportado como materia prima, porlo tanto lograr la estabilidad de un preciobase para el agricultor contribuirá a laconservación del bosque tropical húmedo,y dará seguridad en el abastecimiento delproducto de ipeca para la industriainternacional. (Aportación hecha por:Rafael A. Ocampo S., Bougainvillea S.A.Apartado Aéreo 764-3100. Santo Domingo,Heredia; correo electrónico:[email protected])

MORINGA OLEIFERA

Sunlight reduces the value of moringaleaves A recent research by Mbarara University ofScience and Technology has revealed thatthe proven potency of Moringa oleifera canbe lost during preparation. The leaves,which contain vitamins A and C, calcium,potassium and proteins, need properhandling for effective use. Ritah Namutebi,a student at the university, studied thepreservation of vitamin A which acts as ashield against eye and skin disease, heartailments and diarrhoea. She found that

much of the vitamin is lost in the way leavesare preserved.

While presenting a paper during theBiodiversity and Medicinal Plants JointConference at Makerere University recently,Namutebi said the study was undertaken toexplore an effective method and time ofpicking the leaves in order to maintain thehigh vitamin A quantities. During the study,leaves were picked at different times – in themorning, at midday and in the evening.Vitamin A quantities in each freshlyharvested sample were analysed to quantifylosses based on different picking times anddrying methods. The results revealed that theleaves dried in sunshine lost 35–60 percentand those in the shade, 11–15 percent.

Dr Raymond Tweheyo, a lecturer atMbarara University, said: “25 g daily ofMoringa oleifera leaf powder would give achild the recommended daily allowances ofvitamins A and C, calcium, iron, magnesium,proteins and potassium. We recommendpeople in developing countries grow it at thehousehold and community level.”

Duncan Sesaazi, also from MbararaUniversity, said that moringa can be aneffective supplement in the treatment ofHIV/AIDS. (Source: New Vision [Uganda], 5June 2007.)

Malunggay: a “miracle vegetable” takingcentre stage in the Philippines Malunggay, described as a “miraclevegetable”, is among the many nativeplants in the Philippines that can contributegreatly to human health, according to thecountry’s Bureau of Agricultural Research(BAR).

BAR disclosed recently that the MedicalCollege in Kolkota, India has discoveredthat among the many different medicinalherbs, malunggay, a green, leafy vegetablecontaining phytochemicals, plays animportant role in preventing thedevelopment of cancer cells as well as inthe treatment of female reproductivedisorders such as epithelial ovarian cancer.Research studies also indicate that

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malunggay is an effective treatment forovarian cancer because of a combination ofantitumour and hormonal properties thatcan be taken from its root bark extracts.

Malunggay also contains antioxidantsand can help prevent other chronicailments such as arthritis, kidney diseasesand heart complications. Moreover, it isrich in vitamins A, C and E and thus helpsto maintain good eyesight; facilitatesdigestion and bowel movement; cleanseswounds and ulcers; and cures stomachaches, scurvy, asthma, earache andheadaches.

Also known as the drumstick orhorseradish tree, malunggay is the mostwidely cultivated sample of the genusMoringa that can be grown almostanywhere using seeds and cuttings. TheDepartment of Agriculture revealed thatthree months after germination, the youngleaves can already be harvested, providingvitamins, niacin, iron, calcium and protein.

Given malunggay’s many health benefitsand the fact that it is helping farmers bybecoming their major source of incomesince it can be developed as an export cropunder their biotechnology programme, theDepartment of Agriculture and BAR havepledged to step up their campaign forproduction and planting of the vegetable.

Recent studies also indicate thatbecause of its nutritional value, theDepartment of Health is advocating Filipinofamilies, especially lactating mothers, toincrease their intake of malunggay leavesin their daily diets since it is an excellentsource of nourishment.

In a related move, to promote itsdevelopment, production and intakefurther, malunggay will be showcased atthe launching of BAR’s “Indigenous Plantsfor Health and Wellness Program” whichcoincides with the proclamation of NationalHealth and Wellness Month. (Source:Philippine Information Agency, 2 October2007.)

MYRICA GALE

Myrica gale as a beer ingredient Bog myrtle (Myrica gale) is a distinctiveshrubby plant that grows on wet, acidicheathland, bogs and moors in the north ofwestern Europe. One of the world’s leadingbrewers is to create a new beer using thisobscure Scottish moorland plant that wasonce used to flavour medieval beverages.In fact, Vikings and native Scots once drank

a brew made from this shrub, long beforethe Romans brought hops to Britain.

Now the Danish brewing giant Carlsbergis planning to use bog myrtle to flavour anew version of one its range of strong“bock” lagers. The firm has signed asupply deal with Scottish companyHighland Natural Products (HNP) in theUnited Kingdom, which has already beeninstrumental in bringing several bogmyrtle lines to the market. HNP’smanaging director said it was a “landmarkdeal” between a small Highland companyand a giant in the world of beverageproduction, and foresees huge benefits forthe Highland rural community in Scotland.He added that the contract could lead torepeat orders and possible interest byCarlsberg in some of the other flavours thecompany is producing.

