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World geography

Index

S.no Topic Page no

1. The Universe 1

2.. Solar system 6

3. The earth 14

4. orld climatic conditions 23

!. "tmosphere o# $arth 2%

6. Press&re 'elts and inds 33

(. $arth)s s&r#ace ind system 3*

*. +ceans 41

%. $conomic ,eography - "gric&lt&re 4*

1. World)s /orestry 0 /ishery !%

11. inerals 62

12. "dditional in#ormation 66

 

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The Universe

 The &niverse o# hich o&r earth is an insignicant #raction consists o# &nco&nta'le n&m'er o# stars galaxies ne'&lae and other celestial 'odies.

 The &niverse can 'e said to 'e the s&m total o# potentially noledgea'leo'5ects.

 The science dealing ith the nat&re and origin o# the &niverse is non asosmology.

Origin:

"s per present stat&s o# noledge and tho&ght7process o# manind there is aphilosophical 'arrier a'o&t the innity o# the Universe 'oth in space and time.

8ardly anything can 'e said concl&sively a'o&t the origin o# the Universe tho&ghvario&s theories have 'een proposed to explain the possi'le ay o# the#ormation o# the Universe.

 To &nderstand these theories a remara'le astronomical phenomenon called

9ed Shi#t or :oppler $;ect m&st 'e non.

Doppler Efect and Red Shit:

• "ccording to :oppler $;ect the #reemaitre as one o# the earliest to proposes&ch a cosmological theory re#erring to it as ?reors theory@.

"ccording to =ig7=ang theory some 1 to 2 'illion years ago cosmic matter

A&niverseB as conned in a s&per dense 'all in a state o# extremely hightemperat&re and press&re. " primordial explosion then occ&rred h&rling the'roen material #ar o&t into space here they are still travelling at tho&sands o# miles per second.

 The s&dden cooling that accompanied expansion #avo&r the com'ination o# atomic particles into atoms o# lighter elements hich condensed into clo&ds o# gases and event&ally galaxies and other celestial 'odies ere #ormed itho&tdisr&pting the expansion o# the &niverse and it happens in all explosions the#arthest pieces are Cying the #astest.

Steady State Theory:

• +riginally advanced 'y 8ermann =o&di and Thomas ,old and s&pportedD

modied 'y some other astronomers this theory proposes that &niverseeveryhere and every time remained relatively &ni#orm itho&t 'eginning orend.

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•  Tho&gh galaxies recede #rom one another their spatial density remainsconstant i.e. as old galaxies move apart ne galaxies are 'eing #ormed #romne matter hich is 'eing contin&o&sly created #rom com'ination o# atomicparticles in the space 'eteen galaxies.

•  This concept designed to get aro&nd the philosophical 'arrier o# a &niverseith nite 'eginning and end is also non as the Eontin&o&s reation

 Theory).

Pulsating (Oscillating Universe Theory:

 This theory advocated among others 'y :r. "lan Sandage proposes that some12 'illion years ago a great explosion started the expansion o# the &niversehich is liely to go on 2% 'illion years more hen gravitation ill halt #&rtherexpansion.

"#terards all matter ill 'egin to contract in a process non as implosion #orsome 41 'illion years compressing the matter into an extremely s&perdense

state and then it ill explode again.

 Th&s &niverse expands and then contracts also in periods r&nning into tens o# 'illion o# years.

  In this ay e see that =ig =ang Theory di;ers #rom other theories in toimportant respects.

i. It does not s&'scri'e to the claim o# Steady State theory that ne matter is'eing contin&o&sly created in the &niverse.

AiiB It does not admit the proposition o# P&lsating Theory that matter illcontract to original s&per dense state.

Fone o# the theories are concl&sive '&t recent discoveries 'ased on radioastronomy and satellite 'ased o'servations place the $vol&tionary Theory o# the&niverse in a stronger scientic position than the Steady State Theory.

+=$ Aosmic =acgro&nd $xplorerB satellite la&nched 'y F"S" in 1%%2 reportedripples in he cosmic radiation indicating that there as an irreg&lar distri'&tiono# matter and radiation 1! 'illion years ago at the time o# primordial explosionth&s corro'orating =ig =an Theory.

!elestial "odies

#ala$ies:%

" galaxy is a h&ge congregation o# millions o# stars held together 'y its ongravitational eld. +n str&ct&ral analysis three 'asic types o# galaxies have 'eenidentied-

i& Spiral #ala$ies:

,reater concentration o# stars in the centre old ones near the centre and yo&ngersin the arms. +&r galaxy the ilyay and "ndromeda are examples o# spiralgalaxies.

ii& Elliptical #ala$ies:

  The most n&mero&s Aa'o&t 2D3 o# all galaxiesB consist mostly o# very old stars.

'easureent units o space

)ight year:%

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It is the distance covered 'y light in one year in vac&&m at a speed o# 3 x1! GmDS.. It is earge agellanic clo&d andthe Small agellanic clo&d.

+&r ,alaxy the ilyay and the "ndromeda galaxy are the to largestgalaxies in a cl&ster o# some 23 galaxies non as the >ocal ,ro&p.

-e"ulae:

  These are distant stellar systems o# l&mino&s 'odies made &p o# gas and d&stparticles. +9I+F Fe'&lae is sit&ated in the ilyay.

!onstellations:  These are cl&ster o# stars organised into distinct shapes and g&res and namedaccordingly. 8ydra is the largest constellation.

!oets:

  There are h&ge clo&ds o# #roen gases and d&st hich have their home in thecold o&ter #ringes o# the solar system. Their 8ead Aalso called :" i# it has no tailBis #ormed 'y the evaporation o# solid ice particles hen the comet approaches thes&n. they have an extremely eccentric or'it '&t a denite periodicity as the8alley)s comet is seen every (6 years. The tail is alays aay #rom the s&n.

'eteors:

  These are small solid matters hich hen coming into the atmosphere o# htearth '&r o&t d&e to #riction. While '&rning they emit light and hence calledshooting stars.

  >eonid Shoer is a meteor storm originated in the constellation >eo. Thesemeteors are act&ally part o# the comet Temple7T&rtle and they #all on every 33years.

.uasars or .uasi Stellar Radio Source:

  In the &niverse some matters appears small '&t emit more energy than thestars o# the mily ay. S&ch stars are called J&asars. S&ch extremely l&mino&scelestial 'odies ere discovered in 1%61.

Stars:

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Stars acco&nt #or %*K o# the matter in the galaxy. Stars are #ormed 'ygravitational contraction #rom vast clo&ds o# galactic gas and d&st. Star7#ormingmatter is richer in hydrogen and heli&m.

)ie o Stars:%

  Stars pass thro&gh a denite evol&tionary se

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3 . In the ancient times the noledge a'o&t the &niverse as vag&e and connedto mystery and religio&s perceptions.

In 14 ": Ptolemy propo&nded the theory that the earth as the centre o# the&niverse and the s&n and other heavenly 'odies revolved aro&nd it. In 1!43opernic&s arg&ed that the s&n and not the earth as the centre o# the &niverse.

8oever he still e

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13. I# die star is 'igger than the s&n '&t not more than tice as 'ig it ill t&rn into aFe&tron Star or P&lsar. Their central density is 114 grams per c&'ic cm. They are#ormed d&e to Fovae or S&per novae explosion.

14. Stars having mass greater than three times that o# the s&n 'eca&se o# theirgreat gravitational poer have contracted so m&ch that they have developed s&perdensity o# 116 grams per c&'ic cm. It is so dense that nothing not even light canescape #rom its gravity and hence called E=lac 8ole).

1!. =rightest star o&tside o&r Solar System is Siri&s also called :og Star.

16. losest star o# Solar System is Proxima enta&ri A4.2 light years aayB. Thencome "lpha enta&ri A4.3 light years aayB and =arnard)s Star A!.% light yearsaayB. 

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OUR SO)*R S4STE'

 The solar system consists o# the S&n and * planets revolving aro&nd it in

di;erent or'its.

SU-

*ge - "'o&t ! =illion years

Distance - 14%.* illion Gms

Diaeter - 13*4 Gms.

Photosphere teperature  - !(( G 

!ore teperature - 1! G

*"solute visual agnitude - 4.(!

Rotation (as seen ro the earth at the e5uator - 2!.3* days

Rotation (near the poles - 33 days

•  The s&n consists o# (1K o# 8ydrogen 26.!K 8eli&m and 2.!K o# other elements.

•  The rays o# the S&n tae a'o&t 6 inutes to reach the earth.

•  The S&n resides in one o# the ily WayNs o&ter spiral arms non as the Orion7!ygnus *r or )ocal Spur&

• Fext closest star is the triple star syste "lpha enta&riA" = and B hich is

a'o&t 4.4 light years aay.

•  The stars next closest to the S&n are the red dar#s Barnard8s StarAat !.% light

yearsB /ol 9; A(.* light yearsB and )alande

 The S&n lies 'eteen 2! and 2* light years #rom the ,alactic entre andits speed ithin the galaxy is a'o&t 22 ilometres per second A14 miDsB so that it

completes one revol&tion every 22!L2! million years. This revol&tion is non as

the Solar SystemNs galactic year. 

The conditions to "e satis?ed or planet%hood status :

1. " planet has to or'it the S&n. Pl&to does that.2. " planet needs eno&gh gravity to p&ll itsel# into a sphere. +ay spherical. Pl&to)sis spherical.3. " planet needs to have cleared out its or"it o other o"@ects . Uh oh Pl&to

hasn)t done that./or example planet $arth acco&nts #or a million times the rest o# the material in itsor'it hile Pl&to is 5&st a #raction o# the icy o'5ects in its realm.

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P)*-ETS

!oparison o planets "ased on siAe radius density surace gravity:

Body 'ean

radius

(1

Colue

(=; 19

'ass

=

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(9 E*RT2S&r#ace "rea - !11! Sand S&r#ace - 14*%!* A2%.*KBWater S&r#ace - 36114%( A(.%2KB$

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Period o# revol&tion - 6*( daysPeriod o# rotation - 24 hrs 3( mts. 22.663 sec.

