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In this issue

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2 The German Home FrontCaroline Sharples

7 OCR exam focus History courseworkNick Fellows

10 Presidents vs generals: Korea and VietnamJonathan Webb

16 The rise and fall of Hitler’s henchmenRobin Bunce

18 The Berlin Wall: success or failure?Gregory Slysz

23 AQA exam focus From defeat to unity, Germany 1945–91: Unit HIS3LScott Reeves

26 The Callaghan government, 1976–79Graham Goodlad

30 Edexcel exam focus Stalin’s Russia, 1924–53: AS Unit 1 D4Fran Kennedy

33 Book review Finest Years: Churchill as Warlord 1940–45 by Max HastingsChristopher Catherwood

34 Interview Maria MisraRobin Bunce

Volume 7 Number 1 September 2011

16Hitler’s henchmen: powerful or powerless?

18

Was the Berlin

Wall a failure?

2 20th Century History Review

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Arg

um

ent Nasty, brutish and fraught

Although Germans on the Home Front claimed that they too had been war’s victims in suffering losses of home and family, records suggest that there was generally little resistance to Nazi pressure to engage in the battle for survival.

The Third Reich spent half its existence at war. The repercussions of this conflict were devastating and notoriously included the

The German Home Front

Caroline Sharples

AQA AS Life in Nazi Germany 1933–45

Edexcel AS From Second Reich to Third Reich: Germany 1918–45

Edexcel A2 From Kaiser to Fuhrer: Germany 1900–1945

OCR (A) AS Democracy and dictatorship in Germany 1919–63, Study topic 8

OCR (A) A2 Nazi Germany 1933–45

extermination programme directed against European Jewry. In the aftermath of defeat and the collapse of the Nazi regime in 1945, many ordinary Germans were quick to claim that they too had suffered. For many years scholars were reluctant to give too much credence to this rhetoric of German victimhood, wary of displacing attention from the victims of the Holocaust.

Historians are now, however, more willing to engage with these themes, recognising that the German population did indeed experience genuine losses as a result of the Second World War. Whether facing the destruction of their homes and property

Caroline Sharples explores the contradictory nature of the experience of the German Home Front during the Second World War

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The damage caused by the July Bomb plot; the conspirators, including claus von stauffenberg (inset), were executed

through Allied air raids, the loss of loved ones in the fighting, or simply struggling to sustain daily life amid food and clothing shortages, the experi-ence of the Home Front was one of adversity, terror and trauma. At the same time, though, it was notable that the population continued to fight until the bitter end. By exploring events within Germany between 1939 and 1945, we can not only gain an insight into everyday life under National Socialism, but we can also examine the contradictory workings of the regime itself.

‘Doing their bit’Since the early days of the NSDAP, Nazi propaganda had been characterised by a distinct military motif with almost everything being routinely presented as a battle for survival. The emphasis was on strength and unity and the idea that these qualities would inev-itably lead to German victory. There were frequent pleas for the population to put the greater needs of the nation ahead of the pursuit of their own indi-vidual interests.

This notion of self-sacrifice was a key component of the Nazis’ concept of Volksgemeinschaft. Given that these ideas had always been there, the challenge from 1939 was how the state could convey the urgency of a real war situation and get the people to mobilise accordingly. Josef Goebbels’ propaganda ministry had to up the ante. The result was a new series of posters, publications and broadcasts that tried to persuade people that their role at home was equally impor-tant as that of the soldiers doing the actual fighting, whether they were collecting supplies for the troops, tending the land, working in munitions factories or maintaining the nation’s infrastructure. The Second World War thus provided an opportunity to put all the talk of a Volksgemeinschaft into action.

Much of this may not seem all that different from any other country at war. We need only to look at the British Home Front during this period to come across the ‘spirit of the Blitz’ and the idea of every-one carrying on and pulling together in the fight against a common enemy. It is important, however, to remember that the Third Reich was infused with a particular racial ideology that was becoming more and more radical under the cover of the war. This affected various aspects of the civilian experience and dictated just who could and who could not be part of the war effort.

