1

Number 026www.curriculum-press.co.uk

Telling a Good Tale – Further Narrative Techniques

M tudiesSediaA ReminderNarrative refers to the structure of storytelling and can be appliedto both moving image and paper based media texts.A previous factsheet covered conventional narrative structureand discussed a range of topics including theories from Propp,Todorov and Barthes. It also looked at how narrative wasconstructed and a number of different ways the conventionalnarrative structure is used in series, serials and episodic mediatexts.

The aims of this factsheet are to:• Consider further the media concept of narrative through the

manipulation of time and the construction of narrative points ofview

• Identify the ways in which the conventional narrative structurecan be subverted

Enhancing the Story: Dealing with time and point of view

Manipulating TimeThere are a number of techniques used within the construction ofnarratives which are more than just the structure itself, but add tothe media producer’s ability to tell an interesting and easilyunderstood story. For example, a standard soap opera episode runsfor (just under) 30 minutes however, in the course of a single episodea whole day could pass or even several. In films which play forabout two hours (screen time) the events of the plot can coverseveral years or even decades. Clearly the media producer will haveto use techniques to compress time – to communicate to the audiencethat time is passing but to not waste screen time doing so.

ActivityConsider how you might attempt to show that time is passingbetween one shot and another.••••• How would you show a single day has passed?••••• How can the passing of a longer period be depicted? A

month? A year? A generation?••••• How could you make it clear that two events you are

showing are happening at the same time?

If you’re not sure, consider how you could use these props toshow the passing of time.

http://www.redferret.net/Images/

bigflip_small.jpg

h t t p : / / i m a g e s . g o o g l e . c o . u k /imgres?imgurl=http://bp0.blogger.com/

A recent episode of Eastenders began with the characters beingshown drinking orange juice and eating cereal – a clear indicatorthat this was morning. Later in the episode a character went into theQueen Vic and mentions he is on a lunch break. The lighting isdimmed for a later scene and towards the end of the episode agroup of characters go into their living room and turn on the interiorlights. Half an hour of screen time has become a whole day in AlbertSquare. Media producers can use many techniques to show thattime is passing and this idea of the compression of time is crucial innarrative fiction particularly – it means the audience do not have tosit through lots of mundane events to get to the exciting parts.

Some other techniques used could be:• Clock hands showing hours moving– or cutaways to a clock

face showing how long it is since we last looked• Paper calendar dates or newspapers peeling away• Captions on screen such as ‘tomorrow’ or ‘three months later’

etc.

Sometimes a media producer needs to stretch time out. Have youever noticed how long it can take to defuse a bomb in an action filmeven though we’ve seen the clock counting down the final minuteseveral times? In this example, the film maker will be using time toheighten the suspense and excitement for the audience. Anotherway to achieve this effect is to use slow-motion or freeze-frames toslow down the passing of time.

FlashbacksAnother common technique for manipulating time within a text isthe use of the flashback (or flash-forward) where scenes of past orfuture events are intercut into the main story. This technique canperform a number of functions from setting questions (enigma)which need answering or providing the answers to previously setquestions. Sometimes they are used to allow us to see events fromdifferent perspectives so one scene can be shown through differentcharacters’ points of view. Often flashbacks are presented differentlyto the main narrative – a common example is the use of black andwhite within a colour text to demonstrate the fact that the scene inthe past.

Different uses of flashbacks• Cold Case uses flashbacks of past events during its narrative

as the plot centres around a detective’s investigation of an oldcrime. The events leading up to the crime are cut into theinvestigation itself

• CSI uses flashbacks which are used to demonstrate the actualevents of the crime being investigated once the villain is caught.Sometimes false flashbacks are used to illustrate the suspect’sstory. They are also used during the investigation to show thethought process of the investigators and CSI often merges thesetypes of flashbacks within the ‘present time’ scene itself.

2

026. Telling a Good Tale – Further Narrative Techniques Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

DeadlinesMedia producers manipulate the audience’s perception of time bycreating tight deadlines within the plot which add to the tensionand suspense. In film action and disaster films, these deadlines arecrucial to create a sense of urgency within the film. This techniquewas used in The Day After Tomorrow (2004: R. Emmerich). At thestart of the film an ecological disaster was thought be thousands ofyears away, then the science indicated several years, then weeksand finally it was realised that the disaster was actually coming ‘theday after tomorrow’. The increasingly short deadline to disastercreated an increasing sense of apprehension in the early part of thefilm allowing the audience to become more emotionally involvedwith the characters and the events that they found themselvesinvolved in.

The manipulation of time is an important part of the story tellingtechniques used within the narrative of a text, as is the idea ofnarration.

Media Terms – Narrative, Narration and Plot••••• Plot – the actions and events of the story••••• Narrative – the ordering and sequencing of the events••••• Narration - the way the events are presented to the audience

Whose Story is it? Narration and point of viewTexts tell their stories from specific points of view. Sometimes theaudience is given different characters’ perspectives. This is calledomniscient narration and this means that the audience are able to‘see all’ through the narrative. There may still be secrets but theaudience often know much more than individual characters do.

