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RESOLUTIONONSYRIA

ByMICHAELSCHREIBERPhiladelphiaat-largeunit

Thegenerallineofthisresolutionisbeingpresentedforavoteatthe2018SocialistAction

convention.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

I. FramingthediscussionAbriefsummaryofthesituationinSyriaThecurrentpictureAdigestofU.S.interventionintoSyriaSocialistAction’searlyanalysisAnunfortunateshiftinourlineWhatisthenatureofthewar?2018DPRerrsonSyria

II.Backgroundtothewar

Thesourcesofoppression“Independence”butnorealliberationStalinistslaudthe“progressive,anti-imperialist”militaryBonapartismBasharinpower:Neo-liberalismandausterityPovertyinruralareas;migrationtothecities

III.Fromupsurgetocivilwar

Assadrepressestheprotestmovement(withdocumentation)TerrorbombingofcivilianneighborhoodsGovernmentinrebelareas“Islamization”ofthestruggleDidtheU.S.“create”or“fightalongside”ISIS?

IV.Thesocialistprogram

Therightofoppressednationstoself-determinationTheantiwarmovement:“Twolines?”TrotskyonChinaThewayforward

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I.FramingthediscussionAbriefsummaryofthesituationinSyria

TheSyrianwarisquitepossiblytheworsthumandisasterofthenewmillennium.The

scaleofdeathanddestruction—withentirecitieslaidwaste—isstaggering.Mostsourcesagreethatthenumberofdeathsisintheneighborhoodofhalfamillion,closetofivetimesthenumberwhowerekilledinthewarinneighboringIraq.Aboutone-thirdofthedeadarecivilians,ofwhomtheoverwhelmingmajoritywerekilledbySyriangovernmentforcesandtheirforeignallies—notonlyIranianandRussianforcesbutoftenmercenariesfromAfghanistan,Iraq,Lebanon,andelsewhere.TheWorldBankestimatedinJune2017thatone-thirdofallbuildingsinthecountry,andhalfofitshospitalsandschools,hadbeendamagedordestroyedAtleast5.6millionpeople(overaquarterofthepre-warpopulation)havefledSyria

becauseofthewar,whilearound6.6millionaredisplacedwithinthecountry,accordingtoUnitedNationsrecords.Putanotherway,overhalfofthepre-warpopulationofthecountryhavebeenuprootedfromtheirhomes.Thisisthelargestrefugeecrisisofourtime.ThewarinSyriabeganasapopularstruggleagainsttheauthoritarian,“crony-capitalist”

regimeofBasharAssad.InFebruary2011,groupsofyoungactivists,inspiredbytheArabSpring,issuedacallforaDayofRage.Theresponsewaslight,butonemonthlater,afterseveralteenagersinthecityofDaraawerearrestedandtorturedforwritinganti-regimegraffitionawall,themassprotestmovementtookoff.Wewillprovidemoreanalysisoftheconditionsthatledtothestrugglelaterinthisdocument.Attheoutset,hereisabriefsummaryofsomeofthemajoraspectsofthewar:Inthesummerof2011,followingaperiodofseveralmonthsinwhichpeacefulprotests

demandingeconomicandsocialreformshadbeenbrutallyattackedbygovernmentsecurityforces,hundredshadbeenkilled,andthousandshadbeenarrestedor“disappeared,”thecallforAssadtoleaveofficebecamewidespread.Forthenextyear,populardemonstrationscontinuedinhundredsoftownsandcitiesandevenincreasedinfrequency.However,asgovernmenttroops,police,andfascist-likeshabeehagoonsquadscontinuedtorampupthelevelofrepression,theneedforself-defensechangedthegeneralnatureofthestruggle.Someprotestersbegantoarmthemselves,andhome-grownlocalmilitiasmadetheirappearance.Afterashortwhile,over1000militiaswereinthefray.Someweremainlysecularin