+&ter planets o# Solar System- The #o&r o&ter planets or gas giants Asometimes called ovian planetsB collectivelymae &p %%K o# the mass non to or'it the S&n

( FUP,TER  This is the largest planet in the solar system.:iameter - 141%6* Gms.:istance #rom the S&n - ((2.* illion Gms.Period o# revol&tion - 11.% yearsPeriod o# rotation - % hrs ! mts. 3 sec.It is composed largely o# hydrogen and heli&m. &piterNs strong internal heat createsa n&m'er o# semi7permanent #eat&res in its atmosphere s&ch as clo&d 'ands andthe ,reat 9ed Spot.

 &piter has 6( non satellites. The #o&r largest ,anymede allisto Io and $&ropa. ,anymede the largest

satellite in the Solar System.

(J S*TUR- It as discovered 'y ,alileo.:iameter - 11%2%6 Gms.:istance #rom the S&n - 141(.6 illion Gms.Period o# revol&tion - 2%.! yearsPeriod o# rotation - 1 hrs 14 mts.least dense planet in the Solar System.Sat&rn has 62 conrmed satellites to important moons are Titan and $ncelad&s.

 Titan the second7largest moon in the Solar System

(K UR*-US:iameter - !2%6 Gms. :istance #rom the S&n - 2*!2.* illion Gms. Period o# revol&tion - *4 yearsPeriod o# rotation - 16 hrs 1 mts.Its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic.Uran&s has 2( non satellites the largest ones 'eing Titania +'eron Um'riel"riel and iranda.

(6 -EPTU-E

:iameter - 4% Gms.:istance #rom the S&n - 44%( illion Gms.Period o# revol&tion - 16! yearsPeriod o# rotation - 1* hrs 26 mts.Fept&ne has 14 non satellites. The largest Triton is geologically active ithgeysers o# li

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'OO- :  oon is a dead planet. oon is earthNs satellite. Its period o# rotationand Period o# 9evol&tion are the same. i.e.2%.! days.

Soe other ,portant Points:

•  The asteroid 'elt occ&pies the or'it 'eteen ars and &piter

• eres A2.(( "UB is the largest asteroid a protoplanet and a dar# planet

• Uran&s and Fept&ne are called Ice ,iants.

• Sat&rnNs ring system is easily o'served #rom $arth.

• $ris A6* "U averageB is the largest non scattered disc o'5ect and ca&sed a

de'ate a'o&t hat constit&tes a planet&

Luiper "elt

 The G&iper 'elt is a great ring o# de'ris similar to the asteroid 'elt '&t consisting

mainly o# o'5ects composed primarily o# ice. It extends 'eteen 3 and ! "U #rom

the S&n. The G&iper =elt is a disc7shaped region o# icy o'5ects 'eyond the or'it o# 

Fept&ne 77 'illions o# ilometers #rom o&r s&n. The mae&p o# G&iper =elt +'5ects is

similar to the composition o# comets L a mixt&re o# #roen ater ammonia and

vario&s hydrocar'ons s&ch as methane.

!entaurs

 The centa&rs are icy comet7lie 'odies ith a semi7ma5or axis greater than &piterNs

A!.! "UB and less than Fept&neNs A3 "UB. The rst centa&r discovered 26 hiron

has also 'een classied as comet A%!PB 'eca&se it develops a coma 5&st as comets

do hen they approach the S&n.

!oet Cs *steroid

omets have eccentric or'its so their distance #rom the S&n varies considera'ly.

 The n&cle&s o# a comet is composed o# volatile material. When a comet is #ar #rom

the s&n this material &s&ally stays pristine '&t hen the comet comes closer to the

s&n solar radiation and solar inds ca&se it to lose some volatile compo&nds #rom

its s&r#ace. This gives it a coma i.e. a ne'&lo&s appearance and a thin transient

atmosphere hich di;erentiates it #rom asteroids.

!oet- " comet is a relatively small solar system 'ody that or'its the S&n. When a

comet enters the inner Solar System its proximity to the S&n ca&ses its icy s&r#ace

to s&'limate and ionise creating a coma- a long tail o# gas and d&st o#ten visi'le to

the naed eye.

*steroid- "steroids are small solar system 'odies that or'it the S&n. ade o# roc

and metal they can also contain organic compo&nds. "steroids are similar to

comets '&t do not have a visi'le coma A#&y o&tline and tailB lie comets do.

'eteoroid- " meteoroid is a small roc or particle o# de'ris in o&r solar system.

 They range in sie #rom d&st to aro&nd 1 metres in diameter Alarger o'5ects are

&s&ally re#erred to as asteroidsB.

'eteor- " meteoroid that '&rns &p as it passes thro&gh the $arth)s atmosphere is

non as a meteor. I# yo&)ve ever looed &p at the sy at night and seen a strea o# light or Eshooting star) hat yo& are act&ally seeing is a meteor.

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'eteorite- " meteoroid that s&rvives #alling thro&gh the $arth)s atmosphere and

colliding ith the $arth)s s&r#ace is non as a meteorite.

2eliopause

 The region s&rro&nding the solar system at hich press&re #rom the o&tgoing solar

ind e

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,aseo&s 8ypothesis Gant

Planet ith a 'ig red spot &piter

>ord o# the 8eavens &piter

,reatest :i&rnal Temperat&re

erc&ry

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Earth *tosphere

 The atmosphere is a mixt&re o# a layer o# gases enveloping the earth held to it 'ygravitational #orce. "lmost all the atmosphere A%( per centB lies ithin 2% m o# theearth)s s&r#ace.

=eyond a'o&t 1 m recent data #rom satellites s&ggest that the lightest gases

separate o&t #orming several concentric layers aro&nd the earth. The innermost o# these is the nitrogen layer A'eteen 172 mB then comes oxygen A2711mB heli&m A1173!B and then hydrogen only to hich there is really no clearlydened &pper limit.

Up to a"out 1 the atosphere is coposed o:

• Fitrogen L (* %K• +xygen L 2 %!K• "rgon L .%3K• ar'on dioxide L .3K• A+thers are Feon 8eli&m +one 8ydrogen etc.B

Water vapo&r 'esides 'eing the immediate ca&se o# condensation andprecipitation a'sor's the insolation coming #rom the s&n red&cing the amo&ntreaching the earth)s s&r#ace.

ar'on dioxide is important #or a'sorption o# heat #rom the s&n as ell as #rom theearth. " high concentration o# car'on dioxide leads to ,reenho&se $;ect.

:&st particles scatter and di;&se insolation and also act as hygroscopic n&clei #orcondensation A#or the #ormation o# clo&dsB.

)ayers o *tosphere

*tosphere Troposphere

• >ayer nearest to earth)s s&r#ace. Thicness varies #rom * m at the poles to 16m at the e

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comparatively higher temperat&re d&e to the a'sorption o# &ltra7violet radiation#rom the s&n Atemperat&re increases as e go &pB.

*tosphere 'esosphere

• Up to a height o# a'o&t * m.

• In this the temp decreases ith height and #alls to a'o&t 71Qc at * m ht.

*tosphere ,onosphere

• $xtends to a'o&t !76 m.

• alled so as it contains electrically charged particles AionsB that reCect the radioaves 'ac to the earth th&s maing radio comm&nication possi'le.

• "lso protects earth #rom harm#&l radiation. This ca&ses increase in temperat&reith height in this layer.

• It also protects earth #rom #alling meteorites as most o# them '&rn o&t in thisregion.

E$osphere

• 8ere the earth)s gravity is extremely ea.

• Upper limit

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Earth )atitude and )ongitude

Earth )atitude

• Imaginary lines dran parallel to the eineB lies exactly opposite to Q meridian. S&ch points are called "ntipodl Points.

•  The earth is divided into 24 longit&dinal ones each 'eing 1!Q or 1 ho&r apart intime A4 min&tes D degreeB.

)ongitude and Tie• Places that are on the same meridian have the same local As&nB time. Since the

earth maes one complete revol&tion o# 36Q in 24 ho&rs it passes thro&gh 1!Qin one ho&r or 1Q in 4 min&tes.

•  The earth rotates #rom est to east hence places east o# ,reenich see the s&nearlier and gain time hereas places est o# ,reenich see the s&n later andlose time.

• " s&ita'le memory acronym can 'e- $ast7,ain7"dd A$.,.".B and West7>ose7S&'tract AW.>.S.B. So i# it is noon in >ondon Anear QB 1!Q east ill 'e one ho&rahead o# >ondon or 1 p.m. and hennai o# *Q$ ill 'e ! ho&rs 2 min&tesahead. To avoid con#&sion a'o&t having many local times ithin one co&ntry apartic&lar eridian is chosen #or the hole co&ntry hose time is non asEstandard time).

• ,enerally the standard meridians are chosen to di;er #rom the ,reenichmeridian 'y the m&ltiples o# #teen degree or seven and a hal# degree i.e. 'yexact n&m'er o# ho&rs or hal# ho&rs. The orld is th&s divided into a n&m'er o# time ones. >arger co&ntries lie 9&ssia anada US" etc. have greater east7est extension so they adopt several time ones. 9&ssia has 11 time oneshile US" and anada have ! time ones.

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• India hose longit&dinal extent is approx. 3Q has adopted only one time oneselecting the *2.!Q$ #or the standard time hich is ! ho&rs and 3 min&tesahead o# ,T A,reenich ean TimeB.

Eccentricity:

 The shape o# the earth)s or'it also changes in a cyclic period r&nning 'eteen% to 1 years. So the or'it o# the earth may 'ecome more elliptical

sometimes or it may #orm a more circ&lar path aro&nd the s&n at other times. It isarg&ed 'y some scholars that ice "ges and ,lo'al Warming are e;ects o# s&checcentricity o# earth)s or'it.

Precession:

 This is the conical motion o# the axis o# the spinning earth 5&st lie a spinningtop. This extremely slo motion o# the earth)s axis taes a'o&t 26 years tocompete one cycle. Presently the earth)s axis is pointing to the Pole star '&t in ".:.4 it ill point to the star "lpha ephei and in ".:. 14 to the star Oega.