Another narration technique is to use the point of view of onecharacter to tell the story – usually the protagonist (although notalways). Using this technique the audience knows as much (or aslittle) as the character and discovers things as the character does.This is called restricted narration.

The opening sequence of Halloween (Carpenter: 1978) is shotfrom a single point of view giving creating restricted narration.The director gives the audience the killer’s perspective, even puttingus behind the murderer’s mask.

Media producers decide how much information to give the audienceand this creates different audience responses. The director AlfredHitchcock explained how this works:

Hitchcock – ‘the master of suspense’http://www.facade.com/

Omniscient narration

The audience see a bombnear a restaurant (theantagonist’s perspective)

The protagonist entersthe restaurant; s/he isunaware there is a bomb(the protagonist’sperspective)

The audience response isone of suspense – theyknow the protagonist is indanger, even if s/hedoesn’t

Restricted narration

The protagonist goes into arestaurant (the protagonist’sperspective)

A bomb goes off nearbyshattering the windows

The audience response is oneof surprise (sharing theprotagonist’s response)

AQA/WJEC/OCR?Narrative is one of the main media concepts. Your understandingof narrative is assessed in examination and coursework. Youmay find that there are no specific questions on narrative in yourexaminations but it can be used to discuss how texts work toprovide audience pleasure, construct ideologies and is also partof the genre and institutional codes of texts.

Exam HintWhenever you are discussing narrative or narration alwaysconsider:• How the narrative is presented through the media language

choices made• Why the narrative is presented this way considering the

effects of the narrative structure chosen and the audience

3

026. Telling a Good Tale – Further Narrative Techniques Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

Media Concept

Media Language

Institutions

Genre

Representations

Audiences

Ideologies and Values

Narrative

Media Language choices construct thenarrative for the audience

Different institutions may use linear narrativeslightly differently

Different genres have their own narrative andnarration conventions

The representations of characters and eventsconstruct the narrative roles

Audiences receive a range of pleasures fromnarrative

Narrative constructed ideological perspectivesin a number of ways

Examples

The media language choices at the start of a text tell theaudience where and when the story is set, creating theexposition (a long shot of the Manhattan Skyline)

US TV uses a teaser to set the problem before the mainexposition which often comes via the opening titles

Thrillers need to have an element of restricted narrationto create suspense

The convention within a teen-slasher film is that thecharacter who represents a ‘higher code of morals’ (nosex, no drugs no drinking), survives

- Audiences enjoy the familiarity of recognisingnarrative conventions

- Texts provide comfort and reassurance with completeresolutions

- Audiences are able to interpret information andpredict future events due to their understanding ofnarrative

- Audiences are able to predict the outcomes of events- The pleasures associated with the genre come

through the meeting of narrative expectations (e.g.experiencing fear whilst watching horror; feelingtension watching thrillers; experiencing identification/escapism through soap operas)

- ‘Good’ and ‘bad’ is often identified through theconflict between binary oppositions

- The conflict is usually resolved. The winnerrepresents the ideological position of the text -Audiences tend to agree with heroes’ motivationsand disagree with the villains even when at timestheir behaviours are not that different

ActivityChoose one of your favourite fiction texts, either from television of film. Using ideas from the table above consider how its narrativerelates to other media concepts. e.g.

Cloverfield (M. Reeves: 2008) uses restricted narration (N) created by the use of a hand held camera (ML) which limits the audienceknowledge of events to what the characters see (A/N). This creates shocks for the audience as events unfold (A). The monster ispresented as a villain who disrupts the equilibrium set up in the party scene (N/A). By introducing the characters in the exposition (N)the audience are encouraged to identify with them (A). Even though it is presented in a new way, the film uses a range of codes from thedisaster/monster movie which are recognisable (G/Inst) including the hero who needs to save his girlfriend (N/R) and reinforcesideologies around gender roles and relationships (Id/R).

http://www.reapernews.com/

The first example is a plot summary whereas the second discusses the narrative of the programme. In exams you should focus ona discussion of the narrative not the plot. It is the second type of response that gains marks in an exam, not the first.

Exam Hint - In your discussions on the narrative of a text you donot need to present much plot information. Consider these twoexamples:

1. In Reaper a young man discovers his soul has been sold tothe devil and so he has to become a bounty hunter sendingescaped souls back to hell.

2. In Reaper the protagonist Sam’s conflict is between his ‘slacker’lifestyle and the responsibility given to him by the devil tocapture lost souls. He is accompanied in his task by his friendswho act to hinder him throughout the episode even thoughthey play the role of helpers. Each episode focuses onsearching for one villain and provides a resolution. An ongoingarc within the series is the protagonist’s relationship with hiswould be girlfriend Andi. The programme uses restrictednarration through Sam’s perspective.

Narrative’s Relationship with other Media ConceptsNarrative is constructed in a number of ways and it’s often worth considering how the concept links in with the other media concepts.

4

026. Telling a Good Tale – Further Narrative Techniques Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

Subverting Conventional NarrativeNot all media texts use conventional approaches to narrative. Some media texts deliberately manipulate the way a story is told in order toundermine audiences’ expectations and create alternative audience responses to the usual comfort and reassurance that a standardnarrative would provide. There are many alternative approaches to narrative – some are subtle and others quite radical.