orientation,whileothersprofessedallegiancetovariousformsofIslamicbelief.ManybecameaffiliatedtothelooseamalgamationcalledtheFreeSyrianArmy,butcentralizedleadershipandcoordinationwerelacking,andweaponswerealsoinshortsupply.DesertersfromAssad’sSyrianArabArmyalsoswelledtheranksoftheFSA;manyofthemswitchedsidesafterbeingorderedbytheirofficerstofireoncivilianpopulations.TheFSAclaimedatonepointthatabout189,000ofitssoldiersweredesertersfromthegovernmentranks(around61percentofthe300,000-manFreeSyrianArmyin2011).Atthesametime,theSyrianNationalCouncilanditssuccessor,theSyrianNational

Coalition—agenerallybourgeoisandpetty-bourgeois“leadership”composedmainlyofindividualsinexile,manyofwhomwereclosetotheMuslimBrotherhood—wererecognizedandpromotedbytheUnitedStatesandothercountries,buthadlimitedpracticalauthorityinthestruggleinsideSyria.Forthefirstyearormoreintothewar,itappearsthattheFSAandotheranti-Assad

militiascapturedmostoftheirweapons(mainlysmallarms)fromenemystocksorpurchasedthemontheblackmarket.Intime,however,fundsandweaponscameintoSyriafromwealthyGulfStatebenefactors,fromSyrianslivingabroad,andfromothercountries,

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chieflyQatarandSaudiArabia.Thishelpedtoplacemajorportionsoftheanti-Assadmovementundertheswayofthebetter-armedconservativeIslamicmilitias.Somemilitiabrigades,althoughmainlysecularornon-denominationalintheirorientation,wereredubbedwithnamesoffiguresfromIslamictheologicalhistory.Abrigadenamed“CheGuevara”wouldnothavebeenlikelytoobtainfundingfromconservativesourcesintheGulf,observesaSyriancitedintheexcellentbook“BurningCountry,”byRobinYassin-KassabandLeilaA-Shami(PlutoPress2016).Intime,theinfluxofIslamistmilitantsfromabroad—manycomingthroughTurkey(the

forcesthateventuallybecametheIslamicState[ISIS]cameinitiallyfromIraq)—alsohadamajoreffectinchangingthenatureoftheanti-Assadstruggleinmanyareas.Inthemeantime,theSyriangovernment’sassaultontheprotestshadproceededthrough

threequickinitialphases.AsYassinal-HajSalehdescribesitin“TheImpossibleRevolution”(Haymarket2017),fromMarchthroughearlyAugust2011,theregimeapproachedtheprotestsmainlyasagravesecuritymatter.Afterwards,untilearlyFebruary2012,itswitchedtolaunchingfull-blownmilitaryoperationsagainstit.February2012,hestates,markedthetransitiontoaphaseof“outrightterrorismandascorched-earthpolicy,ofmassmurdersandthedestructionofneighbourhoodsandtowns,especiallyinHoms,Idlib,Hama,andcertainareasofDamascus.”Butaftermeetingconcertedarmedresistance,theAssadregimefoundthatitsmilitary

resourceswerebeingstretchedthin.Itwithdrewfromvastsectionsofthecountry,chieflyinthenorth,theeast,andthefarsouth.Initswake,oppositionalmilitiasmovedinandalternativetownandvillageadministrationsweresetup.TheAssadistsconcentratedontryingtoreclaimandsecureindividualcitiesinthefertileandmorepopulatedwesternsectionofthecountry—whatwasconsidered“usefulSyria,”intheoldparlanceoftheFrenchcolonialists.Thiswasdoneataterriblecost.Homs,forexample,oneofthemaincentersoftheearlyprotests,wasalmostrazedbyAssadistbombingandartillery—withthousandsofdeathsandsome30,000civiliansdislocatedfromtheirhomes.YetthecenterofHomswasnotoccupiedbytheAssadforcesuntilMay2014,andtheentirecitywasnotcaptureduntilMay2017.Infact,forthefirstfouryearsofthewar,thedemoralizedSyrianArabArmy,evenwithfar