,nclination o EarthHs *$is:

 The imaginary earth axis has a constant angle o# inclination o# 66  ith the

plane o# the elliptic i.e. the plane in hich the earth or'its ro&nd the s&n. "nother characteristics o# earth)s axis called Parallelism is that as the earth

revolves aro&nd the s&n the earth)s axis remains parallel to its precedingposition.

 This res&lts in changes in the altit&de o# the mid7day s&n at di;erent times o# theyear in varying lengths o# day and night at di;erent times o# the year and in#o&r reasons.

Carying lengths o Day and -ight:

:&e to revol&tion and constant angle o# inclination o# earth)s axis on 21 st &nethe s&n is vertically overhead at the tropic o# ancer.

"s e go toards the Forth Pole the length o# day light increases and in #act'eyond 66  F the region has 24 ho&r light #or six months.

+n 21st  &ne the Forthern 8emisphere ill have its longest day and shortestnight. This is non as Es&mmer solstice).

=y 22nd :ecem'er exactly the same conditions are experienced 'y the So&thern8emisphere hen the s&n is vertically overhead at the tropic o# apricorn. This isEWinter Solstice) hen the So&thern 8emisphere experiences its longest day andshortest night.

+n the 21st arch and 23rd Septem'er the s&n is directly over the eine #rom est to east Ai.e. #rom apan to US"B

repeat a day and travelers crossing it #rom east to est Ai.e. #rom US" to apanBlose a day.

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Earth Eclipses

Earth )unar Eclipse

When earth comes 'eteen s&n and moon.

+cc&rs only on a #&ll moon day. 8oever it does not occ&r on every #&ll moon day

'eca&se the moon is so small and the plane o# its or'it is tilted a'o&t !Q ithrespect to the plane o# the earth)s or'it. It is #or this reason that eclipses do notocc&r every month.an last &p to one ho&r 4 min&tes. The moon does not 'ecome completely dard&ring most l&nar eclipses. In many cases it 'ecomes reddish.The earth)satmosphere 'ends part o# the s&n)s light aro&nd the earth and toards the moon.

 This light is red 'eca&se the atmosphere scatters the other colors present ins&nlight in greater amo&nts than it does red.

Earth Solar Eclipse

When moon comes 'eteen s&n and earth.

an 'e partial or total.

+cc&rs only on a ne moon day hen the moon is in line ith the s&n. 8oeverd&e to the inclination o# the moon)s or'it a solar eclipse doesn)t occ&r on everyne moon day.

Earth 'oveents

 The $arth also called =l&e Planet. It is the densest o# all planets.

Earth !ircuerence - 4232 Gilometers.

Earth *rea - !1 million S

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• Spins on its imaginary axis #rom est to east in 23 hrs !6 min and 4.%1 sec.

• 9otational velocity at e

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• /inter- +n :ecem'er 22 the s&n is at the Tropic o# apricorn and thenorthern hemisphere experiences inter.

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Earth !liate

 The average eather conditions over a large area is called the climate o# a place.Weather conditions over a specic length o# time &s&ally a period o# 31 years aretaen into consideration.

+n a large scale the climate o# a partic&lar region is determined 'y-

i. >atit&de and tilt o# the earth)s axis hich determines the amo&nt o# solarradiation received 'y the area

ii. The distri'&tion o# land and sea and proximity o# ocean c&rrents

iii. The altit&de and topography o# the area

iv. The location o# the area in relation to the main circ&lation 'elts o# the earth.

limate can 'e classied on the 'asis o# temperat&re rain#all evaporationevapotranspiration and ater 'alance. +ne o# the &niversally accepted climateclassications is 'y Goeppen hich is 'eing descri'ed here.

Types o !liates

=& Tropical Rain 3orest !liate

• "lso called e

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• "verage ann&al temperat&re is 3*Q c ann&al s&mmer temperat&re is 4Q cann&al inter temperat&re is 1!Q c. average ann&al rain#all is a'o&t 2!74 cm.,reatest di&rnal temperat&re.

• 8ighest insolation as there is no clo&ds cover to scatter the insolation.

• Oegetation is xerophytic.

& 'iddle )atitude Desert !liate

• /o&nd 'eteen 3!Q7!Q F and S.

• "rea- Tarim ,o'i 9&ssian T&ristan and . Iran. In So&thern 8emisphere only inPatagonia.

• Unlie the hot deserts they have very cold inters 'eca&se o# their interiorlocation.

J& Tropical and Su"tropical Steppes

•  Transition 'elt 'eteen hot deserts and h&mid climates. +cc&py pole7ardmargins o# the tropical and s&'tropical deserts.

• "verage ann&al temperat&re is 21Q c.

• Semi7arid climate characteried 'y a'&ndance o# shr&'s and grasses. Gnon 'y di;erent names-

Prairies L Forth "merica

Pampas L So&th "merica

Oeldt L So&th "#rica

:ons L "&stralia

Steppes L $&rasia

anter'&ry L Fe Vealand

Posta L 8&ngary

anch&rian L 9&ssiaK& 'editerranean !liate

• In the estern coast o# continents 'eteen 3Q74!Q F 0 S "ro&nd theediterranean Sea in So&th $&rope Forth "#rica ali#ornia coast entral hileape o# ,ood 8ope and So&th $ast "&stralia.

• haracteried 'y dry s&mmer and h&mid inter. +;7shore trade inds 'lo ins&mmer they are dry and give no rain#all. yclonic rain#all in inter.

• "verage ann&al temperat&re is 16Q c. average inter temperat&re 1Q cs&mmer 2!Qc ann&al rain#all is 476 cm.

• +lives grapevine and citr&s #amily #r&its are the chie# prod&cts o# these regions

hich are also non #or grain #arming.6& !hina Type !liate

• "verage ann&al temperat&re is 1%Q c ann&al rain#all 12 cm.

• In the eastern coasts o# continents 'eteen 2!Q7 4!Q F 0 S. "reas7 hina So&th$ast US" So&th =rail $astern "rgentina So&th $ast "#rica So&th $ast

• "&stralia So&th apan. It is the eastern co&nterpart o# the editerranean type.

• haracteristics78ot s&mmers and mild inters. 9ain#all thro&gho&t the year.

;& /est European Type !liate

• +n the estern side o# continents 'eteen 4Q76!Q F 0 S. "reas7 Forth West$&rope incl&ding =ritish Isles West coat o# anada So&th hile So&thern FeVealand.

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• S&mmers are moderate to cool A1!Q71*QB inters mild A2Q71QB. "verage ann&altemperat&re is 1Q c.

• "nn&al 9ain#all- (!71 cm. Fo dry season as the esterly inds 'lo #rom theocean thro&gho&t the year. 9ain#all is mostly o# cyclonic origin.

=& !ool East !oast !liate

•  The orn =elt o# US has this type o# climate that is hy it is non as Eorn7=elt)climate.

• "verage s&mmer temp is 21Q724Qc it is long arm and h&mid.

• Winter temp average74Q to 1.(Q #or a period o# 37! months.

==& !ontinental Type !liate

• oldest inter month average 712Q to 76.(Qc.

• 8ottest s&mmer months average 1*Qc to 21Qc.

• In the interior parts o# 'ig continents.

=i'yan and the F&'ian :esertB

"&stralian L "&stralia AIncl&des ,i'son Simpson Oictorian ,reatSandyB

"ra'ian L "ra' o&ntries AIncl&des 9&')al Ghali 0 "n7Fa#ad o# S. "ra'iaand :ast7e7>&t 0 :ast7e7Gavir o# IranB

Galahari L "#rica Amainly in =otsanaB

,o'i L ongolia"tacama L entral hile

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Patagonian L "rgentina

Fa'i' L Fami'ia

 Talaaan L Siniang hina

Gara&m L T&rmenistan

Sonoran L "riona and ali#ornia AUS"B

 Thar L India

,sopleth

>ines dran on map along hich the val&e o# a partic&lar phenomenon is &ni#orm.

Some Important Isopleths are:

Isopleth 9eactions

Iso'ars $inesB elevation a'ove sea7level

Isoni# Sno

Isotherms Temperat&re

Isoneph lo&diness

Isodapan $

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,nsolation and 2eat Budget

1. Insolation is the energy received on the earth)s s&r#ace #rom the s&n. It is themost important single so&rce o# atmospheric heat.

2. The earth)s s&r#ace does not a'sor' all the energy that it receives. The proportiono# the solar radiation reCected #rom the s&r#ace is called "l'edo.

3. +n an average insolation is highest near the tropics marginally loer at thee

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•  This layer extends &p to a depth o# 2% m.

• 'antle is ade up o < parts- Upper antle or "sthenosphere A&p to a'o&t! mB and >oer antle. "sthenosphere is in a semi7molten plastic state andit is tho&ght that this ena'les the lithosphere to move a'o&t it. Within theasthenosphere the velocity o# seismic aves is considera'ly red&ced AalledE>o Oelocity Vone)B.

•  The line o# separation 'eteen the mantle and the cr&st is non as ohoviricic:iscontin&ity.

The !ore o Earth

• =eyond a depth o# 2% m lies the core o# the earth.

•  The o&ter core is 21 m thic and is in molten #orm d&e to excessive heat o&tthere. Inner core is 13( m thic and is in plastic #orm d&e to the com'ined#actors o# excessive heat and press&re. It is made &p o# iron and nicel AFi#eB andis responsi'le #or earth)s magnetism. This layer has the maxim&m specicgravity.

•  The temperat&res in the earth)s core lie 'eteen 22Qc and 2(!Qc.•  The line o# separation 'eteen the mantle and the core is called ,&ten'erg7

Wiechert :iscontin&ity.

-ote:

Teperature ,nside the Earth- In the rst 1 m 12Q increase per m. In thenext 3 m 2Q increase per m. "#ter that it is 1Q increase per m.

!oposition o Earth

• ade &p o# over 1 elements.