Terror and racial policyOne particular example of this is the German war economy. With German men going off to fight, there was a clear need to find an alternative source of labour to keep industries going, particularly the armaments factories. The regime was divided over the best way to do this. Should women be conscripted into the war industries? This would, perhaps, be a logical

solution, yet it was one that contradicted the Nazi ideology of a woman’s primary duty being that of a wife and mother, producing the next generation of National Socialists. Much propaganda and financial incentive had already been devoted to encouraging women to stay at home. Many people struggled to reconcile this with the notion that they should now enter the workplace instead.

An alternative option was to use forced foreign workers: with the Nazis now occupying a vast area of Europe, they had a ready supply of expendable labour at their disposal. This, however, also prompted much discussion among the Nazi elite with regard to the wisdom of having these ‘racially inferior’ persons brought into contact with German workers. A string of directives was introduced warning Germans of the ‘dangers’ of fraternising with these foreigners — and the harsh punishments they would face if they did.

The threat of violence was a key feature of life on the Home Front, particularly after the failure of the July Bomb Plot when the regime swooped upon any suspected conspirators and troublemak-ers. People were encouraged to report any defeatist attitudes or non-compliance with the racial laws to the Gestapo. Those that found themselves the subject of such a denunciation would be arrested and could face imprisonment or even execution.

The powers of the People’s Courts expanded enormously during the war years. By 1945 they had passed down thousands of death sentences for alle-gations of treason. Similarly, those who sabotaged factory equipment or who did not seem to be pulling their weight in the war economy were also threatened with reprisals. A memorandum by Albert Speer from 30 October 1942 made it clear that any ‘slackers’ should be sent to concentration camps.

Volksgemeinschaft: ‘People’s community’ —

a central feature of Nazi

ideology, which stressed

national solidarity and

was based upon racial ties.

July Bomb Plot: the

attempt, on 20 July

1944, to assassinate

Adolf Hitler by placing

a bomb in his Wolf’s

Lair. The conspirators,

including Claus von

Stauffenberg, were

captured and executed.

People’s Courts: initially established in

1934 to try political

opponents, the People’s

Courts were beyond the

bounds of constitutional

law. The punishments

handed down by these

courts were severe and

defendants did not have

a fair hearing.

Albert Speer: famous

for being Hitler’s

architect, Speer

assumed the role of

minister of armaments

and war production

in 1942. He oversaw

the rationalisation

programme, which saw

Germany become fully

mobilised for total war.


Buying food with ration cards in 1939

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Maintaining moraleEven as late as 1944, when the Nazis were resort-ing to increasingly severe measures to keep people in line, the party continued to orchestrate public rallies and big displays of unswerving loyalty to the Führer. Civilian morale was a major concern for the Nazi leadership, particularly given the legacy of the First World War. Defeat in 1918 had long been attrib-uted, by those on the political right, to a ‘stab in the back ’ and the collapse of the Home Front (see 20th Century history review, Vol. 6, No. 2, p. 16).

The Nazis were obviously anxious to avoid any repeat of this in the Second World War and were wary about causing the population too much hard-ship. Interestingly, conditions for the majority of Germans (at least those considered members of the Volksgemeinschaft) were relatively good during the first few years of the war. Food supplies, although strained, generally remained superior to levels during the First World War. This was due to a drive for greater self-sufficiency and more food being produced at home, as well as the fact that the Nazis were able to plunder resources from the occupied territories.

The rationing of clothing and household goods, though, was more problematic. A black market did still emerge and the SD noted people’s grumblings about food prices, the hoarding of goods and the

less than exemplary behaviour of the ‘better-off ’. For all of the regime’s talk about national unity, class divisions were still apparent and some people were able to enrich themselves at the expense of others.

When considering the issue of morale, the history of the Home Front can be divided into two distinct periods: ■■ the Blitzkrieg years of 1939–41■■ the period of war in Russia from 1942

Morale was closely linked to military success. Put simply, when the war was going well, people were happy and proud of Germany’s achievements. Indeed, while there may have been little enthusiasm for war at its outbreak in 1939, the rapid series of vic-tories in western Europe impressed the population — and enabled them to remain optimistic that the conflict would be over quickly. After the 1942–43 Battle of Stalingrad, though, public support for the war declined. By 1944, increased air raids by the Allies were also adding to a sense of chaos and disillusionment.