Some microbreweries in Scotlandalready use bog myrtle as a chiefingredient in specialist beers. But beerexperts said the interest being shown byCarlsberg, which is the United Kingdom’sfourth-largest brewer, would give it amajor boost.

The use of bog myrtle as a major beeringredient died out more than 500 yearsago. Although used extensively asflavouring in Britain during the MiddleAges, it was gradually replaced by hops,which could be more easily grown onagricultural land closer to populationcentres.

Beer-making aside, it has had manyuses in the past, including as a medicinalproduct for wounds, stress and coughs, aswell as a midge repellent. Earlier this year,the high-street chemist Boots launched anew Botanics Sensitive Skin productincorporating bog myrtle after five years ofresearch and development. It sourced itsraw material from bog myrtle plantationsin the Highlands. (Source: The Scotsman,22 July 2007.)

NUTS

Managing the southwestern United Statesof America as a nut grove: the Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem Management ProjectPinyon-juniper ecosystems cover 36 millionacres (approximately 14 568 683 ha)scattered across Colorado, New Mexico,Arizona, Nevada and Utah. Pinyon trees existin association with more than 1 000 speciesof plants, insects, birds and mammals, andperform important ecosystem services, suchas water and soil retention. For 10 000 years,human inhabitants in the Southwest alsorelied on pinyon trees, primarily forsustenance, shade, firewood and buildingmaterials. To this day, pinyon trees aresacred among the region’s indigenouscultures and pine nuts – the seeds of pinyontrees – are highly prized among NativeAmerican and Hispanic residents for theirflavour and nutritional value. Commerce inpine nuts is an old tradition in theSouthwest, dating back at least 1 000 years,and linking peoples of the Great Basin, theColorado Plateau and the Great Plains. Aslate as the 1930s, trading posts shippedmillions of pounds of pine nuts each yearfrom southwestern forests to markets inNew York City and Los Angeles.

Over the past 50 years, however, the flowof pine nuts from the Southwest’s forestshas dwindled to a trickle. Much of thisdecline is directly linked to a century ofunsustainable public land managementpolicies. For much of the twentieth century,rangeland ecologists treated pinyon trees asweeds and recommended convertingwooded savannahs in many parts of theSouthwest to grasslands stocked with non-native grasses. By the late 1980s, thecombination of wide-scale clearing, firesuppression and intense livestock grazinghad created landscapes dominated byabnormally dense thickets of small-diameter pinyon trees across much of theSouthwest. Prolonged drought during the1990s increased the susceptibility of theseforests to insects and disease, resulting inmassive die-offs of the trees over large partsof Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, andplacing the remaining live pinyon trees atextreme risk to wildfire. Despite the negativeecological impacts of previous pinyonremoval efforts, current efforts to restorepinyon-juniper ecosystems continue to relyon management techniques, such ashydromowing and chaining, thatindiscriminately remove all pinyon trees,rather than retaining healthy specimens.

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Land management approaches thatencourage the restoration of healthy pinyongroves instead of eliminating them arebadly needed. One promising alternative isto reverse current management prioritiesand manage pinyon-juniper ecosystemsprimarily for nut production, and only thenfor grazing, timber and mining. Such anapproach would benefit the land, water andwildlife; it would also decrease the risk ofcatastrophic wildfire and provide a reliablesupply of highly nutritious nuts, therebyincreasing the economic viability of thelocal pine-nut industry.

The notion of managing pinyon-juniperforests as nut groves is neither new norfar-fetched: humans have managed pineforests for nut production for thousands ofyears in the Mediterranean, and theindigenous peoples of the Southwestpractised a variety of managementtechniques to improve nut production,including selectively thinning unproductivetrees, clearing around the base of the treesand removing lower branches.

In 2007, with funding from the ColoradoWood Utilization and Marketing Program (acollaborative effort between the ColoradoState Forest Service, Colorado StateUniversity, the United States Forest Serviceand the Bureau of Land Management,Colorado State Office), the Institute forCulture and Ecology initiated a pilot projectaimed at building the capacity ofSouthwestern communities and landmanagement agencies to manage pinyon-juniper ecosystems as nut groves. In thisphase an interactive Web site(www.pinonnuts.org) is being establishedwhere harvesters, buyers, land managersand scientists can share information aboutpinyon nut crop locations and yields, permitprices and harvesting restrictions, pinyonnut prices and methods for improvingpinyon nut production. Penny Frazier,owner of Goods from the Woods and long-time advocate of sustainable managementof pinyon-juniper ecosystems, was theinspiration for the project and iscoordinating the development of the Website.

The Institute for Culture and Ecology hasproduced several educational toolshighlighting the many benefits of pinyontrees, including an overview of the pine nutindustry, guidelines for managing pinyon-juniper forests for nut production and ascientific poster on pinyon management.These materials are available at:www.ifcae.org/projects/pinyon/ and

www.pinonnuts.org/ (Contributed by:Rebecca McLain, Institute for Culture andEcology and Penny Frazier, owner, Goodsfrom the Woods.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: Ms Rebecca McLain, Senior Policy Analyst,Institute for Culture and Ecology, PO Box 6688,Portland, Oregon 97228-6688, United States ofAmerica. E-mail: [email protected];www.ifcae.org; www.pinonnuts.org

Price of Brazil nuts plummets in Acre, BrazilThis year alone, the native Brazil nut grovesin the regions of Alto Acre, Baixo Acre andIaco/Purus, have produced over 10 000tonnes of Brazil nuts, according to optimisticforecasts in the extractivist sector. Despiteincreased production, the price per can ofBrazil nuts has plummeted on the regionalmarket, where it is currently R$14, when lastyear it was as high as R$17. (Source: O RioBranco, 2 August 2007.)