•  The #olloing * are important-

'a@or Earth )ayer Discontinuity:

i. oho :iscontin&ity- =eteen r&st and antle

ii. anard :iscontin&ity- =eteen o&ter and inner cr&st

iii. Welchart7,&ten'erg :iscontin&ity- =eteen mantle 0 ore

iv. 9epetite :iscontin&ity- =eteen &pper and loer antle

v. Transition :iscontin&ity- =eteen o&ter and inner ore

!ontinental Drit Theory:  The theory o# continental dri#t as post&lated 'y "l#red Wegener in 1%1! in

hich

he gave so&nd evidences to s&pport the idea o# the movement o# continentsover the s&r#ace o# the earth.

"ccording to him a'o&t 2! million years ago in the car'oni#ero&s period allthe continents ere &nited as a s&per continent non as Pangaea hich ass&rro&nded 'y a large ocean called Panthalsa.

"ccording to Wegenaer Pangaea started 'reaing &p in the ar'oni#ero&speriod. In his vie continents made &p o# lighter sial ere moving over theocean 'asins hich are composed o# denser sima.

 The continents dra#ted in to directions7toards the e

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etcB and toards the est oing to tidal #orces o# the moon and the s&n A#ormingthe mo&ntains o# 9ocies and "ndesB.

Plate Tectonics:

In the late 6s the 'asic concepts o# Wegener)s theory and sea Coor spreadingere &nited in the light o# great strides made in the eld o# earth sciences into

a m&ch more encompassing theory non as Plate Tectonics.  The revol&tionary theory o# Plate Tectonics provides the most rational

explanation #or the distri'&tion o# oceans and continents orogenic volcanic andseismic ones and related processes.

 The theory o# Plate Tectonics post&lates that o&ter rigid lithosphere comprises amosaic o# rigid segments called Plates that move on the plastic &pper mantleAasthenosphereB carrying the continents and oceans along ith them.

 Their thicness varies #rom *71 m along the oceans to over 1 m in thecontinents. Six ma5or and many minor plates have 'een identied.

Plate Boundary ,nteractions:

"ll tectonic activities occ&r along the 'o&ndaries o# the plate hich are o# three

types.i& Diverging Boundary ,nteraction:

"long this 'o&ndary mared 'y the oceanic ridge system to plates move aay#rom each other. 8ot magma #rom deep mantle er&pts thro&gh cracs andss&res and spreads laterally #orming ne cr&st.

8ence these are termed as constr&ctive 'o&ndaries. These are characteried 'yri#t valleys ridges 'asaltic volcanism and shallo7#oci earth

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 These clo&ds hich are #airly thin and 'lanet lie are s&'7divided into three maincategories on the 'asis o# altit&de.

High Clouds (mean ht 5-13 km)

1. irr&s lo&ds- Indicates #air eather.

2. irroc&m&l&s lo&ds- /orms the macerel sy.

3. irrostrat&s lo&ds- Prod&ces a halo aro&nd s&n and moon.

Middle Clouds (mean ht -! km)

"ltoc&m&l&s lo&ds - Indicate ne eather.

"lto7strat&s lo&ds - "ssociated ith development o# 'ad eather.

"o# (mean ht up to km)

1. Strat&s lo&ds - =rigs d&ll eather &s&ally accompanied ith a drile.

2. Fim'ostrat&s lo&ds - I# rain or sno is #alling #rom a strat&s clo&d it is called

  nim'ostrat&s.

3. Stratoc&m&l&s lo&ds - Indicators o# #air or clearing eather.

!uulus !louds

 They are massive clo&ds having a vertical extent #rom 1! to % m. Theyresem'le the head o# a ca&liCoer. When these clo&ds are s&nlit they are 'rilliantlyhite and are called Eool7clo&ds). They occ&r mainly in s&mmer and are prod&ced'y convection.

!uuloni"us !louds:

Under di;erent eather conditions a c&m&l&s clo&d may develop intoc&m&lonim'&s the th&nderstorm clo&d mass o# enormo&s sie hich 'rings heavyrain#all th&nder and lightning and g&sty inds.

Precipitation !louds

It re#ers to #alling o# ater sno or hail #rom the clo&ds and res&lts hencondensation is occ&rring rapidly ithin a clo&d.

 The most common #orm o# precipitation is rain and it is #ormed hen many clo&ddroplets coalesce into drops too large to remain s&spended in the air. 9ain#all occ&rshen the de point o# air is a'ove the #reeing point.

Sometimes the raindrops #reee 'e#ore reaching the gro&nd and precipitation occ&rsin the #orm o# ice pellets called sleet.

Sno0 is prod&ced hen condensation taes place at a temperat&re 'elo #reeingpoint so that the min&te crystals Aspic&lesB o# ice #orm directly #rom the atervapo&r.

2ail consists o# masses o# ice ith a layered str&ct&re. It occ&rs hen there arevery strong &pdra#ts in the clo&ds carrying raindrops &p to a high altit&de ca&sing

them to #reee. 8ail stone is a ro&nded l&mp o# ice having concentric layers.Conditions for $re%ipitation

 There are three possi'le ays 'y hich precipitation is prod&ced.

!onvectional Precipitation

It is ca&sed 'y heating o# moist air in the loer layers o# atmosphere hich risesexpands and is cooled adia'atically to its de point.

onvection rain is o#ten accompanied 'y lightening and th&nder. It occ&rs in regionsnear the e

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the leeard side it gets armed and dry having no so&rce #rom hich to dra &pmoist&re. " 'elt o# dry climate o#ten called a rain shado may exist on the leeardside.

!yclonic rontal Precipitation

When the air is ca&sed to rise &pards d&e to cyclonic circ&lation the res&ltingprecipitation id said to 'e o# the cyclonic type

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!yclones M *nticyclones

!yclones in /orld

It is a system o# very lo press&re in the center s&rro&nded 'y increasingly highpress&re o&tards.

In this the inds 'los in a circ&lar manner in "nticlocise direction in Forthern8emisphere. locise direction in So&thern 8emisphere.

In the temperate region they occ&r d&e to the coming close and imper#ect mixingo# to masses o# air o# contrasting temperat&re and h&midity conditions. ycles o# this type are also non as Wave yclones or Temperate yclones.

+n the other hand in the tropical regions they occ&r d&e to intense heating &p o# air in some regions ca&sing very lo press&re in these locations. Tropical seas andoceans are most cond&cive to the development o# tropical cyclones.

These are 1no0n as:

• yclones L in the Indian +cean

• 8&rricanes L in the ari''ean Islands

•  Typhoons L in the hina Sea

• Willy7Willies L in the Forth West "&stralia

•  Tornadoes L in coastal US.

•  Tisters L in ississippi Oalley US"

 Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones o# a smaller sie. They are especially

#eared in the ississippi Oalley in US and here they are called Tisters. They di;er#rom cyclones in that they generally develop over land. They are more destr&ctivethan cyclones as the speed o# inds is very high exceeding 32 m per ho&r.

*nticyclones

•  They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are the centers o# highpress&re ith gentle o&tard Co o# air.

•  The air circ&lation is clocise in the northern hemisphere and anticlocise inthe so&thern hemisphere.

• Weather associated ith an anticyclone is #air eather.

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Earth 2uidity

$arth 8&midity re#ers to the amo&nt o# ater vapo&r present in the air.

 The ratio 'eteen the amo&nt o# ater vapo&r act&ally present in the air mass and

the maxim&m amo&nt that the air mass can hold at that temperat&re is calledrelative h&midity. It is expressed as a percentage. It varies inversely ithtemperat&re given a xed amo&nt o# ater vapo&r.

"'sol&te h&midity denotes the act&al

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Earth 'ountains

• Types o 'ountains

• 3old 'ountains o the /orld

•

 They are #ormed hen the rocs o# the cr&st o# the earth #olded &nder stressmainly 'y #orces o# compression Aas a res&lt o# series o# earthightho&se o# the editerraneanB irapi and

Graatao in Indonesia etc.

Relict 'ountains

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• Sometimes the mo&ntains are carved o&t as a res&lt o# erosion o# platea&s 0high planes 'y vario&s agents o# erosion. $.g. 8ighlands o# Scotland Sierras o# Spain atsill mo&ntains o# Fe or and Filgiri Parasnath ,irnar 9a5mahal o# India.

'a@or 'ountain Ranges o the /orld"ndes So&th "merica 6%6

8imalayas7Garaoram78ind&&shSo&th entral"sia

**!

9ocies Forth "merica 441

,reat :ividing 9ange $ast "&stralia 222*

Western ,hats Western India 263(

a&cas&s $&rope "sia !642

"lasa US" 61%4"lps $&rope 4**

"pennines $&rope 2%12

Ural "sia 1*%!

Pennines $&rope *%3

Pyrenees $&rope 344

"ppalachian Forth "merica 24

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RO!LS

Overvie0

• 9ocs are nat&rally occ&rring solid aggregates o# minerals or mineraloids Aa

mineral7lie s&'stance that does not exhi'it crystallinityB

•

 The $arth)s o&ter solid layer the lithosphere is made o# rocs• 9ocs are generally classied into three types

o Igneo&s rocs

o Sedimentary rocs

o etamorphic rocs

• The structure and coposition o roc1s change over tie ca&sing one

type o# roc to 'e reclassied as another

• The study o roc1s is called petrology

,#-EOUS RO!LS

Overvie0

• ,gneous roc1s are roc1s 0hich or ro the cooling and solidi?cation

o aga

•  They are the res&lts o# volcanic processes

•  The magma can 'e derived #rom melts o# pre7existing rocs in either the cr&st or

mantle. Typically rocs melt &nder conditions o# extremely high temperat&res

lo press&res or changes in composition

• ,gneous roc1s can "e o t0o types:

o Intr&sive Apl&tonicB rocs

o $xtr&sive AvolcanicB rocs

• ,gneous roc1s a1e up a"out ;N o the EarthHs crust& 8oever they are

hidden #rom the s&r#ace 'y a thin layer o# sedimentary and metamorphic rocs

• Igneo&s rocs can 'e seen at mid ocean ridges areas o# volcanism and intra7

plate hotspots

•  They are crystalline and impervio&s

•  They are resistant to erosion and eathering

• Since igneous roc1s coe ro the antle the inerals and cheistry

o igneous roc1s give inoration a"out the coposition o the antle

•  Their #eat&res are characteristic o# a partic&lar tectonic environment alloing

reconstit&tion o# tectonic conditions

•  They host important mineral deposits s&ch as &rani&m t&ngsten tin chromi&m

platin&m

• 'ineralogical coposition o igneous roc1s

• /elsic roc- highest content o# silicon ith predominance o#

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Ultramac rocs- loest silicon content ith more than %K o# mac minerals