It was in this climate that resistance began to grow. The SD reported a growing number of anti-Hitler jokes being told from spring 1943 and it was in the latter stages of the war that conservative members of the armed forces began to formulate plans for a

‘stab in the back’: the popular myth that

Germany did not lose

the First World War as

the result of any military

failure, but as a result of

a betrayal by the Home

Front. This betrayal was

associated with socialists

and Jews.

SD: Sicherheitsdienst,

the intelligence branch

of the SS, which

monitored public opinion

and compiled regular

reports on morale.

Blitzkrieg: ‘Lightning

war’, a term used to

denote the rapid military

success that the regime

enjoyed between 1939

and 1941.

Battle of Stalingrad: between August 1942

and February 1943,

German troops fought

Soviet forces for control

of Stalingrad. It was

one of the biggest

battles of the war and

the Germans suffered a

devastating defeat.

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a poster warning ‘The enemy sees your light!’ tells citizens to blackout against allied bombing raids

Volkssturm: a People’s

Army, established in

October 1944, which

conscripted those

previously deemed unfit

for military service. The

militia lacked proper

training or weapons but

was compelled to fight

to the bitter end.

Key

po

ints •One of the Nazis’ key concerns during

the war was to maintain morale. In this way they hoped they could avoid a repeat of the collapse of the Home Front that they associated with defeat in the First World War.

•Popular morale, though, was closely linked to military fortunes. As the war began to go against Germany, there was increased grumbling against the regime and some people, such as conservative army figures, became more prepared to contemplate acts of resistance.

•Nazi propaganda emphasised the importance of everyone pulling together for the sake of the war effort, but historians debate the extent to which their dream of a Volksgemeinschaft was ever realised as social divisions still remained.

•The experience of the German Home Front cannot be divorced from Nazi racial policy. Membership of the Volksgemeinschaft was defined by race, and there was much debate over how to reconcile the use of female or forced foreign labour in the war industries with the larger aims of Nazi ideology. Under the cover of war, the persecution of ‘racial enemies’ also increased.

•The threat of terror against ordinary Germans also increased as the war situation became more desperate and the regime struggled to maintain its grip over the population.

•The experience of the German Home Front is a contradictory one of both genuine victimhood and complicity in maintaining the war effort until the bitter end.

Questions•How successful were the Nazis in creating a Volksgemeinschaft?

• In what ways has the history of the German Home Front been mythologised since 1945?

•To what extent did defeat at Stalingrad affect popular attitudes to the regime?

•How useful is the concept of German victimhood in describing the civilian experience during the Second World War?

Germany without the Führer. While the extent of German resistance may have been exaggerated in the aftermath of the conflict, it is important to remem-ber that organised opposition to Nazism was never really that widespread.

The collapse of the Third ReichAnother contradiction of the Third Reich is that it was not really until the final throes of the war that any semblance of a Volksgemeinschaft became apparent, by which time, of course, it was all too late. In October 1944 the Nazis created the Volkssturm, which clung to the belief that the Allies could be repelled and the regime saved. Ordinary people were armed with primitive weapons in a final blurring of the home and military fronts. They fought to the end and had the power to enact harsh punishments against those members of the population who seemed to be giving up. One order issued by the Volkssturm, for example, declared, ‘Where a white flag appears, all male persons of the house concerned are to be shot.’ Denunciations to the Gestapo also continued throughout the final stages of the war and many

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In the aftermath of the conflict, an emphasis on the Nazis’ ‘misleading’ propaganda and the constant threat of terror underscored the rhetoric of German suffering. At the same time, however, the experience of foreign occupation, together with a food and housing crisis, prompted a sense of nostalgia among some for the living conditions they had enjoyed during the Nazi era.

Nor did the trials and tribulations of the German population end with the total defeat of 1945. The next few years would be characterised by the enormous reconstruction programme, while the emerging Cold War would present a brand new set of challenges for the people in terms of the physical and ideological division of East and West Germany.

Dr Caroline Sharples lectures in modern history at the University of Liverpool. She has previously published various articles on the Kindertransport.

Further readingBeck, E. R. (1986) Under the Bombs: the German Home Front, 1942–1945, University Press of Kentucky.

Kitchen, M. (1995) Nazi Germany at War, Longman.

Peukert, D. J. K. (1987) Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, Penguin.