superiorfirepower,struggledtoholdterritory.TheconscriptedsoldiersinAssad’sarmyoftenbalkedatjoiningthefightagainstfellowcitizens.Draft-dodgingwascommon,withparentsinmanycommunitiesprotestingandblockadingstreetstowardoffthemilitaryrecruiters.TheSyriangovernmentarmywasestimatedtohavedeclinedfrom300,000atthestartofthewartobarely100,000afewyearslater.Afteraseriesofgovernmentsetbacksin2012and2013,IranandtheassociatedHizbollah

andShi’itemilitias(fromIraq,Pakistan,Afghanistan,etc.)sentadditionalweaponsandtroops,butitwasn’tenoughtoquellthepopularrebellion.However,rebelmilitiaswerealsoheldbackbydeficienciesinweaponryandorganization.Bytheendof2013,thefightingappearedtobeapproachingstalemate;oppositionforces,forexample,tookcontroloftheeastern,working-classsectionsofAleppo,buttheirtroopslackedenoughammunitiontotrytooccupytheentirecity.Aroundthattime,reactionaryIslamistmilitias—primarilyal-NusraandtheevenmorebrutalIslamicState—hadestablishedabaseandstartedtomovetowardcenterstageinthewar.Bymid-2015,theregimehadonceagainlostalotofground;manycommentatorsinthe

WesternmediaspeculatedthatAssadwouldsoonbecompelledtostepdown.However,theintroductionofRussianairpowerattheendofSeptember2015allowedtheAssadistforcestoresumetheinitiative.TheRussiansenteredthewarwiththepledgethattheirforceswouldbeusedtorepelISISandother“terrorists.”Inreality,RussianairpowerwasveryrarelyusedagainstISIS.ButitdidallowAssad’smilitarytosignificantlystepuptheirability

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tobombandlaysiegetotownsandcitiesthathadjoinedtherevoltandeventuallytorecapturethem.Relentlessbombardmentsofcivilianpopulations,andmakinguseofinsidiousweaponssuchasclusterbombsandbarrelbombs,broughtthewartoanewlevelofdestructionandhumanmisery.Fromthattimetothepresent,themajoraxisofthewarcenteredontheincreasingly

successfuldrivebytheSyriangovernment—oftenwithIranian,Hezbollah,orRussianforcesleadingthewayanddoingthebruntofthefighting—tocaptureterritorythatwasunderoppositionaladministration.Therebelmilitias,conversely,werepushedbackalmostentirelyintoadefensiveposture.Inthemeantime,severallessprominentconflictsweretakingplace.Ofthese,themajor

onewasthebattleoftheU.S.-supportedandKurdishPYD-ledSyrianDemocraticForceagainstISISintheeasternsectionofthecountry.Syrian,Iranian,andRussianforcesalsotookactionagainstISIS,althoughmuchlessso,andverylateinthegame.ThecurrentpictureThispastyear(2018)sawtwomajorSyriangovernmentoffensives,aidedbyRussian

bombing.Largeopposition-heldportionsofEasternGhouta(nearDamascus)andtheareaaroundDaraainthesouthwereretaken—resultinginahugespikeinciviliandeathsandtensofthousandsofpeopledisplacedfromtheirhomesandvillages.MostofthecountryisnowinthehandsoftheDamascusgovernmentanditsRussianandIranianallies.TheareaofSyriagovernedbyanti-Assadpopularorganizationsandmilitiashasshrunkto