3elsic 'a?c Ultraa?c

,ntrusive

,ranite

,a''ro

Peridotite

E$trusi

ve

9hyolit

e

=asalt Gomatite

,ntrusive igneous roc1s (plutonic roc1s

• Intr&sive igneo&s rocs are #ormed #rom magma that cools and solidies ithin

the cr&st

•  These rocs are coarse7grained. ineral grains in these rocs can 'e identied

'y the naed eye

• The central cores o ost ountain ranges are ade o intrusive roc1s

(usually granite& These large #ormations o# intr&sive rocs are

called batholiths

• $xamples o# intr&sive igneo&s rocs incl&de granite and diorite

• E$trusive igneous roc1s (volcanic roc1s

• $xtr&sive igneo&s rocs are #ormed at the s&r#ace #rom magma released into

the s&r#ace #rom volcanic er&ptions

• $xtr&sive rocs cool and solidi#y IPs &s&ally consist o# 'asalt and rhyolite rocs

• When created >IPs o#ten have an area o# #e million s< m and vol&me on the

order o# a million c&'ic m. a5ority o# the >IP)s vol&me is emplaced in less than

a million years.

• ),PHs are postulated to arise ro hotspots o linear chains o volcanoes

• ),Ps are oten lin1ed to ass e$tinction events& This is said to arise #rom

the enormo&s

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• Sedientary roc1 is the type o roc1 ored sedientation o 

aterial& This sedimentation can occ&r on the $arth)s s&r#ace or ithin 'odies

o# ater

• Sedientary roc1s or the thin outerost layer o the earthHs crust

a1ing up a"out N o the total volue o the crust

• Sedimentary rocs are deposited in strata called 'edding• !oal is a sedientary roc1 

• $xamples o# sedimentary rocs incl&de shale sandstone limestone

• St&dy o# sedimentary rocs provides in#ormation a'o&t s&'s&r#ace hich is

important in civil engineering #or constr&ction o# roads 'ridges etc

• Sedientary roc1s are also iportant sources o natural resources li1e

ossil uels 0ater ores etc

•  The st&dy o# sedimentary roc strata serves as the main so&rce o# scientic

noledge a'o&t the $arth)s geological history

• Sedientary roc1s are the only roc1s that contain ossils&Sedimentary

rocs contains #ossils 'eca&se &nlie igneo&s and metamorphic rocs they #orm

at temperat&res and press&res that do not destroy #ossils

!oposition o sedientary roc1s

• 'ost sedientary roc1s contain either 5uartA or calcite

• Unlie igneo&s and metamorphic rocs sedimentary rocs do not contain

m&ltiple ma5or minerals

• ar'onate rocs contain car'onate minerals lie calcite aragonite or dolomite

• Siliclastic rocs contain silica7'earing minerals lie

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• Geyords- India ias &psc civil service st&dy material #ree exam general

st&dies glo'al geography

• !heical sedientary roc1s

• hemical sedimentary rocs are #ormed #rom minerals in sol&tion that 'ecome

oversat&rated

•  They &s&ally occ&r as a res&lt o# evaporation

• $xamples incl&de limestone 'arite gyps&m

'ET*'ORP2,! RO!LS

Overvie0

• 'etaorphic roc1s or as a result o transoration o an e$isting

roc1 in a process called etaorphis& The existing roc is called protolith

• etamorphic rocs are #ormed hen the protoliths are s&'5ect to extreme

temperat&res and press&res

•

They or ro tectonic process intrusion o aga or siply "y"eing deep "eneath the earthHs surace A'eing s&'5ect to high temperat&res

and press&res o# roc layers a'oveB

• &ch o# the loer continental cr&st is metamorphic

• $xamples o# metamorphic rocs incl&de gneiss slate mar'le

• !oposition o etaorphic roc1s

• etamorphic rocs are composed o# metamorphic minerals

• 'etaorphic inerals are those that or only at high teperatures

and pressures& These incl&de sillimanite yanite andal&site sta&rolite and

garnet Aall o# hich are silicatesB• etamorphic rocs also contain smaller amo&nts o# micas #eldspars and

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• Geyords- India ias &psc civil service st&dy material #ree exam general

st&dies glo'al geography

,'PORT*-T RO!L T4PES

Roc1 !lassi?cation !oposition -otes=asalt Igneo&s L

extr&sive volcanic

/eldspar

pyroxene

Present on moon ars Oen&s

=asalt rocs s&stain micro'ialli#e

/ine text&re

,ranite Igneo&sAintr&sive #elsicB

J&art #eldspar oarse text&reassive hard and to&gh

$xhi'it radioactivity A&rani&mB

Shale SedimentaryAclasticB

lay ontain organic matterontains m&ltiple thin layers

>imestone

Sedimentary alcite Acalci&mcar'onateB

Used in

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"casta ,neiss J&e'ecanada

etamorphic +ldest non roc in theorld A4.2* 'illion yearsB

:evil)s Toer Wyoming US" Igneo&s onolithic roc that rises12 #eet a'oves&rro&nding terrain

=l&e >ias $ngland >imestone andshale

9ich in dinosa&r #ossils

9ed /ort :elhi Sandstone8aa ahal aip&r Sandstoneaha'alip&ramsc&lpt&res

aha'alip&ram

,ranite

o&nt "&g&st&s Western"&stralia

Sandstone andconglomerate

>argest monolith in theorld

Savand&rga Garnataa ,neiss andgranite

>argest monolith in India

Sphinx $gypt >imestone +ldest nonmon&mental sc&lpt&re>argest monolith stat&e

in orldPho'os monolith ars Igneo&s

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Earth Colcanoes

" volcano is a vent or opening &s&ally circ&lar in #orm thro&gh hich heatedmaterials consisting o# gases ater lioa in 8aaii$tna in Sicily Oes&vi&s in Italy Strom'oli in editerranean Sea etc.

• Dorant Colcano- Oolcano hich has 'een arge

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Earth Pressure and /inds

"ir moving in a partic&lar direction is called ind. The principal ca&se o# inds isdi;erence in press&re. "ir alays moves #rom areas o# high press&re to those ithlo press&re. The slope o# the press&re #rom high to lo is non as Press&re,radient and the direction o# this direction decides the direction o# inds.Windvelocity is directly related to the steepness o# the press&re gradient.

In addition the direction o# inds is a;ected 'y the oriolis /orce hich is ca&sed'y the rotation o# the earth. Under the inC&ence o# this e;ect inds are deCectedto their right in the Forthern 8emisphere and to their le#t in the So&thern8emisphere.

 This is re#erred to as Parrel)s >a. oriolis #orce is a'sent at the eo Press&re =eltacc&m&late hereB.

Su"%Polar )o0 Pressure Belt

• /rom 6Q to 6!QF and S

• 8ere the lo press&re is created 'eca&se o# intense high press&re at the poles.

/inds and Their Types

• 9 "road categories are:

1. Regular /inds+Prevailing /inds+Planetary /inds- A$.g.- Trade indsWesterlies and Polar $asterliesB.

2. Periodical /inds (0hich "lo0 seasonally- onsoons

3. Caria"le /inds- yclones and other local inds

Trade /inds

•  Trade in ,erman means Trac. To 'lo trade means to 'lo steadily in the samedirection and in a constant co&rse).

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•  These are steady c&rrents o# air 'loing #rom the s&'7tropical high press&re'elts toards the eand andSea =reee

 They are experienced in coastal areas. :&e to di;erential heating theatmospheric press&re over the land mass is loer than over theneigh'oring sea d&ring the day. There#ore inds 'lo #rom sea to landAsea 'reeeB. "t night the air press&re over land is higher d&e to a loertemperat&re than over the ad5acent ocean and the ind starts 'loing#rom land to sea Aland 'reeeB. >and 'reee is not as strong as sea'reee.

hinoo 8ot dry ind in 9ocies also called Nsno eaterN.

/oehn 8ot dry ind in the "lps.Ghamsin 8ot dry ind in $gypt.

Sirocco 8ot moist ind #rom Sahara to editerranean Sea.

Solano 8ot moist ind #or Sahara toards I'erian Penins&la.

8armattan 8ot dry ind 'loing o&tards #rom the interior o# West "#rica alsocalled N,&inea :octorN.

=ora old dry ind 'loing o&tards #rom 8&ngary to the north o# ItalyAnear "driaticSeaB.

istral Oery cold ind hich 'los don #rom the "lps over /rance.

P&nas old dry ind 'loing don toards the estern side o# "ndes.

=liard Oery cold inds in T&ndra region.

=ricelder 8ot ind in "&stralia.

P&rga old ind in 9&ssian t&ndra.

>evanter old ind in Spain.

Forester 8ot ind in Fe Vealand.

Santa "na 8ot ind in So&thern ali#ornia in US".