Maya nut (Brosimum alicastrum): an ancient food for a healthy futureMaya nut (Brosimum alicastrum) – orRamon, Ojoche, Masica, Ujuxte, Ojushte,Ojite, Ash, Ox, Capomo, Mojo and Breadnut –is a delicious, nutritious, abundant nut fromneotropical rain forest trees that provided astaple food for pre-Columbian huntergatherers. Maya nuts are exceptionallynutritious, providing high-quality protein,calcium, iron, folate, fibre and vitamins A, E,C and B.They are also one of the best nativeforage species and show great promise forproviding ecological alternatives to pasturefor cattle ranches in the neotropics.

In recent history, maya nuts have beencritical to rural food security; thousands ofvillages throughout Central America andMexico have survived drought and famineby eating them when no other food wasavailable. Unfortunately, knowledge aboutthe nuts has decreased as globalization,export crops and deforestation negativelyimpact indigenous cultures and the foreststhat sustain them. As a result of this loss ofindigenous knowledge, people cut mayanut trees for firewood and burn forests toplant maize, beans and other crops. Themaya nut tree is in danger of extinctionthroughout its range, a situation thatthreatens the food security of both humanand animal populations.

The Equilibrium Fund’s Maya NutProgram is working to rescue lost traditionalknowledge about the tree for food, fodderand ecosystem services. Since its inceptionin 2001, more than 7 000 women have beentrained from 312 communities in Honduras,Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador andMexico about the nutrition, processing,recipes, conservation and propagation ofBrosimum alicastrum seed. Thisprogramme has resulted in the conservationof more than 400 000 ha of maya nut forestsand the planting of more than 150 000 newseedlings.

The programme focuses on women asthe caretakers of the family and the

NORTHERN NUT GROWERSASSOCIATION, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The Northern Nut Growers Association,Inc. (NNGA) is a national non-profitorganization with membersthroughout the United States and 15other countries, founded in 1911 toshare information on growing nuttrees. Members include new nutculturists, farmers, amateur andcommercial nut growers, experimentstation workers, horticultural teachersand scientists, nut tree breeders,nursery people and foresters.

The most popular kinds of nut andfruit trees that NNGA members plantare walnut (Juglans), filbert (Corylus),pecan and hickory (Carya), chestnut(Castanea), oak (Quercus), pine nut(Pinus), paw paw (Asimina triloba) andpersimmon (Diospyros kaki and D.virginiana).

NNGA has been publishing articles,research papers, and monographs onnuts, nut-tree growth and culture since1910. Summaries of some of thesearticles and a listing of books that canbe borrowed can be found on theNNGA Web site.

For more information, please contact:

Mr Tucker Hill at [email protected] or visit

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grew well there,” he said, adding that thegovernment wants to develop the area withroads and water dams.

Techniques and seeds from China arebeing used to plant mulberry trees in ChomKiri district, Sun Kunthor said. Chineseexperts told him that the weather inCambodia is good for silkworm feeding andproducts can be harvested throughout theyear. “In Cambodia, we need to feed thesilkworms for 20 to 30 days before they canspin strings of silk, but in China it will needabout 45 days”, he quoted an expert assaying. “One hundred kg of silkwormcocoons can yield 20 to 22 kg of silk“, headded.

“We plan to establish the Association ofMulberry Tree Planters to protect thebenefits of our silk products,” he said.“When we expand our land for plantingmulberry trees to 800–1 000 ha, foreigninvestors will come here to set up a factoryto make silk for exporting.” “If we canproduce raw materials of silk in thecountry, local people will have jobs,” hesaid, adding that it will help promote higherliving standards, reduce poverty, stoplabour migration and increase nationalrevenues. (Source: People’s Daily Online[China], 23 July 2007.)

India’s Central Silk Board and its 10thfive-year planThe Central Silk Board (CSB), apex body ofthe Indian sericulture industry, has almostmet its targets in releasing new sericultureproducts during the 10th five-year plan.The CSB’s inventions were primarily aimedat improving productivity in a bid to reducesilk imports from China.

Of the total 297 research projectstargeted during the 10th plan period, theresearch institutes attached to the CSBhave completed 281 projects. Theremaining 16 projects will be completed

during the current 11th five-year plan. Asresearch mainly involves biologicalmaterials such as mulberry and the silkinsects, the results of the products cannotbe ascertained in the short term. Thebenefits of these products will be feltduring the 11th plan period.

However, some products have alreadystarted yielding results during field trials.To highlight a few, officials said mulberryleaf productivity has doubled to 60 tonnesper ha per year when compared to 30tonnes during the 9th plan period.