‘Scorched Earth’ decree: also known as

the ‘Nero Order’, this

was issued by Hitler on

19 March 1945 and called

for the destruction of

German infrastructure

to prevent anything

falling into Allied hands.

Speer protested on the

grounds that it would

destroy the foundations

of the country.

Germans still hoped for the ‘miracle’ weapon that could yet turn everything around.

As the Allies marched upon Berlin, though, Hitler came to a different conclusion about the fate of the Home Front. Determined not to let the enemy get their hands on German industrial plant, he issued the ‘Scorched Earth’ decree in March 1945, with little regard for the future of Germany or its people. Fortunately for them, Speer was able to check Hitler’s orders.

By the time the fighting ceased on 8 May 1945, nonetheless, much of Germany lay in ruins. Many ordinary Germans found themselves homeless, par-ticularly those who had been living in the eastern territories and were expelled by Soviet forces. For many Germans, the worst was yet to come as the advancing Red Army extracted terrible reprisals for all the suffering that German forces had inflicted upon the Soviet Union.

ConclusionThe history of the German Home Front has many contradictory features. The Nazis finally achieved a militarisation of society with the creation of civilian fighting units, but only when the war was already lost. Germans can be seen as victims of the regime but they also upheld it and kept fighting until the very end.

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Margaret Thatcher waves to the crowd, after being re-elected as prime minister in 1987

T he OCR history coursework or investigation is worth 40% of your A2 mark and consists of two tasks, the interpretation and

the investigation. Each piece of work must be no more than 2,000 words in length and the focus must be on the critical evaluation of the passages and sources being used. This is the only part of your A2 examination that requires the use of sources. If they are not thor-oughly evaluated you will not score high marks. In both elements, however, once you start to critically evaluate you will reach Level 3 for Assessment Objective 2, which carries the greatest number of marks.

Although there are marks for knowledge, remember that these marks are for using knowledge to answer the question and not simply writing all you know about the topic, or an aspect of the topic. There is no limit to the amount of time you have to research the topics you are studying, so your teacher and the coursework moderator will expect the knowledge you use to evaluate the passages or sources to be not only relevant but specific, and to go beyond what a GCSE or AS student would know about the topic.

Unlike at GCSE, the passages for the interpretation and the sources you choose for the investigation are not likely to be focused directly on the issue in the question. Your first task will be to work out the view of each passage or source about the issue, not just the general view of the passage. This may take some time and you will need to read the passages carefully.

Critical evaluationThe crucial skill for both parts of this unit is critical evaluation. In the interpretation element you use your own knowledge, which you get from further reading or information from the other passages, to give a value to the interpretation in the passage you are discuss-ing. This may be as simple as ‘the view in Interpretation A is valid because…’ and then you bring in your own knowledge to explain why the view is valid.

However, it may not be as simple as this. You may have evidence that both supports and challenges the interpretation in the passage. You must then weigh up the evidence and reach a judgement about whether the view in the passage is correct, partially correct or wrong. This should be done for each passage before an overall conclusion is reached about the view in the question.

It might be helpful to build up a list of evaluative words that can be applied to the passages or sources you use. These can range from simple words, such as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, to words such as ‘indeed’ or ‘however’. In the mark scheme this skill is referred to as synthesis. In order to achieve the higher levels it is the quality of your evalu-ation that counts.

In many ways the investigation element requires a similar approach. This time, instead of the exam board providing passages, you have to find your own sources that offer a range of views about the topic in your question. The sources you choose can be either primary or secondary and you should choose between eight and ten. Critically evaluate the views in your sources, using you own knowl-edge, to reach a judgement about whether they are valid. Once you

have done this you are in a position to reach an overall judgement about the question.

SynopsisThe other high-level skill mentioned in the mark scheme is synopsis. This is when two passages or sources are compared. It is not enough to say simply that ‘passages A and C agree’ — you need to go beyond that. Remember, just because two people agree or two his-torians agree, it does not mean that they are right. For example, ask yourself in what ways do the views and evidence in ‘C’ help to make the view in ‘A’ valid?

Using your own knowledge is the only way that you can criti-cally evaluate a passage or secondary source. The origin and date of a secondary source are not likely to be relevant in assessing the validity or otherwise of its point of view. It is better not to mention them unless you can show how they would have influenced what the historian wrote.