littlemorethanwhatexistsinthenorthernprovinceofIdlib.Withapopulationgenerallyestimatedatcloseto3million,Idlibisswollenwithrefugeesfromotherareasofthecountry.(TheAssadistandRussianmilitaryfrequentlyarrangeda“deal”withinsurgentfightersandtheirsympathizerswhowereundersiegetotransportthemtoasafehaveninIdlib.)TheIdlibcountrysideisfilledwithovercrowdedsheltersandtentcities.Muchofthefoodproductionofthisoncerichagriculturalarea,alreadydamagedbydroughtandmismanagementbythegovernment,wasfurtherdestroyedbythewar.DespiteaidcominginfromTurkey,thereisashortsupplyoffoodandmedicine.Accordingtorecentreports,localcommitteeswithpopularsupportandallegiancetothe

goalsoftheoriginaldemocraticupsurgeagainstAssadstillholdonintheprovince.Around150ofthesecouncilswereinoperation,atleastuntilrecently,accordingtodatacitedbyLeilaAl-Shami(authorof“Syria:BurningCountry”)inherblog.TheFreeSyrianArmyoperatesthere,butitsaffiliatedmilitiasarerelativelyweakandfragmented.ConservativeIslamistmilitias,includingtheformeral-Nusra—onceaffiliatedwithal-QaedaandnowexpandedintoafrontcalledHay’atTahriral-Sham(HTS)—havemadecontinualgainsdespitecommunityresistanceagainstthem,andtheynowapparentlycontrolareascontainingamajorityofthepopulation.AsIwritethis,easternareasofIdlibhavebeenbombedbyRussianwarplanesandSyrian

helicopters.ManysourcesreportthatSyriantroopsandarmoredunitsaremassingontheedgeofIdlib,anditincreasinglyappearsthatafull-scaleattackbyAssad’sforcesandtheiralliesisimminent.Thiscouldleadtoabloodbath;asyetthereisnoclearpathforrefugeestofleethefighting.ThesituationhasbeencomplicatedbyreportsthattheKurdishPYDhasbeendiscussing

workingwithAssadisttroopsto“takeback”Idlib,inexchangefortheSyriangovernment’sawardingAfrinandManbijtoKurdishadministration.Atthesametime,TurkeyhasobservationpostsintheborderregionofnorthernIdlibandinAfrin;itsupportssomeFSAunitsthat,togetherwithseveralIslamistmilitias,arepartofthenew“NationalLiberationFront”inIdlib.TurkeyhasbeenindiscussionswithRussiaaboutperspectivesforthis

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region.Thiscouldleadtosomesortofde-escalationagreementinIdlibthatwouldforestalltheworsteffectsofaSyriangovernmentassault.ThiswouldbetoTurkey’sadvantageineliminatinganotherrushofrefugeesstrivingtocrossintoitsterritory;TurkeyalsohopesthatasettlementmightkeeptheKurdsfromgettinginvolvedmorecloselyalongitsborder.ClosetoaquarterofSyria,inthenortheast,isgenerallyunderKurdishadministration—

andreceivesU.S.aidand“protection.”Asidefromahandfulofminorskirmishes,thePYDmaintainedadétentewiththeAssadregimeduringthewarandevenfoughtagainstFSAandotherrebelunitsonoccasion.Today,theKurdshaveworkingagreementswiththeDamascusgovernmentandwiththeRussiansforoperationandprofit-sharinginsomeoftheoilfieldsintheregion.Moreover,thePYDhasenterednegotiationswiththeSyrianregimetowardestablishingitsparticipationinapost-warfederalstate.Atthesametime,however,theUnitedStateshasbasedover2000troopsand“specialforces”thereandisreportedlyconstructinganairfieldnearRaqqa.SomeofthecountrythatwasdestroyedandrecapturedbyAssadisttroopsisveryslowly

rebuilding.Warprofiteershavebeenbuyinguplandandseekingconstructioncontracts;foreigncompaniesaresniffingaroundforwaystoentertheSyrianmarket.Buttownsandcitieshavebeendepopulated,anditislikelythatthousands—perhapsmillions—ofpeoplewhofledorlosttheirhomestobombingwillneverreclaimtheirproperty.LawNo.63,from2012,empowerstheMinistryofFinancetoseizepropertybelongingto