Cocoon productivity has also increasedto 60 kg per 100 dfls (disease-free layings)from 40 kg, pushing up the cocoonproduction to 698 kg per ha from 627.5 kg.Input cost per kg of cocoon produced hasbeen brought down to Rs75 from Rs100.

Primarily, raw silk production per ha hasincreased to 82.9 kg from 68.3 kg. The CSBhas also filed 40 technologies for patenting,of which 16 have been commercialized.

During the 10th plan, production variedbut has been steadily increasing, surging to17 305 tonnes in 2005/2006 and now in thefinancial year 2006/2007 it has reached 18 760 tonnes. Despite this productionincrease, India still imports around 8 000tonnes of silk from China.

With new inventions, the CSB hopes toincrease its production to match localdemand and thus reduce imports fromChina as much as possible during the 11thplan period, when the country will witnessthe benefits of newly invented sericultureproducts. (Source: Financial Express[India], 15 July 2007.)

Rwanda: turning the nation into a land of silkSamples of Rwanda’s silk have beenranked the best in India. With these positiveresults, planners are positioning thecountry to produce silk for both local andinternational markets. Peter Muvara,chairman of the silkworm project, saysreturns from silk are two times higher thanthat of coffee and three times that of tea.Having a local silk industry processingcocoons to silk yarn and finished fabricswould develop markets for other ruralproducts and Rwanda could be turned intoa land of silk.

The government has allocated aboutRF154 million for training 30 farmers fromthe four provinces in the country. They willbe trained in mulberry farming, silkwormrearing and weaving to ensure that theyproduce quality silk products.

environment, and addresses key factors forsustainable livelihoods – sociocultural,environmental and economic – by creatingleadership, educational and economicopportunities for women and girls. In thiscontext, we have facilitated the creation offive autonomous women’s producer groupswho produce Brosimum seed forconsumption and sale, and who train newcommunities to provide women with theskills and knowledge they can use to earnincome and produce food for their families.

Our anticipated accomplishmentsinclude:

• reforesting 50 percent of El Salvadorwith Brosimum alicastrum;

• creating at least three agroforestrydemonstration plots in Mexico forcattle ranching using Brosimum fodderin conjunction with pasture;

• creating and strengthening a women’sproducer group network to unify theproducer groups and reducecompetition, and improve supply,quality, and sustainability;

• expanding the programme to Haiti,Cuba, Jamaica and other parts of theCaribbean; and

• obtaining research funding to explorethe Brosimum genome.

(Source: Eco-Index Monthly Update,October 2007.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: Erika Vohman, Project Director, Equilibrium Fund (TEF), PO Box 2371, Crested Butte, Colorado 81224, United States of America. E-mail: [email protected];http://theequilibriumfund.org/

SILK

Cambodia promotes mulberry treeplanting and silkworm feeding for silkproduction The Cambodian Government isencouraging farmers to expand mulberrytree planting and silkworm feeding underthe “one village for one product” policy toproduce silk to fulfil the demand indomestic and foreign markets, a seniorofficial said on Monday.

There are up to 20 ha of land to plantmulberry trees in Sre Cheing commune,Chom Kiri district in Kompot Province, SunKunthor, an adviser for the CambodianGovernment and secretary-general of thecommittee of “one village for one product”said. “I saw mulberry trees and silkworms

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Mulberry tree



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Jointly run by farmers’ cooperatives andthe private sector with the Ministry ofDefence playing a leading role, about 600 000 ha of mulberry trees are to beplanted in three years, with at least 60 000families targeted to benefit. Each householdwill plant 0.1 ha. The Rwanda InvestmentGroup has already opened 20 ha of silkwormproduction in Rusizi-Western Province. Thegovernment has also interested UTEXRWA,a local textile company, in upgrading theirfactory to start processing silk products.

Some money has been invested in theInstitute of Science and AgriculturalResearch, to build up staff capacity insilkworm egg production. Five ha ofmulberry tree plantations have been openedat the Institute to kick-start silkworm eggproduction. The country has been importingeggs from the Republic of Korea, but thestakeholders in silkworm productioncomplain that they are expensive. To cutcosts and losses, eggs will be producedlocally in Rwanda. It is estimated that 1 ha ofland needs 20 boxes of silkworm eggs.

These worms feed on mulberry trees.Cuttings were imported from Uganda andplanted on 10 ha, at four sites in theNorthern, Southern, Eastern and WesternProvinces. To boost silk production, thegovernment plans to give out free mulberrycuttings; however, when the project takesoff, farmers will have to pay back for them.The farmers will also be trained in rearingand reeling silk for production. Thegovernment will install weaving facilities tobe managed by cooperatives.

If the project takes off fully, plannersbelieve that it will act as an incentive,triggering off economic growth andincreasing the balance of payments andforeign currency earnings.

Muvara is optimistic. He believes that thesilk industry is well suited for Rwandabecause of the excellent agroclimaticconditions that favour silk productionthroughout the year. He cited somecountries that are not competitive in silkproduction, some of them producing as littleas 600 kg, while Rwanda can produce twiceas much.