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Earth5ua1es

1. Tremors or vi'rations o# earth)s s&r#ace prod&ced 'y internal #orces.

2. The point o# origin o# earth

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3ORESTS

Overvie0

• /orests are areas ith a high density o# trees

• 3orests cover appro$iately ;&IN o the EarthHs surace i&e& a"out 9N

o total land area altho&gh they &sed to cover as m&ch as !K o# land area• /orests are di;erentiated #rom oodland 'y the extent o# canopy coverage- in

#orests the #oliage o# trees meet and interloc hile in oodlands there is

eno&gh gap 'eteen trees alloing s&nlight to penetrate to the gro&nd

• /orests are one o# the most important aspects o# the $arth)s 'iosphere

•  The #&nctions o# #orests incl&de

o 2a"itat or organiss

o 2ydrologic o0 odulation

o Soil conservation

• 8&man #actors a;ecting #orest s&stenance incl&de logging &r'an spralagric&lt&re ind&stries h&man7ind&ced #orest res etc. Fat&ral #actors a;ecting

#orests incl&de #orest res insects diseases eather etc

• Only a"out

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• +ld groth #orests are o#ten home to rare and threatened species maing them

ecologically signicant. /or instance the -orthern Spotted O0l is reliant on

old gro0th orest

•  The importance o# old groth #orests incl&de

o  They contain rich comm&nities o# plants and animals d&e to the long

period o# #orest sta'ilityo  They serve as a reservoir #or species that cannot thrive or regenerate in

yo&nger #orests

o  They store large amo&nts o# car'on 'oth a'ove and 'elo the gro&nd

Aeither as h&m&s or in et soils as peatB

• 3orests that are regenerated ater disruptions ust 0ait several

centuries to illennia "eore they can reach the sta"le e5uili"riu that

signi?es old gro0th orests

• :&e to increased h&man activity old groth #orests have 'een s&'stantially

destroyed over the last cent&ry. +# the old groth #orests that still remain 3!K

are in >atin "merica A=railB 2*K in Forth "merica Amainly anadaB and 1%K in

northern "sia ASi'eriaB

Second gro0th orests

• Second gro0th orests (secondary orests are orests that have re%

gro0n ater a a@or distur"ance such as ?re insect inestation

logging 0indthro0 etc

• Second groth #orests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary #orests and

have more &ndergroth

• Second groth #orests &s&ally have less 'iodiversity than old groth #orests

since the #ormer have had lesser time to develop and reach sta'le e

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•  The Intertropical onvergence Vone AITVB the area near the e

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o The highest layer ored "y a sall nu"er o very tall trees

that gro0 a"ove the general canopy

o  They reach heights o# 4!7!! m occasionally even (7* m

o Feed to 'e a'le to ithstand high temperat&res and strong inds

o $agles '&tterCies 'ats and some moneys inha'it this layer

!anopy layer

o  The canopy layer consists o# the largest n&m'er o# tall trees hich

provides a more or less contin&o&s cover o# #oliage 'y ad5acent treetops

o Us&ally reach heights o# aro&nd 374! m

o The canopy layer is the densest area o "iodiversity in a

rainorest& It is estimated that the canopy layer is home to a'o&t !K o# 

all plant species and 2!K o# all insect species

Understory

o  The &nderstory layer lies 'eteen the canopy and the #orest Coor

o >eaves are m&ch larger at this level

o Only a"out N o sunlight incident on the rainorest reaches the

understory layer

o  This layer is home to a n&m'er o# 'irds snaes liards and predators lie

 5ag&ar 'oa constrictors etc

3orest oor

o  The #orest Coor is the 'ottom most layer

o The orest oor receives only a"out

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• 8oever they are home to a ide variety o# ildli#e incl&ding moneys deer

parrots large cats etc. 'aalian "ioass tends to "e higher in dry

orests than in rainorests&

• !haracteristics

• During the drought season a leaess season occurs& The shedding o# 

leaves allos trees lie tea and e'ony to conserve ater d&ring these dry

periods

• When the trees enter the dry leaCess season the canopy layer opens &p

alloing s&nlight to reach the gro&nd there'y ena'linggro0th o thic1 

undergro0th

• 8oever certain areas o# tropical dry #orests can have evergreen trees. This

happens especially hen the #orests are on moist&re sites or have access to

gro&ndater

•  Three tropical dry #orest regions have evergreen #orests-

o $ast :eccan dry evergreen #orests AIndiaB

o Sri >ana dry one evergreen #orests ASri >anaB

o So&theastern Indochina dry evergreen #orests Aam'odia >aos Thailand

OietnamB

• The orests o central ,ndia are tropical dry orests

• Dry orests are e$treely sensitive to orest ?res overgraAing and

deorestation& 9estoration o# dry #orests is possi'le '&t challenging

Distri"ution

•

:ry #orests tend to exist north and so&th o# the e

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• !haracteristic "roadlea trees these orests include oa1s "irches

"eeches and aples& 'i$ed trees are "asically conierous trees such as

pines ?rs and spruces

• "reas o# temperate 'roadlea# and mixed #orests incl&de northeast US" northern

India eastern "&stralia Fe Vealand so&thest hina

Distri"ution

• Teperate "roadlea and i$ed orests occur in areas 0ith distinct

0ar and cool seasons 0ith oderate annual average teperature (%

= !

•  They &s&ally occ&r in moderately arm and rainy climates sometimes ith a

distinct dry season

• "nn&al rain#all is typically over 6 mm and sometimes over 1! mm

Taiga

Overvie0

• Taiga is a "ioe characterised "y conierous orests

• The Taiga is the 0orldHs largest terrestrial "ioe

•  The taiga experiences relatively lo precipitation A2!mm L (! mmB mostly in

the #orm o# #og sno and s&mmer rain. 8oever since evaporation is also lo

there is eno&gh moist&re to ena'le dense vegetation groth

•  Taiga soils tend to 'e yo&ng and n&trient7poor. The soil tends to 'e acidic and

hence the #orest Coor only has lichens and mosses groing

• !haracteristics

•  The taiga has harsh continental climate and large range o# temperat&res- 7!4 to 2(

• $xcept #or the t&ndra and permanent ice caps the taiga is the coldest 'iome on

earth

•  There are to main types o# taiga-

o !losed orest: closely spaced trees ith mossy gro&nd cover

o )ichen 0oodland: trees that are #arther apart and have lichen gro&nd

cover. ore common in colder areas

• In the northern taiga areas #orest cover is not only sparse '&t also st&nted

• The orests o taiga are ainly conierous consisting o larch spruce

?r and pine

•  Taiga trees tend to have shallo roots to tae advantage o# thin soils.

• Since the s&n is lo on the horion most o# the time it is diXc&lt to

photosynthesise. Pine and spr&ce do not lose their leaves in inter and can

photosynthesise &sing their older leaves

• The adaptation o evergreen needles (on pines liits 0ater lost to

transpiration and the dar1 green colour increases sunlight a"sorption

• Distri"ution

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• The taiga covers ost o !anada *las1a S0eden 3inland -or0ay the

Scottish 2ighlands and Russia& It is also #o&nd in parts o# northern US"

northern Gaahstan northern ongolia and northern apan

• >arge areas o# Si'eria)s taiga have 'een destroyed in recent years

• In anada less than *K is protected development and more than !K has 'een

allocated #or logging•  The taiga is home to a large n&m'er her'ivoro&s mammals and smaller rodents

• Some o# the animals lie 'ears eat in s&mmer and hi'ernate in inter. +thers

have evolved layers o# #&r to ins&late them #rom the cold

• Due to the cliate carnivorous diets are inecient or o"taining

energy&

• " signicant n&m'er o# 'irds lie Si'erian thr&sh hite throated sparro 'lac

throated green ar'ler migrate to the taiga to tae advantage o# long s&mmer

days

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O!E*-S

Division o Ocean depths

 The World +cean is a glo'al interconnected contin&o&s 'ody o# saline

ater. *ppro$iately K=N o the earthHs surace is covered "y the ocean

• /or h&man convenience the ocean has 'een divided into several smaller

divisions non as oceans and seas

•  There are ve ma5or divisions o# the orld ocean- Pacic +cean "tlantic +cean

Indian +cean "rctic +cean and So&thern +cean

• $vaporation o# ater #rom the oceans is the so&rce o# most rain#all and ocean

temperat&res determine climate and ind patterns on land

• )ie 0ithin the ocean evolved a"out 9 "illion years prior to lie on

land& ore than 23 marine li#e #orms are c&rrently non '&t the act&al

n&m'er may 'e 1 times as m&ch

Physical properties•  The total area o# orld ocean is 361 x 16 s< m and vol&me is approx 1.3

'illion c& m

• The average depth o the ocean is 9K; and a$iu depth is

=;

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• 'ediu ter changes in sea level arise mainly #rom to #actors- atmospheric

temperat&re and the mass o# ater loced &p as #resh ater in rivers laes

glaciers ice caps etc

• #eological changes in sea levels mainly arise #rom changes in the

cong&ration o# continents and sea Coors d&e to plate tectonics and seaCoor

spreading• +n a geological time scale long ter sea level has al0ays "een higher

than today Aexcept at the Permian7Triassic 'o&ndary 2! million years agoB. "s

a res&lt sea level is more liely to rise than #all today even d&e to small

changes in climate

• Over the past = years sea level has "een rising at an average o =&6

per year& The ma5ority o# this rise is attri'&ted to thermal expansion o# 

ocean ater d&e to increase in ocean temperat&res

'*R,-E #EO#R*P24 

• Oceanic "asins

• +ceanic 'asins are large geologic 'asins Alarge scale roc strataB that are 'elo

sea level

• In a sense oceanic 'asins are the complement to continents

• +cean 'asins serve as sedimentary 'asins that collect sediments eroded #rom

continents

• +cean 'asins can 'e actively changing or inactive depending on plate tectonics.

