241103490 manual-for-academic-writing

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Manual for Academic WritingHow to Successfully Write an Academic Paper

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Structure, Use of Literature, Rules for Papers at the University of Hamburg

Update: August 2011

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Table of Contents

1. How to write an academic paper.......................................................................3

1.1. Structuring a paper.........................................................................................31.1.1. Table of contents.....................................................................................31.1.2. Introduction................................................................................................41.1.3. Main body...................................................................................................41.1.4. Conclusion..................................................................................................6

1.2. Use of literature...............................................................................................71.2.1. Quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing.......................................71.2.2. Citation rules.............................................................................................8

2. Rules for papers at Uni Hamburg...................................................................14

2.1. General requirements.................................................................................142.2. Ausarbeitung eines Referats.....................................................................142.3. Hausarbeit........................................................................................................142.4. Große Hausarbeit..........................................................................................142.5. Projektgruppe.................................................................................................15

Useful references.......................................................................................................16

Examples for a title page........................................................................................17

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1. How to write an academic paper

1.1. Structuring a paper

An academic paper always consists of three main parts: an introduction, a main body and

a conclusion. The aim of the introduction is to give a short overview of what the paper is

about (introduction to the topic; research question and aim; overview of the different

parts or chapters). The main body contains the actual paper, in which the research

question is investigated. It may consist of different parts or chapters, but it should always

be possible to separate the main body from the introduction and the conclusion. The

conclusion then summarizes the main findings of the paper and possibly points to issues

for which extra research is needed.

1.1.1. Table of contents

A table of contents gives an overview of the different parts or chapters of a paper. It is

highly recommended to insert a table of contents because it makes the structure of your

paper clear. It is often possible to derive the main arguments of the paper from the table

of contents, which may be a useful guide for the readers of your paper.

This is an example of a table of contents for a paper on the role of the European

Commission in the European integration process:

Table of Contents: The European Commission as Network Broker1

1. Introduction 2

2. Previous analytical limits 33. The brokerage roles of the Commission: The conceptual framework

34. The Commission in the GMO policy network

75. The Commission in the employment strategy

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1 Borras, S. (2007), ‘The European Commission as Network Broker’, European Integration Online Papers, 11(1).

5

6. Conclusion: The resilient network broker 187. List of abbreviations

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1.1.2. Introduction

An introduction is meant to get your reader interested in your subject and to provide him

with the information necessary to go on reading your paper. It usually consists of three

main elements: a context, the relevance of the topic and a thesis or research question2.

1. Set the context (introduction of the topic and problem definition): provide general

information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can make

sense of the topic and the claims you make and support.

2. State why the main idea is important (theoretical or empirical relevance of your

research): tell the reader why he should care and keep reading. Your goal is to

create a compelling, clear and convincing essay people will want to read and act

upon.

3. State your research question or thesis: compose a sentence or two stating the

question that your paper will try to answer. For argumentative texts you may state

a thesis, which is the position you will support.

Tips for writing an introduction3:

Announce your topic broadly, then declare your particular take. Provide any background material important to your argument. Define key terms, as you intend to make use of them in your argument. Use an anecdote or quotation. Acknowledge your opponents.

1.1.3. Main body

From general to specific information. Your paper should be organized in a manner that

moves from general to specific information. Every time you begin a new subject, think of

2 For more information, see: The OWL at Purdue: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/01/3 Darthmouth Writing Program: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/01/

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an inverted pyramid – the broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the

paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the

argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author

explains how and why the information he has just provided connects to and supports his

thesis4.

Induction versus deduction5

- Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general

conclusion. When you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which

is actually the conclusion you have come to after looking at all the facts) and then

support your thesis with the facts.

- When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move

to a specific conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason

deductively, which is called “syllogistic reasoning”. A syllogism is organized in three

steps:

i. Major premise, e.g.: All men are mortal.

4 OWL at Purdue: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/02/5 Ibid.


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ii. Minor premise, e.g.: Socrates is a man.

iii. Conclusion, e.g.: Socrates is mortal.

Some useful guidelines6:

Define the concepts you are using Motivate your assertions Document your paper with sources and facts Make the relations between different assertions clear Eliminate contradictions Separate valuation from facts

1.1.4. Conclusion

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from

general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion

should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of

your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or provide an overview of future

possible research. Don’t try to bring in new points or to solve world hunger in the final

sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message7.