Rwanda has the opportunity to exploit thesilk market through the African GrowthOpportunity Act because world supply iscurrently about 45 percent. When thecountry goes to full production, about 19 000tonnes of cocoons worth $64 million will beproduced on the 10 000 ha of land plannedto be opened for silk production. (Source:New Times [Kigali], 9 July 2007.)

SPICES

Allspice: the flavour of MexicoAllspice is similar to Asia’s “black pepper”but with a sweeter, more aromatic flavourand smell. Sourced from the pepper tree(Pimenta dioica), the flavour comes from thedried, ground fruits, which first appear assmall strongly scented green berries. Inaddition to the ground seasoning, essentialoil is also extracted from the dried berriesfor use in the medicinal, cosmetic and foodindustries.

The pepper tree grows in several CentralAmerican countries and in Mexico, where itshistory of use dates back long before thearrival of the Spanish. Known in Mexico aspimienta gorda, the pepper tree hashistorically given both the Old and the NewWorld the tremendous gift of flavour. In pre-Hispanic times, indigenous people in Mexicoused the berries, which they calledxocoxóchitl, to season their food, and as aningredient in traditional medicine. TheSpanish colonists quickly adopted the localseasoning and used it in their cooking aswell, mixing native condiments, cultivars andfruits with produce from plant varieties fromtheir homeland. They called the local peppermalagueta or tabasco pepper, and it went onto become one of the main commercialproducts in the new Spanish colony.

During the seventeenth century, the smallgreen berries were commercialized aroundthe world by Dutch and Englishentrepreneurs. Since the nineteenth century,the states of Veracruz, Chiapas and Tabascohave been the main allspice producers,joined in more recent times by the states ofOaxaca, Campeche and Puebla. Demand forthe dried berries and essential oil iscontinuing to grow. Between 1990 and 2000,the total Mexican production of allspiceincreased from 868 to 4 980 tonnes. Most ofthe production is exported, with only 2.2percent being consumed in Mexico. Themajority goes to South America, the UnitedStates of America, Europe and the MiddleEast. In 2000 the total export value wasUS$12 million.

Pepper trees that grow to a height of 20 mare native to tropical forests in Mexico,Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and Jamaica.They are becoming scarce in the east Mexicanforests of the Sierra Norte region as risinghuman populations have led to forestsincreasingly being cleared for agriculture andcattle ranching. However, escalatinginternational demand for the seasoning hasbeen a catalyst for the cultivation of peppertrees in and around this region and over thepast two decades the number of the trees hasincreased twofold.

Pepper trees can be found mainly withinthe shade-grown coffee plantations of theSierra Norte de Puebla, along with othervaluable tropical trees, such as mamey,banana, orange, mandarin, cedar, mahoganyand jonote trees (which are used for makingbark paper). In the municipality ofTuzamapan, each hectare of coffee plantationcontains about 70 to 100 productive peppertrees, which produce up to 120 kg of greenfruit. Each kilogram sells for around US$2.2.The pepper trees are valued not just formonetary reasons, but because they also helpto improve the soil, with the falling leavesforming a protective layer against erosion inmountainous terrain such as that of theSierra Norte de Puebla.

Within the coffee plantations, a commonpractice is to prune the branches of nearbytrees in order to promote the yield of thepepper trees. In addition to shade-growncoffee plantations, pepper trees are cultivatedin orchards, milpas (maize plots) andpotreros on small cattle ranches. Farmersalso protect the natural regeneration ofpepper trees in areas where they are notactively cultivated. When clearing weeds andgrasses with machetes, the farmers try not tocut the small pepper seedlings. Somefarmers even protect the seedlings withfences or replant them within their coffeeplantations. Others establish small nurseries.

Men harvest the pepper berries from Mayto August – harvesting up to 25 kg a day. Whenthe harvesters return home, the women andchildren pick the little green berries off thesmall branches. They spread the berries outover flat, cement surfaces or on bed rolls todry in the sun. An important stage in thedrying process involves making the berries“sweat” – there needs to be just the right levelof moisture content (or sudado) in the driedallspice. The first day in the sun ensures thatthe allspice acquires its characteristic scentand black colour, but it takes four to five daysbefore the fruit is dried properly. Alternatively,the berries can be processed more rapidly in

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only nine hours in an electric dryer. Grainsieves are then used to remove damaged fruitand sort the remaining berries by size.The allspice market. At the beginning of the1970s, itinerant traders would visit the regionto buy allspice and then move on to hawk it inother towns and cities, such as Cuetzalán orVeracruz. More recently, local farmers haveorganized themselves into associations ofallspice producers, taking more responsibilityfor production as well as sales. With thesupport of the state, these small cooperativeshave begun to export their produce throughintermediaries.

The harvesting and processing of allspicerepresent an important economic activity formany families in the Sierra Norte de Puebla.In recent years this activity has come to therescue of coffee growers, following the fall ininternational coffee prices. Indeed, allspicehas become a more important source ofincome than coffee. For example, inTuzamapan, in the Sierra Norte de Puebla,where about 56 percent of the villagers areengaged in producing allspice, 17 percent oftheir overall income is derived from allspice,with 11 percent from coffee.