peoplewhofallunderthecounter-terrorismlaw(LawNo.19of2012).OtherswhomightwishtoreturntotheirhomesfaceretaliationandprosecutionbySyriangovernmentauthoritiesforparticipatingin,orbeingsympatheticto,theanti-Assadresistance.InEasternGhoutaandDaraaprovinces,conqueredbyAssad’sforcesearlierthisyear,arrestshavealreadytakenplaceofpeoplewhoareperceivedtohavebeenpoliticalopponents.LawNo.10,passedthisyear,authorizestheformationofnewlocaladministrativeunits

thatallowfortheconfiscationofpropertybythestate,withoutcompensation,iftheownerfailstoprovetheirownershipwithinayear.Thiswillbeverydifficultfordisplacedresidents—especiallythosenowlivinginrefugeecampsinothercountries.Manypeoplehadnopropertydeedsinthefirstplace,orlostthemwiththeirotherbelongingsduringthewar.TheNorwegianRefugeeCouncilestimatesthat70%ofrefugeeslackbasicidentificationdocuments.ThereareindicationsthatpropertyleftbehindbySunniscouldberedistributedtoregime

loyalistsandShi’itemilitiamembers.AndDamascus,Aleppo,andothercitieshavealreadyseenlargeneighborhoodsofworkers’housing(formerlyheldbyoppositionalforcesanddamagedinthewar)bulldozed.Publishedplansshowtheseredevelopeddistrictsoccupiedbyskyscrapers,shoppingmalls,andrestaurantsforthenewbourgeoisie.Obviously,theSyriangovernmentlackstheresourcestorebuildthecountryonitsown.It

appearslikelythattheeconomicandpoliticalfutureofSyriawillbemoldedtoasignificantdegreethroughtheagencyofthemajorcountriesthathaveintervenedintothewar—RussiaandIraninthefirstplace,andalsoTurkey.TheUnitedStatesisapossiblecontenderintheeasternpartofthecountry,thoughTrumphasspokenvaguelyaboutwithdrawingU.S.troopsfromthearea,andrecentlymadeoverturestotheSyrianregime.TheTrumpadministrationhasalsobackedawayfromdemandsthat“Assadmuststepdown”;itappearsreconciledtothecontinuanceoftheregimeandispreparedtodobusinesswithit.However,TrumphasraisedstrongobjectionstothecontinuedpresenceofIranianforcesinSyria,andhassofarunsuccessfullytriedtoconvinceRussiatopressureIrantoleave.OnSept.3,theWhiteHousesentoutatweetbeggingAssad,theRussians,andtheIranians

nottomounta“reckless”assaultonIdlib.TheTrumpadministrationcitedhumanitariangroundsforitsconcern,althoughtheU.S.wasneververyworriedabouttheciviliancasualtiesthatoccurredinitsownassaultsonRaqqa,Mosul,andTikrit.Anddespitethe

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crocodiletearsforIdlib,theU.S.hasmadeclearthatitwillstandawayfromwhateverhappensthere,justasitdidwhenAssadandtheRussianstookDaraainthesouth.

AdigestofU.S.interventionintoSyriaSyria’sforeignpolicyduringthelastseveraldecadeshascausedtheUnitedStatestoview

itasanaturalfoe.Itssupport(althoughitwasinconsistent)forthePalestiniancauseagainstIsrael,itsclosenesstoIranandtoHezbollahinLebanon,itscollaborationwithforcesfightingagainsttheU.S.occupationofIraq,andthefactthatithaspermittedRussiatooperateanavalbaseonitscoasthaveallbeenseenbytheU.S.ascountertoitsinterests.However,U.S.actionsagainstSyriatendedtooscillatethroughtheyearsbetweenoutrightbelligerenceandwhattheStateDepartmentcalls“engagement”—i.e.,the“carrotorthestick.”KnowingthattheAssadregimetendstobeverypragmaticandinconsistentinitsforeignpolicyhasoftencausedU.S.officialstobelievethattheregimewouldbepliableandthattheycouldtiltittowardU.S.interests;atthesetimes,relationssometimeswarmedupconsiderably.However,thegeneralunderlyingattitudetowardtheAssadregimehasbeenoneofdistrust.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1991,theUnitedStateshadfewserious