This does not mean that papers should be ended by simply summarizing what has come

before. A summary is important in the conclusion – particularly if your argument has

been complicated or has covered a lot of ground. But a good conclusion will do more.

Just as the introduction sought to place the paper in the larger, ongoing conversation

about the topic, so should the conclusion insist on returning the reader to that ongoing

conversation, but with the feeling that they have learned something more8.

Strategies for improving your conclusion9:

Return to the ongoing conversation, emphasizing the importance of your own contribution to it.

6 Kreikemeyer, A.; Schneider, P. (2007), Wie schreibe ich erfolgreich eine Masterarbeit?, S. 4.7 http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/8 Dartmouth Writing Program: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml9 Ibid.

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml


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Consider again the background information with which you began, and illustrate how your argument has shed new light on that information.

Return to the key terms and point out how your paper has added some new dimension to their meanings.

Use an anecdote or quotation that summarizes or reflects your main idea. Acknowledge your opponents – if only to emphasize that you have beaten

them. Remember: language is especially important to a conclusion. Your goal in your

final sentences is to leave your ideas resounding in your readers’ mind. Give them something to think about. Make your language ring.

1.2. Use of literature

Not following formal requirements and rules of quotation can result in lowering grades

and/or, in extreme cases, the work will be graded as "failed".

1.2.1. Quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing

The three ways of incorporating other writers’ work into your own writing – quoting,

paraphrasing and summarizing – differ according to the closeness of your writing to the

source writing10.

1. Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the

source. They must match the source document word for word and must be

attributed to the original author.

2. Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own

words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased

material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader

segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

3. Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including

only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas

to the original.

10 OWL at Purdue: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/01/


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1.2.2. Citation rules

Whenever you quote or base your ideas on another person's work, you must document the

source you used. Even when you do not quote directly from another work, if reading that

source contributed to the ideas presented in your paper, you must give the authors proper

credit. By following the guidelines of this manual, you avoid plagiarism, which is a

serious violation of the university’s citation rules. Plagiarism can result in expulsion from

your course and the university.

There are two main systems of citing sources, the so-called “American System” and the

system of footnotes/endnotes. In the following, one example of each system will be

given. There are, however, differences even in both systems. Therefore, it does not really

matter which system you use, as long as you are consistent and use the same way of

citing throughout your entire text11.

American system

- In the American system, citations are put in the text, between brackets: (Author, Year:

Page number(s)).

- For a literal citation, you need to indicate the page number(s); for a reference to the

general idea of a book or article (cf. summarizing) this is not always needed.

Examples

- A classic way of distinguishing between policy types is in terms of regulatory,

redistributive and distributive policies (Lowi, 1964).

11 For more information (and slightly different ways of citing within both systems), see Universität Marburg: http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~kuesterm/Style%20Sheet.pdf and Capital Community College: http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/mla/practical_guide.shtml#footnotes

http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/mla/practical_guide.shtml#footnotes

http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~kuesterm/Style%20Sheet.pdf

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- An early definition by Gary Marks (1993: 392) spoke of: “the emergence of multi-level

governance, a system of continuous negotiation among nested governments at several

territorial tiers – supranational, national, regional and local”.

Footnotes (or endnotes)

In the footnote or endnote system, sources are referred to in footnotes (at the bottom of

each page) or endnotes (at the end of each chapter or the end of the entire text): Author

(Year), Title, Page number(s).

Example

Nugent, N. (2006), The Government and Politics of the European Union, p. 236.

Monographs

Citation in the text:

- One Author: Brooks (2008, p. 56).

- Two Authors: Solnik and McLeavey (2009, p. 22)

- From Three Authors: Campbell et al. (1997)

Citation in the footnote:

- One Author: Vgl. Brooks (2008), p. 56.

- Two Authors: Vgl. Solnik and McLeavey (2009), p. 22

- From Three Authors: Vgl. Campbell et al. (1997)

Citation in the bibliography:

- Brooks, C. (2008): Introductory econometrics for finance, 2. Aufl., Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge et al.

- Solnik, B. / McLeavey, D. (2009): Global investments, Pearson Education, Inc.,

Boston et al.

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- Campbell, J.Y. / Lo, A.W. / MacKinlay, A.C. (1997): The econometrics of

financial markets, Princeton, University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Contributions in compilations and edited volumes


- Koch (1989, S. 2068 f.)

- Rudolph (1994, S. 1339 ff.)


