PSY 368 Human MemoryImagery &Mnemonics

Imagery EffectsTheories Cases of superior memoryWays to improve you memoryBrief outline for week

Demo: Remembering a shopping listRouteClassroomOut by elevatorsIn elevatorDeGarmo lobbyPlaza QuadBridge over College AveArea outside of MilnerBone Student CenterStudent BookstoreBizarre imageDr. Cutting milking a cow in the classroomCptn Crunch sword fighting with Tony the TigerThree people roasting hotdogs over camp fireFlood of pickle juice and floating pickles, have to step on pickles to get outEtc. The more bizarre and vivid the image, the better. Add sounds and smells to your images

A lot of the mnemonic techniques have an imagery aspect to them, so we will start with a discussion of imagery and memoryImagery

Historical OverviewThree Ages of Mental Imagery: The Philosophic PeriodMental images were taken to be the main factor in the makeup of the mind. Images were also sometimes believed to be the elements of thought. The Measurement Period Galton (1880), gave a questionnaire to 100 people asking them to remember their breakfast table and answer some questions about the images that they had. Created a measure of imagery that was related to sex, age, and other differences specific to individuals, but learned little else. With behaviorism, this died out.

Historical OverviewThree Ages of Mental Imagery: The Cognitive and Neurocognitive PeriodImagery studies and research was reborn in the late 1960s on two ideals. The first was proposed by Sheehan and Neisser (1969). It dealt with the quantitative assessment of imagery. (see also Neisser & Kerr, 1973).The second advance for imagery involved the incorporation of the concept into a cognitive model where the internal representation of information was a central element.

ImageryWhat is a mental image?Is the mental representation of things that are not currently being sensed by the sense organsHow is it like reality, how is it different?Hard to study, not directly observable and fade away quickly.Does an image use the same neural hardware as experience?Spatial ability is independent of verbal ability. We can test it using methods similar to operation span or digit span.Example of test: Cube folding: Will the arrows touch if you fold these into cubes?

Imagery and Memory EffectsMental rotation tasksPicture superiority effectImage scanning effectBizarreness effectConcreteness Effect

Imagery and Memory EffectsMental rotation tasks

Mental rotation tasks suggest that you use images in working memory in an analog way.Shepard and Metzler (1972): Rotate images, look at response time.A: Same rotated in picture plane.B: Same rotated in depth.C: Different.

Imagery and Memory EffectsPicture superiority effect

Shepard (1967): Present 612 pictures or words with a recognition test. After 2 hours approximately 100% accuracy for pictures, 88% for words. After a week about 88% for both.Standing (1977): Learn 1,000 words, 1,000 simple pictures, or 1,000 bizarre pictures. After 2 days recognition memory was 61.5% for words, 77% for pictures, and 88% for bizarre pictures.Summation: Memory for pictures is better than memory for words, especially early on.

Imagery and Memory EffectsImage scanning effectPaivio (1978)For example, imagine these times on an analog clock face. Which of each pair has a bigger angle between the hands?4:10 and 9:233:20 and 7:252:45 and 1:053:15 and 5:30 ResultsReaction times related to angular distance, smaller angle = larger RTPs who were high imagers were overall faster than low imagers

Imagery and Memory EffectsImage scanning effectScanning tasks show that the farther apart two things are on an image, the longer it takes to mentally scan from one to the other (e.g., Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).

Memorize this mapTheres a hut, a tree, a rock, a lake, a well, sand, and grass.Hear the name of an object, then another. Imagine a black dot zipping from one to the other on the shortest path.Push a button when it gets there.

Imagery and Memory EffectsImage scanning effectScanning tasks show that the farther apart two things are on an image, the longer it takes to mentally scan from one to the other (e.g., Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978).