Although the prices of these internationalproducts are subject to instability andfluctuations, the two products continue to beimportant for the livelihoods of many ruralhouseholds. The diversity of crops offerssome protection against economicuncertainty or changes that can affect oneparticular crop, such as coffee in thisinstance. Local people benefit greatly fromthe pepper trees, which provide a directsource of income, as seasoning for domesticuse, medicinal leaves and shade for coffeeplants. The plantations also provide valuableresources such as fruits, fuelwood, medicinalplants and herbs, highlighting the benefits ofmultiuse plantings. (Source: Case study onallspice, pepper seasoning by Miguel AngelMartínez Alfaro, Virginia Evangelista Oliva,Myrna Mendoza Cruz, Cristina Mapes andFrancisco Basurto Peña [in Riches of theforest: fruits, remedies and handicrafts inLatin America, eds C. López, P. Shanley andA.C. Fantini].)

Sri Lanka: spice industry needs duty rebatesto encourage exporters Sri Lanka has exported spices worth US$30.5million and these spices, particularly becauseof their original flavour, are in heavy demandon the global market, said the Director ofSeven Seas Commodities, V.P. Rajan.

From time immemorial Sri Lanka hasbeen popular in the spice industry globally

done with the help of a large company, whichis where Frutarom comes in. The flavour andfood additive company has grown in the lastten to15 years from US$10 million a year to aprojected $350 million by the end of 2007.(Source: World Poultry Net, 8 August 2007.)

TRUFFLES

Giant field of rare black truffles in Poland An enormous field of black truffles has beendiscovered by mushroom researchers fromthe University of Lódz. The truffles aregrowing over a large area in the vicinity of thesouthern city of Czestochowa, making this thefarthest reach of the mushroom innortheastern Europe and the only point of itsappearance in Poland. A kilogram of truffles,considered a delicacy and an aphrodisiac bysome, can sell at around €3 600.

According to the researchers from LódzUniversity, Polish black truffles are just asaromatic as truffles from Burgundy. In Polandtruffles are a protected species, so thelocation of the rare Polish truffle field is beingkept a scientific secret. (Source: Polish RadioExternal Service, 14 August 2007.)

Summer rain boosts United Kingdom truffleharvest Farmers across the United Kingdom havebeen counting the cost of the summer’sdevastating floods but one corner of theindustry has received an unexpected boostfrom the heavy rainfall. Hunters and farmersof truffles have reported a huge increase inthe number and quality of the fungi growingon roots of trees and the trend will continueas the main harvest gets under waythroughout August.

Although France and Italy are generallyregarded to be the world leaders in the trufflemarket, some species found in the UnitedKingdom can be eaten and can fetch a highprice on the international market.

The heavy rainfall during June and July hasparticularly benefited the summer truffle (theonly variant grown that is eaten), a caramel-coloured species with white veins that has anutty and sometimes gritty consistency andcan fetch up to £300/lb (0.5 kg).

One entrepreneur set to benefit is thebiologist Dr Paul Thomas whose business,Plantation Systems, has pioneered a way ofcultivating summer truffles in the UnitedKingdom. Dr Thomas used his expertise asa biologist to find a way of impregnating theroots of trees with truffle fungus in thelaboratory and then transferring the

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and this cultivation needs to be developed tomeet the demand, he said. “We exported $30million of pepper and $0.5 million ofcinnamon last year. Our company mainlyexports pepper, cinnamon, oil seeds andmace from the nutmeg fruit. “We shouldimprove our productivity of cinnamongradually. Mostly South and Central Americancountries consume Sri Lankan cinnamon.”“Since the demand for Sri Lankan cinnamonis very high, the produce could be sold atattractive prices,” Rajan said. He added thatthis year cinnamon production was lessbecause of the heavy rains and floods.

Rajan said that the tariff rebate to whichexporters are entitled had been reduced andthe government should reinstate the earlierrebate rate to encourage them. (Source:Ceylon Daily News [Sri Lanka], 8 June 2007.)

Cinnamon helps fight against bird flu Tel Aviv University technology transfercompany Ramot has signed an agreementwith Frutarom, a multinational neutraceuticalcompany based in Israel, for applying atechnology using a cinnamon extract in awhole host of applications from disinfectingthe air as a spray against avian flu in airports,to a daily supplement that protects peopleagainst common flu. The discovery was madeby Prof. Michael Ovadia, of Tel AvivUniversity’s Department of Zoology.

Ovadia’s initial experiments proved to betrue – his savoury cinnamon extract wasquickly and efficiently able to immunizechicken embryos from the Newcastle diseasevirus, which costs the poultry industry in theUnited States of America alone millions ofdollars a year. Apparently further studies onavian influenza H9, sendal virus and herpessimplex 1 also achieved positive results. “Notonly was the extract able to neutralize theviruses, but it also showed for selectedviruses that it has the potential to immunizeagainst them as well.”

Besides human applications, Prof. Ovadiasees that cinnamon fills an important niche inthe agricultural industry where chicks need tobe immunized by hand against the deadlyNewcastle disease virus. Applying hisresearch on the global scale could only be



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saplings on to one of four plantationsacross the country.