- Vgl. Koch (1989), S. 2068 f. [in English: See Koch (1989), p. 2068 f.]

- Vgl. Rudolph (1994), S. 1339 ff. [in English: See Rudolph (1994), p. 1339 ff.]

Citation examples in the bibliography:

- Koch, H. (1989): Techniken zur Handhabung von Unsicherheit, in:

Handwörterbuch der Planung, hrsg. von Szyperski, N., Stuttgart 1989, S. 2060-

2073.

- Rudolph, B. (1994): Ökonomische Theorie und Insiderrecht, in: Bilanzrecht und

Kapitalmarkt, Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Adolf Moxter, hrsg. von

Ballwieser, W. et al., Düsseldorf 1994, S. 1335-1349.

Articles


- One Author: Sharpe (1964, p. 433)

- Two Authors: Modigliani und Miller (1958, p. 289 ff.)

- From Three Autors: Hansen et al. (1995, p. 240)

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- One Author: See Sharpe (1964), p.433. [in German: Vgl. Sharpe (1964).]

- Two Authors: See Modigliani und Miller (1958), p. 289 ff. [in German: Vgl.

Modigliani und Miller (1958), p. 289 ff.]

- From Three Authors: See Hansen et al. (1995), p. 240. [in German: Hansen et al.

(1995), p. 240.]


- Sharpe, W.F. (1964): Capital asset prices: A theory of market equilibrium under

conditions of risk, Journal of Finance, 19(3), p. 425-442.

- Modigliani, F. / Miller, M. (1958): The cost of capital, corporation finance and the

theory of investment, American Economic Review, 48(3), p. 261-297.

- Hansen, L.P. / Heaton, J. / Luttmer, E. (1995): Econometric evaluation of asset

pricing models, Review of Financial Studies, 8(2), p. 237-274.

Working Papers


- Kern und Rudolph (2001, p. 3)


- Vgl. Kern und Rudolph (2001), p.3. [in English: Kern und Rudolph (2001), p.3.]


- Kern, M. / Rudolph, B. (2001): Comparative analysis of alternative credit risk

models – An application on German middle market loan portfolios, CFS Working

Paper, Nr. 2001/03.

Sources without an author's name

- Newspaper articles Citation in the footnote:

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- o.V. (1994), Neuemissionen. [in English: n.n. (1994), Neuemissionen.]


- o.V. (year), title of article, in: title of paper, the number of paper, date, page.

o.V. (1994): Bei Neuemissionen müssen alle umdenken (Neuemissionen), in:

Börsen-Zeitung, N6. 209 from 29.10.1994, p. 5.

- [in English: n.n. (year), title of article, in: title of paper, the number of paper,

date, page.]

- Institution, organization or company as a publisher Citation in the text :

- Deutsche Bundesbank (1994a, p. 123 ff.)

- Deutsche Bundesbank (1994b, p. 64 f.)


- Vgl. Deutsche Bundesbank (1994a), p.123 ff. [in English: See Deutsche

Bundesbank (1994a), p.123 ff.]

- Vgl. Deutsche Bundesbank (1994b), p.64 f. [in English: See Deutsche

Bundesbank (1994b), p.64 f.]


- Deutsche Bundesbank (1994a): Geschäftsbericht der Deutschen Bundesbank

1993.

- Deutsche Bundesbank (1994b): Die Fünfte Novelle des Kreditwesengesetzes,

in: Monatsberichte der Deutschen Bundesbank, 46. Jg., Nr. 11, S. 59-67.

Laws, Regulations, Guidelines

Laws, regulations and official guidelines are listed in the bibliography after the other

sources under a separate heading.

Citation in the text or footnote:

- § 8 Abs. 1 Satz 1 GwG.

- § 5 GmbHG.

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- Gesetz über das Aufspüren von Gewinnen aus schweren Straftaten

(Geldwäschegesetz - GwG) vom 25.10.1983.

- Gesetz betreffend die Gesellschaften mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH-Gesetz)

vom 20.04.1892, Stand 28.10.1994.

Websites

In the bibliography:

Name of the institution (date): Title of the website, URL.


- Deutsche Börse AG (07.01.2002): Deutsche Börse - Indizes,

http://www.exchange.de/fwb.indices_d.html.


- Deutsche Börse AG (07.01.2002), p. 3.