challengestoitspositionastheleadingworldpower.TheremovaloftheUSSRasanadversarysmoothedthewaytowardmakingwaronSaddamHussein’sIraqin1991byaU.S.-ledcoalition.AndtheGulfWarvictoryinturnseemedtosolidifyU.S.dominanceinthe

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MiddleEast.ThehaughtinessoftheUnitedStatesgrewundertheGeorgeW.Bushadministration,asitmanufacturedasecondwaragainstIraqin2003.IntheearlyyearsoftheBushadministration,SyriawascourtedbyWashingtonasa

possibleallyintheMiddleEast.Afterthe9/11tragedy,capturedIslamic“terrorists”were“renditioned”bytheAmericanstoprisoninSyria,withtheknowledgethatAssad’storturerscouldextractinformationusingmethodsthattheU.S.couldclaimithadkeptitshandscleanof—atleastfortherecord.OneexampleinvolvedHaydarZammar,anallegedal-Qaedarecruiter,whowasarrested

inMoroccoinOctober2001andrenderedbytheCIAtoSyria.“USofficialsinDamascussubmitwrittenquestionstotheSyrians,whorelayedZammar’sanswersback,”TimemagazinereportedinJuly2002.“StateDepartmentofficialslikethearrangementbecauseitinsulatestheUSgovernmentfromanytorturetheSyriansmaybeapplyingtoZammar.”ButevenbeforetheU.S.invasionofIraq,asthepost-9/11UnitedStatesembarkedona

worldwide“WarAgainstTerrorism,”SyriahadgoodreasontofearthatittoowasontheU.S.hitlist,asacountrythatsupposedlywasharboringterrorists.Syriawasaddedtotheadministration’sso-called“AxisofEvil”byU.S.SecretaryofStateJohnBolton.In2002,aSyriaAccountabilityActwasproposedinCongress.Democratsaswellas

Republicansenthusiasticallyclimbedontothepro-warbandwagon.Theco-sponsoroftheSAA,EliotEngel(Democrat-N.Y.)toldCongress,“WewillnottolerateSyriansupportforterrorism.WewillnottolerateSyrianoccupationofLebanon.…Idonotwanttowitnesshorrorsworsethan9/11.IurgetheadministrationtogettoughonSyria.”HisDemocraticPartycolleaguefromNewYork,GaryAckerman,pipedup,“Syriaisasmall,decrepit,littleterrorstatethathasbeenyankingourchainforyears.”AftertheU.S.invadedIraq,SyriawasseenbymanyU.S.officialsasnextonthelistof

countriestoundergoU.S.-engineeredregimechange.ParticularlygallingtotheUnitedStateswasthefactthatAssad,fearingtheestablishmentofaU.S.bastioninneighboringIraq,hadopenedSyria’sborderstoradicalIslamiststotraveltoIraqtofightagainsttheU.S.occupation.OnDec.12,2003,GeorgeW.BushsignedtheSAA,whichbannedalltradewithSyria

exceptfoodandmedicine,demandingboth“anendtoitsillegalshipmentsofweaponsandothermilitaryitemstoIraq”and“anendtoitsoccupationofLebanon.”AftertheFebruary2005assassinationofLebanesePrimeMinisterRaficHariri,anactthatmanyattributedtoSyrianagents,BushwithdrewhisambassadorfromDamascusandurgedothercountriestodiplomaticallyboycottSyria,whileescalatingthedemandthatSyriawithdrawitstroopsfromLebanon.Thatyear,severalclasheswerereportedontheSyria-IraqborderbetweenU.S.andSyriansoldiers.Despitethepressure,AssadkeptahandintheIraqwar.Twoyearslater,inApril2007,