InterpretationYour answer to the question must be driven by the passages. It is a good idea to start by explaining the view of the passage about the issue in the question, before bringing in own knowledge to evaluate the view. If you approach it this way you are more likely to give the passage the weight that is needed in your answer, and to avoid writing an essay similar to the one you did for the Period Studies at AS. In the example answer below, the candidate makes little use of the passage but provides a great deal of other knowl-edge to assess its view. This approach should be avoided. Compare the example answer below to the one that follows it. (The passages are not reproduced here.)

QuestionUsing these four passages and your own knowledge, assess the view that Thatcher’s electoral success was a result of the weakness of the Labour Party.

OCR exam focus

History coursework


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A painting by Sir William Orpen shows the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors

Example answerInterpretation A focuses on the weakness of the Labour Party, men-tioning its ‘defence policy’ and ‘spectacular disunity’. Instantly it would appear to have the opinion that Labour weakness did play a role in Thatcher’s election victories. Labour’s defence policy was all too often their downfall throughout the 1980s, clinging onto out-of-date policies such as unilateral disarmament, which proved to be a hugely unpopular policy. One Labour MP, Gerald Kaufmann, dubbed their manifesto ‘the longest suicide note in history’ in 1983. In 1987 Conservative propaganda took full advantage of the weak policy, producing a poster with the text ‘Labour’s policy on arms’ and a surrendering soldier with his arms high in the air. Although it was not simply Labour’s defence policy that hindered them during elections, this interpretation mentions ‘disunity’. The Labour Party had fundamental divisions, most notably in 1983, between the radical left known as ‘Bennites’ and those who were left of centre. This made the party very unappealing to the public and contributed to Thatcher’s success. Additionally, other factors such as the proposed withdrawal from the EEC, abolition of the House of Lords and the nationalisation of industry, combined with the poor image of Michael Foot during the 1983 election, contrib-uted to the decaying image of the party.

QuestionUsing all four passages and your own knowledge, assess the view that the peacemakers of Versailles deserve to be criticised for creating problems that brought on further conflict.

Example answerPassage B rather inconclusively argues that Weimar democracy was not given a fair chance: ‘The Allies did little to foster the new democratic Germany that they hoped would ensure peace.’ The peacemakers failed to help Germany on its new road to democ-racy and ultimately did not allow it to thrive. This shows some

hypocrisy by the peacemakers in failing to adhere to the funda-mental principles from which they aimed to bring about peace. Sharp, however, fails to acknowledge that at this point no one knew that Germany would be taken over by a right-wing Fascist politician in the form of Adolf Hitler. If the peacekeepers could not see into the future, then they cannot be blamed for a war that occurred 20 years later, brought on by a man who was insignifi-cant in 1919. It is not acceptable to blame the peacemakers for bringing on further conflict.

Examiner’s commentsThe answer above is passage-driven and there is some evaluation, for example Sharp is seen to fail to acknowledge that the later problems could not be foreseen in 1919. Such points are valid and indicate the correct type of approach. The candidate also displays some knowledge of Hitler but it is rather basic for A2, with little detailed knowledge shown of the Treaty of Versailles. The analysis is quite general and the quality of the argument, evaluation and analysis is not sufficient for the answer to reach the top level. To get top marks both evaluation and knowledge need to be developed in detail and sustained.

Unlike in the AS Enquiries unit, there is no requirement for you to group the passages according to their views. It does make sense, however, to deal with those offering similar views together before dealing with those that offer a different perspective. You should also ensure that you deal with the whole passage and do not simply pick out sentences or phrases from the passage. If you take this approach then you may miss the overall argument of the passage.

In simple terms, write a paragraph about each passage, in which you evaluate its view about the issue in the question. At the end of each paragraph make a clear judgement about the validity of the view in the passage. Your conclusion will then bring together your view of the four passages and make an overall judgement about the issue in the question.

9September 2011

It might help you at the planning stage to draw up a chart like Table 1. The headings are largely self-explanatory but the last one is the most important. By awarding a number, based on how far you agree with the view (with 1 meaning you completely disagree and 6 meaning you completely agree), you are forced to make a judge-ment about the passage.