Conventional Approach Alternative Approach Examples Audience Response

Clear-cut character roles

A typical hero – Indiana Jones

http://www.screenhead.com/

Heroes display negativequalities even though theaudience is encouraged toidentify with them and theirmotivations

Villains are created toencourage audienceidentification

Characters move from being‘bad’ to ‘good’ and vice versa

In 24, Jack Bauer undertakesactions which can be perceivedas immoral. The audience mayhave a problem with his methodsbut see them as a means to anend. Bauer has been showntorturing suspects for theinformation he needs

In the Saw series the audiencecannot condone Jigsaw’s actionsbut, despite his sadistic violence,the reasons for punishing hisvictims are presented as makingsense

In Lost characters who appearheroic at some points of thenarrative appear villainous inothers.

http://media.monstersandcritics.com/

Lack of clear ideas of ‘good’ and‘evil’ reflect a more complexmoral world. Audiences mayrespond positively to this asthese texts represent worldscloser to the reality of theaudience’s existence. On theother hand they may respondnegatively as these texts do notoffer reassurance that allproblems can be solved and allactions can be defined clearlyas ‘right’ or ‘wrong’.

Resolutions Despite being anunconventional text,Californication gave viewers avery conventional resolution

http://image.guardian.co.uk/

The ending of the text doesnot solve all the problems fromthe plot and fails to answer allthe questions leaving looseends

No clear explanation for theevents was given in Cloverfield.

The audience is either leftunsatisfied as the text fails toprovide all the answers orintrigued by the lack of closure.

Chronological/Linear structure The idea of the three actstructure – beginning, middleand end can be subverted in anumber of ways

Events can be depicted out ofsequence either in a randomorder or in a specific non-linearsequence

In Memento the resolution ofthe film is presented first andthe events unfold backwards

In Pulp Fiction events arepresented in a random orderwith one of the ‘first’ eventscoming late in the film and thefirst scene depicted eventsthat happen last in terms of theplot of the film

These texts demand a moreactive audience engagementthat conventional linearnarratives. Audiences need towork out the chain of cause andeffect for themselves and workout the order of events forthemselves. Often this type ofapproach demands multipleviewings so that the audiencecan fully understand the eventsthat they have seen.

5

026. Telling a Good Tale – Further Narrative Techniques Media Studieswww.curriculum-press.co.uk

Subverting Conventional Narrative continued.

Conventional Approach Alternative Approach Examples Audience Response

Restricted/OmniscientNarration

Texts often use a combinationof restricted and omniscientnarration. Some nonconventional narratives do notalways make it clear whichperspective the audience isbeing given.

Some texts present a restrictednarration but later reveal thatthe narrator was untrustworthyand so the events of the plotare called into question

Some texts used restrictednarration from a number ofdifferent points of view

In Cold Case it is sometimesdifficult to know if the facts of thecase are being presented or just oneperson’s interpretation.

The narrators in Fight Club, TheUsual Suspects and Memento areall unreliable. This fact is onlyrevealed towards the end of thefilms. This technique can be foundas far back as 1920 in The Cabinetof Dr Caligari

http://cache.eb.com/

An episode of CSI showed onecase as seen through the eyes ofthree different investigators.Each character saw the events ofthe case differently.

Non conventional narrationoften reinforces how subjectiveevents can be and how all storiesare interpretations. Again thisremoves the reassurance thatconventional narrative providesand can be challenging for anaudience.

Case Study – DamagesThe TV series Damages presents two connected plots.• The primary plot is a flashback from time of the secondary

plot’s events• The secondary plot shows one of the main characters arrested

for the murder of her fiancée and is presented in grainy, colourde-saturated film-stock. This plot is set up as the present dayand slowly unfolds via two or three intercut segments withinthe presentation of the primary plot. This ‘present day’ runsforwards very slowly across episodes as moments from thispart of the story are repeated with the gradual addition of moreplot information.

• The flashback makes up the main body of the episode.

The narrative structure of a typical episode of Damages1. ‘Previously on…’ recapping on previous episodes using both

primary (the past) and secondary (the present) plot information2. Secondary plot - developing the story a little further (what

happens to the protagonist after her arrest)3. Primary plot - introduced via a caption: e.g. ‘Three Months

Earlier’ (what led up to the arrest of the protagonist)4. Secondary plot – brief further development5. Primary plot - flashback6. Secondary plot with cliff-hanger ending

Damages and the AudienceThe function of this narrative structure is to heighten suspense.The primary plot’s enigma is around building the case against acorrupt business man. We get to know a young lawyer and followthe investigation. A second enigma is created as the audienceknow the fate of two of the main characters (the lawyer (arrested)and her fiancée (murdered)) but do not know how these eventscame about. The audience will be trying to work out what willoccur in the primary plot and how that leads to the secondaryone. The mysteries encourage the audience to keep watching foranswers. In addition, the narrative arc for both plots spans awhole series and so this generates loyalty to the programme.http://www.thetvaddict.com/

Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Steph Hendry Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Media Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teachingstaff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permissionof the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136