 The "tlantic and "ntarctic +cean 'asins are actively groing hile the

editerranean is shrining. Inactive ocean 'asins incl&de the ,&l# o# exico theSea o# apan and the =ering Sea

• The continental shel is the e$tended perieter o a continent 0hich is

currently under sea

• ontinental shelves ere part o# the continents d&ring glacial periods Ahen sea

levels ere loB '&t are &nder sea d&ring interglacial periods Alie todayB

•  The continental shel# &s&ally ends at a point o# decreasing slope called

the shel "rea1 . The sea Coor 'elo the shel# 'rea is called the continental

slope. =elo the slope is the continental rise hich merges into the deep

ocean Coor Acalled a"yssal plainB• Due to the availa"ility o sunlight in shallo0 0aters continental

shelves tee 0ith lie compared to the 'iotic deserts in the deep ocean

a'yssal plains

• ontinental shelves consist o# thic sediments #rom the continents

• !ontinental shelves e$tend on average a"out 6 1 ro the coast& The

largest shel# the Si'erian Shel# in the "rctic +cean stretches to a'o&t 1! m

hile certain areas have no shelves at all s&ch as the coast o# hile and the est

coast o# S&matra AIndonesiaB

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• The United -ations !onvention on the )a0 o the Sea (U-!)OS de?nes

the e$tent and regulates usage o continental shelves "y sovereign

nations

o  The continental shel# as dened as the natural prolongation o land

to the continental arginHs outer edge or

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Anear FeVealandB

2 m &nder Tonga plate and Indo7"&stralianplate/astest plate velocity recorded on

earth A24 cm per yearB

G&ril7Gamchata

 Trench

Forthern Pacic 1!42 m

Philippine Trench

PhilippinesAPacic +ceanB

1!4 m

Germadec Trench

Fe VealandAPacic +ceanB

14( m

E$traterrestrial oceans

•  The earth is the only non planet to have liargest coral ree# system in the orldWorld)s 'iggest str&ct&re made 'y living

organisms

"rea o# approx 344 s< m

=elie =arrier9ee# 

=elie Second largest coral ree# in the orldPart o# the esoamerican =arrier 9ee# that

stretches along eastern coast o# entral "merica

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#rom exico to 8ond&ras

Fe aledonia=arrier 9ee# 

FealedoniaAso&thest

PacicB

/rench territory in so&thest Pacic8ome to endangered d&gong and nesting site

#or green sea t&rtle

"ndros

A=ahamasB=arrier 9ee# 

=ahamas

Aari''eanB

9ed Sea oral9ee# 

9ed Sea

P&lley 9idge /lorida US"Aso&theast

US"B

:eepest photosynthetic coral ree# in the orldAa'o&t 67* mB

aldives Indian ocean onsists o# a'o&t 12 coral islands9a5a "mpatIslands

Indonesia ontains the highest marine li#e diversity in theorld

Deep sea and trenches

• "s the ocean depth increases s&nlight decreases and ater press&re increases.

• In general s&nlight is not a'le to penetrate the ocean ater 'eyond a depth o 

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shape o# coastline and the prevailing inds.&rrents circ&late in clocise directionin Forthern 8emisphere and in anti7clocise direction in So&thern 8emisphere.

!urrents in Paci?c Ocean

a& 'orth-uatorial Current (Warm)- /los across #rom east to est i.e. #romForth "merica it reaches the Philippines.

*& +uroshio Current (Warm): F. $and Corida c&rrent is non as ,&l# Stream. /rom the ,rand =ans the,&l# Stream moves eastard across the "tlantic as the "tlantic :ri#t.

d. Atlantic $rift di%ides into & branches-

i . 'oraian Current: The main c&rrent passes along the Foray coast 0 enters the

"rctic +cean.ii . Canary Current : The so&th 'ranch o# F. "tlantic dri#t Cos near Spain 'y thisname.

e. & Cold Currents : The $ast ,reenland &rrent 0 the >a'rador &rrent Cos #romthe "rctic +cean into the "tlantic +cean.The >a'rader &rrent meets the ,&l# Stream. The inC&ence o# these 2 c&rrents prod&ces the #amo&s #ogs aro&nd Fe/o&nd >and. Yost '&sy shing gro&nd o# the orldZ

f. ra*il Current (Warm) : /los along the S. "merican coast #rom Forth to So&th

. enuela Current (Cold) - old c&rrent #rom S. to F near the Eape o# ,ood8ope)

h. #alkland Current (Cold) - old Coing along the S.$. coast o# S. "merica #rom S. toF. Ameets the =rail c&rrentB

Currents of the Indian .%ean

 The c&rrents in the F. Indian +cean di;er entirely #rom the general pattern o# circ&lation. They change their direction #rom season to season in response to theseasonal rhythm o# the monsoons.

In inters the F. $

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/orld !ontinents

"sia "#rica Forth "merica So&th "merica $&rope "&stralia and "ntarctica are theseven continents o# the orld.

 These seven continents ere 'elieved to 'e part o# Pangaea hich as a singlelandmass aro&nd 2! million years ago.

:&e to the tectonic movement the landmass 'roe &p and the componentcontinents separated and moved aay to its present position. "ll these too aro&nd1 million years to complete.

Pangaea as s&rro&nded 'y a sea the Panthalassa.

 The continents o# the orld map ill give yo& in#ormation a'o&t the geographicalpositions o# the continents as ell as their political divisions.

 The ontinents o# the World

• "sia ontinents o&ntries

• "#rica ontinents o&ntries

• Forth "merica ontinents o&ntries

• So&th "merica ontinents o&ntries

• $&rope ontinents o&ntries

•

"&stralia ontinents o&ntries• "ntarctica ontinents o&ntries

/orld !ontinents: Soe 3acts

!ontinents Biggest!ountry

2ighest Pea1 )ongestRiver

"sia hina t. $verest A**! mB angteGiang

"#rica S&dan t. Giliman5aro A!*%! mB File

Forth"merica

anada t. cinley A61%4 mBississippi

isso&ri

So&th"merica

=rail t. "concag&a A6%6 mB "maon

$&rope 9&ssia t. $l'r&s A!642 mB +'

"&stralia "&stralia t. osc&isco A222* mB :arling

"ntarctica 7 Oinson assi# A!14 mB 7

SECE- !O-T,-E-TS O3 T2E /OR)D

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-ae *rea in s5&1*ppro$& N o the0orld8s land

"sia 444%3 2%.6

"#rica 32%3 2.2

Forth "merica 244!4 16.3So&th "merica 1(*3* 11.%

"ntarctica 13%(! %.3

$&rope 124! 6.(

+ceania *%4! 6.

*griculture : Top Producers

9ice hina India Indonesia =angladeshOietnam

Wheat hina India US" 9&ssia /rance

aie US" hina =rail exico "rgentina

,ro&ndn&thina India Figeria US" Indonesia

 Tea India hina Sri >ana Genya T&rey

otton hina US" India Paistan =rail

9&''erIndonesia Thailand alaysia India

hina

o;ee=rail Oietnam Indonesia olom'iaexico

P&lses Total

=rail India hina yanmar exico

T4PES O3 !U)T,C*T,O-:

+nly 11K o# total landmass o# the orld comes &nder the agric&lt&ral activity inhich !K o# orld)s pop&lation is engaged. /olloing types o# agric&lt&re aregenerally practiced in the orld.

=& Shiting *griculture:

 This primitive #orm o# agric&lt&re is prevalent in the tri'es o# torpical #oresthich is also called slash and '&rn agric&lt&re and '&sh7#ello agric&lt&re.

Shi#ting agric&lt&re is called =ear :ehia Peda in .P. and hattisgarh Pod& in"ndhra Pradesh Gaman =ingaand :havi in +rissa G&mari in Gerala etc.

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 The main p&rpose o# this agric&lt&re practiced in the regions o# high pop&lationdensity is to extract maxim&m prod&ction #rom the minim&m agric&lt&ral land.Intensive s&'sistence agric&lt&re is practiced in the developing co&ntries andintensive commercial agric&lt&re is practiced in the developed co&ntries.

& E$tensive *griculture:

 This agric&lt&re involves groing o# crops 'y the modern scientic methods on

large #arms in hich minim&m la'or and maxim&m &se o# machines are done. Inthis agric&lt&re per hectare prod&ction is very lo '&t per la'o&r and totalprod&ction is very high. The regions o# temperat&re ,rasslands are noted #orextensive agric&lt&re.

J& Plantation *griculture:

"lso called estate #arming in this type o# commercial agric&lt&re h&ge amo&nt o# 

capital and la'o&r is re

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3aous ,ndustrialised !ountries o the /orld

!ountry *ssociated ,ndustry

"#ghanistan arpets ool and dry#r&its

"&stralia Wheat ool meat

"&stria achinery Textiles

=elgi&m ,lass Textiles

=rail o;ee

anada Wheat Fesprint

hile opper

hina 9ice Wheat Sil

&'a S&gar To'acco

:enmar :airy Prod&cts

England Te$tiles 'achinery

/inland Textiles

/rance Textiles Wine

,ermany achinery

India ica Tea &te Textiles

Indonesia 9&''er inchona

Iran Petrole&m arpets

Ira< Petrole&m :ates

 apan $lectronics "&tomo'iles

Italy erc&ry Textile

G&ait Petrole&malaysia Tin 9&''er

exico Silver

Fetherlands $lectrical goods

9&ssia8eavy achineryPetrole&m

Sa&di "ra'ia +il and :ates

Spain >ead

Seden atches

Siterland Watches

 Taian amphor

So&th "#rica,old and :iamondining

U.S." "&tomo'iles achinery

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To0ns *ssociated 0ith ,ndustries

 Ton Ao&ntryB "ssociated Ind&stry

=a& A"er'ai5anB Petrole&m

=ango AThailandB Ship '&ilding

=el#ast AIrelandB Ship '&ilding

=&enos "ires A"rgentinaB eatadi APort&galB or

hicago AU.S."B "gric&lt&ral implements eat

ologne A,ermanyB otton and oollen Ind&stries

:haa A=angladeshB &te

:etroit AU.S."B otor cars

:resden A,ermanyB +ptical and photographic apparat&s

,lasgo A,reat =ritainB achinery

8avana A&'aB To'acco igars

8ollyood AU.S."B /ilm Ind&stry

 ohannes'&rg AS. "#ricaB ,old mines

Gim'erlay AS. "#ricaB :iamond mining

>eeds A$nglandB Woollen ,oods

>yons A/ranceB Sil Ind&stries

anchester A$nglandB otton Ind&stry

a&riti&s AIndian +ceanB /ishing Shipping S&gar

ilan AItalyB Sil

orocco AForth "#ricaB >eather

&nich A,ermanyB >enses

Fe +rleans AU.S.".B otton ind&stry

+saa AapanB otton #a'rics

Pitts'&rg AU.S.".B Iron and SteelPlymo&th A$nglandB Ship7'&ilding

SheXeld A$nglandB &tlery

Oenice AItalyB ,lass manact&ring

Oienna A"&striaB ,lass manact&ring

Wellington AFe VealandB :airy Prod&ct

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Biggest 2ighest )argest )ongest in the /orld