The expected bumper harvest will beparticularly welcome to the small number oftruffle farmers who are hoping that chefs andthe wider public will be interested in buyinglocal truffles rather than more expensiveforeign variants. (Source: The Independent, 6August 2007.)

WILDLIFE

Global and EU wildlife trade values The value of legal global international wildlifetrade, including non-CITES (Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora) species and based ondeclared import values in 2005, isconservatively estimated to be about €249billion per year, with timber and fisheriesaccounting for about 90 percent of this value.As a comparison, the United NationsStatistics Division records the declaredimport value of the global trade in coffee, teaand spices in 2005 at about €14 billion; whiledomestic sales of medicinal plants in Chinawas valued at around €19 billion in 2002, andhas increased by 8 percent a year since 1994.

The Table provides an estimate of theglobal value of international wildlife trade,and an estimate of these values specificallyfor the EU. Wildlife traded at the national level

or within the EU is not included in theseestimates, but can represent significantvalue. Moreover, these estimates include onlycertain categories of commodities and do notinclude the value of the illegal trade in wildlife

products. Consequently, the table is far froma complete representation of the value ofwildlife trade either globally or in the EU;however it serves as an indication of its scale.(Source: Opportunity or threat. The role of theEuropean Union in the global wildlife trade,by Engler, M. and Parry-Jones, R.A. TRAFFICEurope Report. 2007.)

FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT THEAUTHORS: Maylynn Engler and R.A. Parry-Jones,TRAFFIC International, 219 Huntingdon Road,Cambridge CB3 0DL, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected] [email protected];www.traffic.org/content/905.pdf

Wildlife trade and biodiversity loss A number of factors including habitat loss andclimate change contribute to globalbiodiversity loss. However, wildlife trade canbe an equally significant threat to the survivalof certain species, such as the tiger formedicine and skins, and the Tibetan antelopefor its wool.

The 2006 International Union forConservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN) Red List of ThreatenedSpecies records a significant increase in thenumber of animals and plants in the CriticallyEndangered, Endangered and Vulnerablecategories between 1996 and 2006.The highvalue of wildlife trade can increase threats tobiodiversity by acting as a financial incentivefor people to trade in wildlife products evenwhen the trade is not sustainable. Forinstance, in six United Kingdom wildlife tradeprosecutions that occurred between 1996 and2002, the value of the wildlife productsconcerned totalled £4 058 000 (over €6million). These cases involved commoditiesfrom highly endangered species, such asrhinoceros horns, shahtoosh shawls andcertain parrots and birds of prey.

Because of the environmental, economicand social impacts of wildlife trade,regulation is necessary to ensure sustainableresource use and to avoid the depletion ofnatural capital and biodiversity loss. (Source:Opportunity or threat. The role of theEuropean Union in global wildlife trade. ATRAFFIC Europe Report, 2007, by Engler, M.and Parry-Jones, R.

The price of a wild trade Proteins obtained from hunting wild animalsare crucial for the survival of many forest-dependent people of the Congo Basin. InGabon, the overall annual bushmeat tradehas been valued at US$25 million (€18.5

TRADE IN REPTILES

In 2005, the EuropeanUnion (EU) was thetop global importer by value of livereptiles (€7 million) for the pet trade,and reptile skins (€100 million) forproducts such as handbags and shoes.Imports into the EU have beensuspended from countries where thereare concerns about the sustainability ofthe trade. However, import suspensionsdo not automatically addressconservation concerns. For example, tenyears after imports from Indonesia weresuspended for certain species ofIndonesian monitor lizards, originalconcerns remain unaddressed. A strategicEU action plan for external assistanceshould be developed, to enable prioritiesto be identified and addressed incollaboration with states in order toensure wildlife trade is sustainable.

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Commodity Estimated global value (€) Estimated EU value (€)

Live animalsPrimates 75 million 15 millionCage birds 38 million 7 millionBirds of prey 5 million 0.2 millionReptiles, including snakes and turtles 31 million 7 millionOrnamental fish 257 million 89 millionAnimal products for clothing/ornamentalMammal furs and fur products 4 billion 494 millionReptile skins 255 million 100 millionOrnamental corals and shells 85 million 15 millionNatural pearls 57 million 12 millionAnimal products for food (excluding fish)Game meat 365 million 126 millionFrogs legs 40 million 16 millionEdible snails 60 million 19 millionPlant productsMedicinal plants * 1 billion 324 millionOrnamental plants 11 billion 1.2 billionSubtotal(excluding fisheries food products and timber) 17.2 billion 2.5 billionFisheries food products (excluding aquaculture) 68.6 billion 26 billion**Timber 154 billion 64 billion

TOTAL 239.5 billion *** 93 billion

Estimate of global and EU wildlife trade values, 2005

* Estimate from 2004. ** Estimate for all European countries. *** Does not include global estimate for NWFPsof €9.5 billion (FAO estimate, 1995).



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afield. Food stalls in the market openlyadvertise dishes of pangolin or black bear.

Most of the specimens come fromMyanmar’s still vast tracts of virgin forest,wildlife experts believe.