Sources without date, author, place of publication

German:

o.O. – ohne Ortsangabe (or s.l. – sine locum)

o.J. - ohne Jahresangabe (or s.a. – sine annum)

o.V. – ohne Verfasserangabe

English:

n.p. – no place (or s.l. – sine locum)

n.d. – no date (or s.a. – sine annum)

N.N. – nomen nescio (no name)

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2. Rules for papers at Uni Hamburg

2.1. General requirements

- Papers need to be written in Times New Roman, font size 12, line spacing 1.5.

- Left margin: 3 cm

- Right margin: 2 cm

- Top margin: 3 cm

- Bottom margin: 2,5 cm

- Use the formatting for the entire text. The title page contains the title of your paper,

your name, the program you are in, the date, the name of the course for which the

paper was submitted and the name of the lecturer.

2.2. Ausarbeitung eines Referats

- 5-7 pages

- Due on the last day of the lecture period

- To be handed in at the “Studienbüro”: two printed copies, a completed “Schein”

and a CD-Rom/DVD with the electronic version of your paper12.

2.3. Hausarbeit

- 10-12 pages

- Due on the first day of the following semester

12 Except if agreed otherwise with the lecturer. Some lecturers ask to send write-up papers per e-mail and do not expect extra printed copies or a CD-Rom/DVD.

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and a CD-Rom/DVD with the electronic version of your paper.

2.4. Große Hausarbeit

- 25-30 pages




2.5. Projektgruppe

- 15 pages each




The Structure of the Hausarbeit or Master Thesis:- Title

- Table of Contents

- List of Annexes (if relevant)

- List of Tables (if relevant)

- List of Figures (if relevant)

- Abbreviations (if relevant)

- List of Symbols (if relevant)

- Text

- Annexes (if relevant)

- Bibliography

- Discussions’ List (if relevant)

- Web Site Directory (if relevant)

- Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung gemäß den Vorschriften des Prüfungsamtes –

for Master Thesis only.

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Useful references

Björk, L., Räisänen, C. (2008), Academic Writing. A University Writing Course, Lund:

Studentlitteratur.

Brookes, A., Grundy, P. (1990), Writing for Study Purposes. A Teacher’s Guide to

Developing Individual Writing Skills, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Franck, N., Stary, J. (2007), Die Technik des wissenschaftlichen Arbeitens: Eine

praktische Anleitung, Taschenbuch.

Greetham, B. (2001), How to Write Better Essays, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Murray, R. (2006), How to Write a Thesis, 2nd Edition, Berkshire: Open University Press.

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Examples for a title page

Kleine/Große Hausarbeit zum Thema:

TITEL DER HAUSARBEIT

Betreuer: Prof. Dr. Ingrid Größl

Professur für Volkswirtschaftslehre

Fachbereich Sozialökonomie

Universität Hamburg

Studiengang: Master of Arts International Business Administration/

Master of Arts European Studies

Kurs: New Institutional Economics

Eingereicht von: Marta Musterfrau

Musterstraße 10

10000 Musterort

Matrikel-Nummer:

Tel.:

Eingereicht am: Hamburg, den TT.MM.JJJJ

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MASTERARBEIT

zur Erlangung des Grades Master of Arts

International Business Administration/

European Studies

an der Universität Hamburg

TITEL DER MASTERARBEIT

Erstprüfer: Prof. Dr. Alexander Bassen

Professur für Betriebswirtschaftslehre,

insb. Kapitalmärkte und Unternehmensführung

Fachbereich Sozialökonomie

Universität Hamburg

Zweitprüfer:

Studiengang: Master of Arts International Business Administration/

Master of Arts European Studies

Eingereicht von: Marta Musterfrau

Musterstraße 10

10000 Musterort

Matrikel-Nummer:

Tel.:

Eingereicht am: Hamburg, den TT.MM.JJJJ

Spätester Termin für die Erstellung des Gutachtens durch den Erstprüfer:

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Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung

Ich versichere hiermit ehrenwörtlich, dass ich meine vorliegende Abschlussarbeitselbstständig verfasst habe und keine anderen als die angegebenen Hilfsmittel– insbesondere keine im Quellenverzeichnis nicht benannten Internet-Quellen – benutzt habe.

Die Arbeit wurde vorher nicht in einem anderen Prüfungsverfahren eingereicht und die eingereichte schriftliche Verfassung entspricht der auf dem elektronischenSpeichermedium.

Wörtlich oder dem Sinn nach aus anderen Werken entnommene Stellen sind unterAngabe der Quellen kenntlich gemacht.

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