InvestigationIn many ways the hardest part of this exercise is selecting the sources that you are going to use, so you must allow sufficient time to find sources that offer different interpretations of the issue you are con-sidering.

If you are choosing your own topic, rather than a board-set question, make sure that there is a historical debate about the issue so that you can find contrasting interpretations. Although there is no requirement to use primary sources, if available they do offer you other ways of evaluation. You can consider the origin and purpose of a primary source in a way that is not possible for a secondary source.

The use of sources is essential and you must ensure that the sources are the focus of the answer. Start each paragraph by referring to the source and then bring in your own knowledge to support or challenge its view. This structure might be helpful in starting you off:

source and explanation of the source + is it valid? + because + own

knowledge to explain whether it is valid or not

In the following example answer, the candidate states his or her view about the historian’s interpretation and explains why he or she has reached that conclusion using own knowledge or information from other historians. This is only an extract from an answer and this level of response would need to be sustained throughout the answer to get to the top band.

QuestionAssess the view that appeasement was the only realistic option for British policy towards Germany between 1936 and 1938.

Example answerAdamthwaite’s view is not entirely convincing. He has a point in showing that Britain underestimated the force of the German Army and Air Force but such a view can only come with the benefit of hindsight. Within the timeframe Germany posed a threat and attempting to reconcile it in order to avoid a war cannot be deemed an unreasonable choice given the circumstances, as McDonough states (McDonough, F. Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement, pp. 33–35).

There is evidence that Britain was unprepared in the period… Frank McDonough stated… the impoverished state of Britain’s military forces greatly influenced the adoption of the policy of

Table 1 Making a judgement about the passages

PassageView of passage about the issue

Evidence from the passage

Own knowledge to support or challenge view Judgement 1–6

A

B

C

D

appeasement. Britain had reduced spending on armament sig-nificantly in the 1920s with the Ten Year Rule. The situation was addressed after 1936 but could not be remedied overnight. Between 1936 and 1938 military spending rose from 5% to 8% of national income (Overy, R. The Origins of the Second World War, p. 54). Therefore Adamthwaite’s argument is invalid.

Examiner’s commentsBetter candidates will not only evaluate the sources but will structure their answer so that there is a clear argument and answer to the question. A strong answer will make judgements or interim judge-ments about the source before bringing all the interim judgements together in a conclusion.

How do you check your work?Your teacher is not able to mark drafts and return them to you for correction. It is therefore important that you check your work against the mark scheme to ensure that you have done the best you possibly can. You can use the following list to check your work. For the interpretation paper:

■ check you have used every passage ■ highlight in one colour where you have explained the view about

the issue stated in the passage ■ highlight in another colour where you have used evaluative

words ■ highlight in another colour where you have used your own

knowledge ■ highlight in another colour where you have reached a judgement

For the investigation paper: ■ check the number of sources you have used ■ highlight in one colour where you have explained the view of the

passage about the issue ■ highlight in another colour where you have used evaluative words ■ highlight in another colour where you have used your own

knowledge ■ highlight in another colour where you have reached a judgement

Remove all of the highlighting before submitting your final answer.Although you may not be able to judge the quality of your evalu-

ation, if you cannot find evaluative words you will not reach Level 3 for AO2. In the same way, if an answer has large amounts of own knowledge highlighted and very little use of the passages or sources then you will not have scored well.

Follow this process as you write each paragraph and leave enough time to ensure that you focus on the key skills essential for the higher levels.

Nick Fellows is a senior examiner and the author of Disorder and Rebellion in Tudor England (Access to History series), published by Hodder Education www.hoddereducation.co.uk

The rise and fall of Hitler’s henchmen

1935– 36: Göring lost his power over Himmler as the Gestapo became independent of his jurisdiction. This was decided by a 1935 court ruling and confirmed in 1936 by Hitler. Also, the Gestapo was extended to cover the whole nation.

1919 1933 1934 1935 1936

Pow

erle

ssPo

wer

ful

Although Roehm was not part of Hitler’s cabinet until December 1933, he was a powerful figure in the Nazi Party as he was leader of the SA. This gave him a private army that could potentially challenge Hitler’s position. Roehm also represented the Nazi left, who were unhappy with the increasingly ‘respectable’ Hitler.