The exotic animal black market is worthbillions of pounds a year – exceeded in valueonly by the illegal trade in arms and drugs,experts believe. The 100 000 yuan (Â£6 500)price tag on a tiger skin stretched across thewall of one shop in Mong La shows whatcross-border police efforts such as SoutheastAsia’s Wildlife Enforcement Network,launched in 2005, are up against.

The Chinese Government has stepped upefforts in recent years to stamp out thedomestic wildlife trade and educate peopleabout the environmental perils of strippingforests of their native flora and fauna.However, the appetite for exotica remainsand, partly as a result of the crackdown, thetrade has intensified beyond China’s borders.(Source: Environmental News Network[ENN] News, 7 September 2007.) �

million). In West and Central Africa, estimatesof the national value of the bushmeat traderange from US$42 to $205 million (€31–151million) per year. The current harvest inCentral Africa alone may well be in excess of2 million tonnes annually, the equivalent ofover 1.3 billion chickens or 2.5 million cows.

If current levels of hunting persist,bushmeat protein supplies will falldramatically in Central Africa in less than50 years. However, if bushmeat harvestsare reduced to a supposedly sustainablelevel, all countries will be seriouslyaffected by the immediate loss of wildprotein supply. Most Central Africancountries do not produce sufficientamounts of non-bushmeat protein to feedtheir populations. There is a clear dilemmahere. (Source: extracted from an article byRobert Nasi in Spore 130, August 2007.)

Asia’s exotic animal black market Two of the world’s most beautiful creatureshave been found stuffed into a fridge in Hanoi

– a rare insight into the lucrative trade inendangered animals across Southeast Asiathat makes a mockery of internationalconservation treaties.

Vietnamese police this week found the twofrozen tigers in an apartment, along with twosoup kettles filled with animal bones in anoutdoor kitchen. A 40-year-old womanconfessed to police that she had hired threeexperts to cook tiger bones to maketraditional medicines that she sold for aboutÂ£400 per 100 g. “The tigers could have beenbought in Myanmar or the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic and transported back toViet Nam by ambulances or hidden incoffins,” said Vuong Tri Hoa, a forest ranger.

And there is the problem: while moredeveloped countries in Southeast Asia, suchas China and Viet Nam, have taken strongsteps to stamp out the illegal hunting ofendangered animals, impoverished statessuch as the Lao People’s Democratic Republicand Myanmar either will not or cannot.

Demand for exotic animals acrossSoutheast Asia remains high – newly affluentChinese prove excellent customers. Three ofthe world’s nine tiger subspecies becameextinct in the last century, and manyscientists believe a fourth, the South Chinatiger, is already “functionally extinct”.

Poached from forests and sold to tradersfor as little as Â£5, almost every part of Asia’sbiggest big cat has commercial value. Skinsare sold as rugs and cloaks on the blackmarket, where a single skin can fetch asmuch as Â£10 000. Tiger meat is marketed asgiving “strength”, and bones are ground intopowders or immersed in vats of wine to makecurative “tiger-bone wine” tonics for thetraditional Chinese medicine market.

If the market of Mong La – a town inMyanmar on the Chinese border – is anythingto go by, the remaining wild elephants, tigersand bears in the country’s forests are beinghunted down slowly and sold to China. Themarket offers a grisly array of animal parts,as well as many live specimens, to thehundreds of Chinese tourists who flockacross the porous border each day. Bearpaws and gall bladders, elephant tusks andchunks of hide, tiger and leopard skins, aswell as big-cat teeth and deer horn are allopenly on display next to crudely weldedcages of live macaques, cobras, star tortoisesand pangolins. The live creatures, some ofthem on the IUCN World ConservationUnion’s “Red List” of critically endangeredspecies, are destined for the cooking pots ofexotic animal restaurants in China’sneighbouring Yunnan Province, or further

ILLEGAL WILDLIFE ITEMS SEIZED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

The top ten illegal wildlife crime itemsas seized by customs officials in theUnited Kingdom between 2006 and2007 were the following.1. Traditional Chinese medicine

(containing products fromendangered species including tiger,rhinoceros, seahorse, deer musk)

2. Snake and lizard products 3. Alligator/crocodile products 4. Plants (including orchids, cycads and

cacti)5. Live reptiles (including snakes, lizards,

chameleons, iguanas, tortoises andterrapins)

6. Caviar (amounts over 250 g)7. Coral 8. Elephant ivory and skin products 9. Queen conch shells

10. Animal skin products or stuffed animals (Source: WWF News, 16 October 2007.)

WILDLIFE IN AFRICA

Wildlife is undoubtedly a very importantnatural resource of Africa, withconsiderable potential for contributingto rural development throughemployment and income from tourism,and as a source of food, especiallybushmeat. Establishment of protectedareas – especially national parks andsanctuaries – has been an importantapproach to conservation. Game viewingand trophy hunting have proved to bemajor attractions for tourism in somecountries, contributing significantly toincreased export earnings. (Source:Companion Document. ComprehensiveAfrica Agriculture DevelopmentProgramme. Integrating livestock,forestry and fisheries subsectors into theCAADP. The new partnership for Africa’sdevelopment [NEPAD]/ FAO.)

The little unremembered acts ofkindness and love are the best parts ofa person’s life.

William Wordsworth

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