Time to scan between all pairs of locations on imaged map

Imagery and Memory EffectsBizarreness effect

Better memory for bizarre imagesMcDaniel & Einstein (1986)Presented participants with sentences w/ underlined word triplets, within either bizarre or common sentence contexts (10 sets)Bizarre: The dog rode the bicycle down the streetCommon: The dog chased the bicycle down the street.Instructions: Form an mental image that included the underlined words, and rate the vividness of the imageFollowing a 30 sec distractor task they were asked to recall the underlined words

Imagery and Memory EffectsBizarreness effect

Imagery and Memory EffectsConcreteness EffectRead list of words

Dollar Cabin Storm Arrow River Book PeachJusticeFranchiseSessionIncidentHopeCostMoodTypically better recall for the concrete items

ImageryImages could be:Analog representations:Pictures in the head: Images are what they feel like, a picture in the head whose properties are like the properties of the real thingPerceptual processing: Images use the same perceptual hardware you use to seePropositions: Its essentially a verbal/symbolic thing. The feeling that you have an image is epiphenomenal, there isnt really an image

Three Theories of ImageryFunctional-Equivalency hypothesisAnalog representations. Something like pictures, but not exactly the sameConceptual-Propositional HypothesisNo images, propositional representationPaivios Dual-Coding HypothesisPerhaps both image and verbal (propositional?) representations for some things

Three Theories of Imagery1. Functional-Equivalency hypothesisShepard and Kosslyn (e.g., Cooper & Shepard, 1978; Kosslyn & Pomerantz, 1977)States that imagery and perception are extremely similar. Shepard and Kosslyn introduced mental rotation of visual stimuli in memory. Relationship between time required for a specific mental rotation and the actual degrees of rotationVisual images reflect internal representations that operate in a way that is analogous to the functioning of the perception of physical objects

Three Theories of ImageryImages use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.Estes, Verges, & Barsalou (2008)Reading words should lead to mental simulations of the words, using perceptual hardware.Part of this simulation is location.Trial:Prime: CowboyWord: hat (upper location) or boot (lower location)Target: Letter (X or O at top or bottom of the screen)If you simulate the location, then hat should interfere with letters at the top (youre using that perceptual hardware). Boot would be opposite.

Three Theories of ImageryImages use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.Estes, Verges, & Barsalou (2008)Reading words should lead to mental simulations of the words, using perceptual hardware.ResultsLetters in objects typical locations took longer to identify.

Three Theories of ImageryImages use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.Zwaan & Yaxley (2003)Spatial iconicity effects also suggest that location is part of the representation of words and that location simulation is part of comprehension.Present a pair of words, are they related?AtticBasementOrBasementAttic

Three Theories of ImageryImages use the same perceptual hardware you use to see.Zwaan & Yaxley (2003)

When vertical arrangements were correct, participants were faster than when they were incorrect.Again, location seems to be part of the understanding of a word.

ImageryBut, pictures support processing that images dont.For example, its harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)Get a clear mental image of the picture below:

ImageryBut, pictures support processing that images dont.For example, its harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)Are the following shapes in the picture you just saw?

ImageryBut, pictures support processing that images dont.For example, its harder to decompose an image than it is to decompose a picture. (based on Reed, 1974)Are the following shapes in the picture you just saw?

ImageryBut, pictures support processing that images dont.For example, you can reverse pictures, but most people report that reversing images is very hard (relative to with a picture). Chambers & Reisberg (1985)Look at ambiguous figure, provide interpretationImagine the figure, provide a second interpretation, very hard to doDraw image from memory, then give second interpretation, could do it

Three Theories of ImageryConceptual-Propositional HypothesisAnderson and Bower (e.g., Anderson, 1978, Bower, 1972, Pylyshyn, 1973) Memory is not like a photographWe store propositional interpretations of events, whether they be verbal or visual, rather than the imagery components. Anderson and Bower explain that concrete concepts are coded by a rich set of predicates that bind concepts together. ..."the only difference between the internal representation for a linguistic input and a memory image is detail of information

Theories of ImageryImages could be:Propositions: Essentially a verbal/symbolic thing. The feeling that you have an image is epiphenomenal, there isnt really an image.You sawYou heardThe goal keeper missed the ballSame underlying propositional representations:missed(goalkeeper, ball)Image may provide even richer information:wept(goalkeeper)cursed(goalkeeper)

Three Theories of ImageryComparing Analog and Propositional codesAnalog CodePicture-like codeImages like perceptions, retain some sensory qualitiesRelations represented implicitlySimultaneousDifferent representations for each sense

Propositional CodeWord-like codeImages are descriptions of visual scenesRelations represented explicitlySequentialSame representations for each sense

Anderson (1978): concluded that it may not be possible to decide between imaginal and propositional representations strictly on the basis of behavioral data.