 Tallest "nimal in the World ,ira;e

>argest "rchipelago in the World Indonesia

/astest =ird in the World Si#t

>argest =ird in the World +strich

Smallest =ird in the World 8&mming =ird

>ongest 9ailay =ridge in the World8&ey P. >ong =ridge >o&isianaAU.S."B

 Tallest =&ilding in the orld =&r5 :&'ai U"$

anal >ongest Irrigational The Gala&msy anal

>ongest anal in the World S&e anal

8ighest apital in the World >a Pa A=oliviaB

=iggest ity in "rea in the World o&nt Isa A"&straliaB>argest ity in Pop&lation in the World Toyo

ostliest ity in the World Toyo

8ighest ity in the World Oan h&an A hina B

>argest ontinent in the World "sia

Smallest ontinent in the World "&stralia

=iggest o&ntry in the World 'y "rea 9&ssia

>argest o&ntry in the World 'y Pop&lation hina

>argest o&ntry in the World 'y $lectorate India

>argest reat&re in the World =l&e hale

>argest :elta in the World S&nder'an A =angladesh 0 India B

>argest :esert in the World Sahara A "#rica B

>argest :esert in "sia ,o'i

>argest :am in the World ,rand o&lee :am A U.S." B

:am 8ighest in the World 8oover :am A U.S." B

:iamond >argest in the World The &llinan

>argest :ome in the World "strodome in 8o&sten A U.S." B

>argest $pic in the World aha'harat

>argest Irrigation Scheme in the World >loyd =arrage S&h&r A Paistan B

>argest Island in the World ,reenland

>argest Sea in the World editerranean Sea

:eepest >ae in the World =aial A Si'eria B

>argest >ae A "rticial B in the World >ae ead A =o&lder :am B8ighest >ae in the World Titicaca A=oliviaB

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>argest >ae A/resh aterB in the World S&perior

>argest >ae ASalt aterB in the World aspian

>argest >i'rary in the WorldUnited States >i'rary o# ongressWashington :.

8ighest o&ntain Pea in the World $verest A Fepal B

>ongest o&ntain 9ange in the World "ndes A S. "merica B

>argest &se&m in the World =ritish &se&m >ondon

>argest +cean in the World Pacic

=iggest Palace in the World Oatican A Italy B

>argest Par in the World ello Stone Fational Par A U.S." B

>argest Penins&la in the World "ra'ia

oldest Place A8a'itatedB in the World Oerhoyans ASi'eriaB

:ryest Place in the World Ii'ya "#rica B

9ainiest Place in the World a&sinram A eghalaya India B

=iggest Planet in the World &piter

=rightest Planet in the World Oen&s

Smallest Planet in the World erc&ry

8ighest Platea& in the World Pamir A Ti'et B

>ongest Plat#orm in the World Gharagp&r A India B>ongest 9ailay in the World Trans 7 Si'erian railay

>argest 9ailay Station in the World,rand entral Terminal hicagoA U.S." B

>ongest 9iver in the World File A "#rica B

>argest 9iver in the World "maon A S. "merica B

>argest Sea7'ird in the World "l'atross

=rightest Star in the World Siri&s

 Tallest Stat&e in the World Stat&e o# otherland OolgogradA 9&ssia B

>argest Telescope 9adio in the World Fe exico A U.S." B

WorldNs Tramay rst in the World Fe or

>ongest T&nnel A9ailayB in the World Tanna A apan B

>ongest T&nnel AroadB in the Worldont =lanc T&nnel 'eteen /ranceand Italy

8ighest Oolcano +5os del Salado A "ndes $c&ador B

ost Oolcano "ctive in the World a&naloa A 8aaii 7 U.S." B

>ongest Wall in the World ,reat Wall o# hina

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8ighest Water#all in the World "ngel A Oene&ela B

>oest Water 'ody in the World :ead Sea

>argest Voo in the World Gr&ger Fational Par So&th "#rica

,portant Boundaries:&rand >ine Paistan 0 "#ghanistan

acohan >ine India 0 hina

9adcli;e >ine India 0 Paistan

aginot >ine /rance 0 ,ermany

+der Fiesse >ine ,ermany 0 Poland

8inden'erg >inePoland 0 ,ermany Aat the time o# /irstWorld WarB

3*th Parallel Forth 0 So&th Gorea

4%th Parallel US" 0 anada

,portant !ities on River Ban1s (/orld

"delaide "&stralia Torrens

"msterdam Fetherlands "msel

"lexandria $gypt File

"nara T&rey Gail

=ango Thailand hao Praya

=asra Ira< $&pharates and Tigris

=aghdad Ira< Tigris

=erlin ,ermany Spree

=onn ,ermany 9hine=&dapest 8&ngary :an&'e

=ristol UG "von

=&enos "ires "rgentina >aplata

hittagong =angladesh a5yani

anton hina Si7Giang

airo $gypt File

h&ng Ging hina ang7tse7ing

ologne ,ermany 9hine

:anding ,ermany Oist&la

:resden ,ermany $l'e

:&'lin Ireland >i;y

8am'&rg ,ermany $l'e

Ga'&l "#ghanistan Ga'&l

Garachi Paistan Ind&s

Gharto&m S&danonC&ence o# =l&e 0 WhiteFile

>ahore Paistan 9avi

>eningrad 9&ssia Feva

>is'on Port&gal Tag&s

>iverpool $ngland essey

>ondon $ngland Thamesosco 9&ssia osva

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"delaide "&stralia Torrens

"msterdam Fetherlands "msel

ontreal anada St. >arence

Faning /rance ang7tse7iang

Fe +rleans US" ississipi

Fe or US" 8&dson

+ttaa anada +ttaaParis /rance Seine

Philadelphia US" :elaare

Perth "&stralia San

Prag&e ech 9ep&'lic Oitava

J&e'ec anada St. >arence

9ome Italy Ti'er

9otterdam TheFetherlands

Fe ass

Stalingrad 9&ssia Oolga

Shanghai hina ang7tse7iangSidney "&stralia :arling

Saint >o&is US" ississipi

 Toyo apan "raava

Oienna "&stria :an&'e

Warsa Poland Oist&la

Washington :. US" Potomac

 angoon yanmar Irraaddy

,portant )a1es o the /orld

)a1e )ocation *rea (S5&L

aspian 9&ssia and IS 3(1

S&perior anada and US" *2414

Oictoria Tanania A"#ricaB 6%4*!

8&ron anada and US" !%!%6

ichigan US" !*16

 Tanganyia "#rica 32*%2

=aial 9&ssia AISB 31!2

,reat =ear anada 31*

alai alai ATananiaB 344

,reat Slave anada 2*43*

-ote:

•

ore than 6K o# the orld)s laes are in anadathis is 'eca&se o# the deranged drainage system thatdominates the co&ntry.

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"delaide "&stralia Torrens

"msterdam Fetherlands "msel

• /inland is non as ?The land o# Tho&sand >aes@.

•  The US State o# innesota is non as EThe >and o#  Ten Tho&sand >aes).

•  The orld)s loest lae is the :ead Sea 'orderingIsrael ordan at 3%! m 'elo sea level.

• >ae 8&ron has the longest lae coastline in theorld- a'o&t 2%* m excl&ding the coastline o# itsmany inner islands.

,portant Straits o the /orld

Sallest and Biggest !ountriesBiggest -ations (*rea% /ise

Biggest -ations(Population % /ise

9&ssia hina

anada India

hina US"

US" Indonesia

=rail =rail

"&stralia Paistan

India =angladesh"rgentina Figeria

Gaahstan 9&ssia

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Straits /ater Bodies @oined

*rea

=a'7al7ande'

9ed Sea 0"ra'ian Sea

"ra'ia 0 "#rica

=ering "rctic +cean 0=ering Sea

"lasa 0 "sia

=osphor&s

=lac Sea 0armara Sea

 T&rey

:over Forth Sea 0"tlantic +cean

$ngland 0 $&rope

/lorida ,&l# o# exico 0"tlantic +cean

/lorida 0 =ahamasIslands

,i'ralter editerranean

Sea 0 "tlantic+cean

Spain 0 "#rica

alacca ava Sea 0 =ay o#  =engal

India 0 Indonesia

Pal =ay o# =engal 0Indian +cean

India 0 Sri >ana

agellan So&th Pacic 0So&th "tlantic+cean

hile

S&nda ava Sea 0 Indian+cean

Indonesia

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"delaide "&stralia Torrens

"msterdam Fetherlands "msel

Biggest -ations (*rea% /ise

Biggest -ations(Population % /ise

S&dan apan

Sallest -ations (*rea% /ise

Sallest -ations(Population % /ise

Oatican ity Oatican ity

onaco T&val&

Fa&r& Fa&r&

 T&val& Pala&

San arino San arino

>iechtenstein onaco

arshall Islands >iechtenstein

Saint Gitts and Fevis Saint Gitts and Fevis

aldives "ntig&a and =ar'ados

alta :ominica

,portant Ores o the 0orld

Iron +re hina =rail"&stralia

opper+re

hili Per& US"

 Tin hina IndonesiaPer&

>ead hina "&stralia US"

Vinc hina "&stralia Per&anganese

So&th "#rica US"=rail

"l&mini&m

hina 9&ssiaanada

ement hina India US"Petrole&m

Sa&di "ra'ia 9&ssiaUS"

Fat&ral,as

9&ssia US" anada

Silver Per& exico hina

oal hina US" India

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"delaide "&stralia Torrens

"msterdam Fetherlands "msel

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,eography o# India

Index

S.no Topic Page no

1. Physical ,eography o# India (!

2. :rainage system o# India *2

3. limate %1

4. Soils o# india %!

!. Fat&ral Oegitation o# India 11

6. So&rce o# Irrigation 116

(. &lti P&rpose Pro5ects 11*

*. "gric&lt&re in India 126

%. "nimal 8&s'andary 1!

1. Ind&stries 1!6

11. inerals 16(

12. Transportation and comm&nication o# India 1*1

13. :emography o# India 1*%

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,ndian #eographical )ocation

India is the seventh largest co&ntry in the orld hich maes it o'vio&s #or theco