Göring was important to the Nazi seizure of power. He was connected to important figures in the conservative elite through his aristocratic wife. Consequently, he helped the Nazis look respectable. In 1933 he was appointed minister of the interior for Prussia and was speaker for the Reichstag — two positions of real power. He also became head of the air force in spite of army opposition. This showed Hitler’s confidence in him.

Goebbels fell out with Hitler in 1930. Goebbels wanted a genuinely socialist economic policy. Nonetheless, in 1933 Goebbels backed down and joined Hitler’s cabinet as propaganda minister.

Hess had been Hitler’s close friend since the Putsch. In 1933 he became a member of Hitler’s cabinet and was appointed as Hitler’s deputy. The role of Hitler’s No. 2 had no real power. Indeed, he got the job as he was no real threat to Hitler.

By 1933 Himmler was head of the SS, a subsection of the SA.

1933: Himmler was made head of all state police outside Prussia. He set up concentration camps for political prisoners.

June 1934: Roehm failed to compromise with Hitler and was assassinated during the Night of the Long Knives.

Goebbels masterminded many propaganda successes and proved his worth as minister.

1934: Himmler was appointed head of the Gestapo in Prussia by Göring. He and Göring plotted to overthrow Roehm. The SS took part in the Night of the Long Knives. Hitler rewarded Himmler by making the SS independent of the SA.

June 1934: Göring and Himmler masterminded Roehm’s assassination. Once Roehm was killed, Göring expected to be made commander-in-chief of the army. Hitler took that job himself. Nonetheless, Göring’s air ministry was made independent, and Göring was given a senior post in the army.

Hitler commissioned Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will behind Goebbels’ back.

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GoebbelsGoebbelsGoebbelsGoebbels

GöringGöringGöringGöring

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The rise and fall of Hitler’s henchmen

1936: As the Nazi regime radicalised, Himmler’s SS became more powerful. The old Weimar Constitution and judges could no longer constrain the extralegal action of the SS. The SS started to expand its role and position itself to take over anti-Jewish policy.

1938: The FYPO made Göring very rich. Göring used his position in the air force to spy on other Nazis, allowing him to keep one step ahead. Göring and Himmler orchestrated the Blomberg–Fitsch affair. Göring became Germany’s highest-ranking soldier but not minister of war. Also, the FYPO lost control of Jewish policy.

1938: Himmler’s SS gained control of Jewish policy after Kristallnacht.

1938: Goebbels lost Hitler’s support due to an affair with a Czech actress. He called off the affair and engineered Kristallnacht to regain Hitler’s confidence.

War: Himmler established the Waffen SS, a rival to the army. The concentration camp empire grew and the SS started the Final Solution.

1939: Göring was nominated as Hitler’s official No. 2. Nonetheless, his long-term drug addiction meant that he lost the ability to control his empire.

Goebbels’ propaganda became increasingly important as the Second World War progressed. He committed suicide on 1 May 1945, the day after Hitler‘s suicide.

Late in the war Himmler tried to negotiate peace with the USA and UK behind Hitler’s back. Hitler sacked him and sentenced him to death.

After war broke out, Göring’s failures became evident. His FYPO had not made the economy ready for war and his air force was not as good as the RAF. Speer took over economic management in 1942. Göring went into a drug-fuelled, semi-retirement. He was sacked and arrested by the SS in 1945 after he attempted to make peace behind Hitler’s back.

1941: Hess flew to Britain on his own initiative to try to negotiate peace. Hitler sentenced him to death.

1937 1938 1939 1940 1946

1935–37: Göring skilfully manipulated the economic crisis of 1935–36 to increase his power. He arbitrated between Darré and Schacht in 1936 and then received approval from Hitler to set up the Four Year Plan Organisation (FYPO). By 1937 he was in total charge of Nazi economic policy and Jewish policy.

Hess became increasingly irrelevant. He never had any major influence due to his lack of understanding of the mechanics of power and his inability to take any action on his own initiative. He was totally and deliberately subservient to his Führer.

Hess’ position was further weakened. Hitler became worried by Hess’ lack of mental stability and distanced himself from him. In 1939 he became Hitler’s No. 3.

Robin Bunce

17September 2011

20th_Century_History_Review_vol_7_issue_1

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