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisProposed that words and images are processed separately (based on patients with temporal lobe damage who could not process images).The basic tenant of this theory is that information is mentally represented either in a verbal system or a nonverbal (analog) system (or both).Each system contains different kinds of information. Each concept is connected to other related concepts in the same system and the other system. Activating any one concept also leads to activation of closely related concepts.

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisExplains many of the imagery effectsConcreteness effectVerbal and visual (image) codes for concrete itemsPicture superiority effectPictures automatically coded two ways, as and image and as a verbal descriptionImagery instructionsSchnorr & Atkinson, (1969)Studied pairs of associates using two instructionsImagery instructions 80%Rote rehearsal - 40%

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisExplains many of the imagery effectsSymbolic distance effect it is easier to make judgments about items that are farther apart on a dimension than it is to make judgments about items that are close on a dimension. true or false:The fly is bigger than the flea.The horse is bigger than the mouse.The rabbit is bigger than the dog.The mouse is bigger than the fly.The dog is bigger than the horse.

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisExplains many of the imagery effectsSymbolic distance effect it is easier to make judgments about items that are farther apart on a dimension than it is to make judgments about items that are close on a dimension. Picture symbolic distance effect tasks are easier than verbal symbolic distance effect tasks (pictures access the system directly, verbal has to be recoded).

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisCan using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?Segal (1971): imagery tasks can interfere with visual perceptionBrooks (1967): perceptual tasks can interfere with imageryTry imaging President Lincolns face and read the text given below.Imagery involves one or more of your five senses, hearing, taste, touch, smell, sight. An author uses a word or phrase to stimulate your memory of those senses. These memories can be positive or negative which will contribute to the mood of your poem

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisCan using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?Schooler & Engstrom-Schooler (1990)P's are shown a videotaped robbery. (This creates a visual memory.) P's then either: 1) Are asked to imagine the robber. 2) Are asked to describe the robber. 3) Are asked to do a series of math problems. (control)P's complete a recognition memory test picking the robber out of a lineup of eight persons.

Three Theories of Imagery3. Paivios Dual-Coding HypothesisCan using dual coding ever interfere with/disrupt memory?Schooler & Engstrom-Schooler (1990)Results: Creating two codes can disrupt memory for information that is only represented in one code.

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Okay, recall the shopping list. Run through the route from here to the bookstore in Bone. ListDemo: Remembering a shopping list

Eidetic imageryThe Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)Flashbulb memoriesSpecial Abilities

Eidetic imagery = Photographic memoryCriteria strict for classification - image = photographEidetic images have more detail than normal and last longer than iconic memory.Frequency of occurrence Mostly in preadolescent children Rare in adults - not well-studiedSpecial Abilities

The Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)S (Solomon Shereshevsky, Russian journalist 7 mnemonist)Average IQCould recall speeches verbatimMemorize complex mathematical equations and matricesMemorize text and poems, even in foreign languageDiagnosed as having severe Synesthesia Musical tones were colors, touch were tastesThinking about numbers: take the number 1. This is a proud, well-built man; 2 is a high-spirited woman; 3 a gloomy person; 6 a man with a swollen foot; 7 a man with a moustache; 8 a very stout womana sack within a sack. As for the number 87, what I see is a fat woman and a man twirling his moustache

Special Abilities

The Mind of a Mnemonist, Luria (1968, 1987)Synesthesia is a condition where sensations usually experienced in a single modality are experienced in two modalities. This condition give psychologists some very interesting data and research. Some examples of synesthesia are receiving an auditory signal or sensation in a visual modality, where it obviously shouldnt be.Synesthesia is rule governed, not random. For example, there is a positive relationship between increasing the pitch of a sound and increased brightness.

Special Abilities

Flashbulb memoriesVery vivid memoriesPersonally relevant emotionDifficult to studyNeisser and Harsch (1992) studyWhere you were on Sept. 11Challenger explosion in 1986 - asked people day later about where they were, etc. After 3 years they were inaccurate at remembering these things, but very confident they were accurateNo evidence they are different from normal memories.Special Abilities

***************dollar, justice, cabin, franchise, storm, session, arrow, incident, river, hope, book, cost, peach, mood***Eidetic images have more detail than normal and last longer than iconic memory.8% of preadolescent kids.Criteria strict for classification - image = photograph***Lots of detailWhere you were on Sept. 11Challenger explosion in 1986 - asked people day later about where they were, etc. - after 3 years they were inaccurate at remembering these things, but very confident they were accurate - no evidence they are different from normal memories.