GeneralDavidPetraeus,whohadrecentlybeenappointedcommanderoftheU.S.-ledmultinationalforcesinIraq,statedthat“80to90percentofthesuicideattacksarecarriedoutbyforeigners”channeledintoIraqbya“networkthattypicallybringsthemthroughSyria.”Nevertheless,withinanotheryear,relationsbegantowarmupbetweenSyriaandtheU.S.

ThiswasfacilitatedbythefactthatSyriahadestablishedamutualsecuritypactwiththeIraqigovernmentin2006.AsthesituationcontinuedtodeterioratefortheUnitedStatesinIraq,theU.S.governmentspokewiththeAssadregimeaboutmethodstostabilizethesituationthere.TheUnitedStatesfoundithadreachedtoofarinIraq.BothIraqwars—andespeciallythe

secondone—hadwhippedupacauldronofcompetingforcesthatunderminedU.S.attemptstoestablishits“hegemony”overtheregion:

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•IntheaftermathoftheGulfWar,strongviolencebrokeoutbetweenSunnisandShi’itesinIraq.Ingeneral,SaddamHussein’sIraqhadfavoredSunniArabsattheexpenseofShi’ites,whowerethemajorityinthecountry.ManyShialeaderstookrefugeinIran,andestablishedcontactswiththeleadershipoftheIslamicRepublic.WhentheseShialeadersreturnedtoIraqafterthe2003war,theydominatedthenewgovernmentandinstitutedastrongalliancewithIran.•TheIran-Iraqalliance(whichhelpedtoestablishalandcorridorthroughSyriato

HezbollahinLebanon)causedareactionfromtheSaudimonarchy,whichdreadedtheriseofIranianpoliticalandeconomicpowerintheregion;theyalsofearedthattheoppressedShi’iteminorityinSaudiArabiaitselfmightbestirredintorebellion.ThisfurtheredSaudiaggressivenessintheregion—providingaidtoanti-SyrianforcesinLebanon,etc.•Also,portionsoftheSunnipopulationinIraq,includingformermilitaryofficersand

officialsfromtheoustedBa’athistregime,tookarmedactionagainsttheShi’ite-dominatedgovernment,whichfedintotheriseofISIS.•Andfinally,theTurkishgovernmentwasriledbytheestablishmentofaKurdishenclave

innorthernIraq,andbeefedupitsmilitaryoperationsontheborder.ThecontinuinginsurgencyinIraq,togetherwithfactorssuchastheworldfinancialcrisis

andtheriseofantiwarsentimentintheUnitedStates,causedtheincomingObamaadministrationtodrawbackfromtheadventurismoftheBushyearsinregardtotheMiddleEast—atleast,initially.AndtensionseasedstillfurtherbetweentheU.S.andSyria.SyriawithdrewitssupportfromtheradicalIslamistnetworksthatithadhelpedtoinfiltrateintoIraq,anditimprisonedanumberofIslamicmilitants.ThebarriersofinternationalisolationthathadsurroundedSyriaquicklybeganto

crumble.AssadwasinvitedtoaconferenceofEuropean-MediterraneancooperationhostedbyFrancein2008.DiplomatsandtradedelegationsvisitedDamascus.ObamarenewedformalrelationsandappointedanambassadortoSyria,RobertFord.AslateasFebruary2011—justasthefirstsmallprotestdemonstrationsweretakingplaceinDamascus—SenatorJohnKerrywasinvolvedintryingtorestartSyrian-Israelinegotiations.FromtimetotimeKerryandhiswifeweredinnerguestsofBasharandAsmaAssadinDamascus.Obviously,theU.S.andinternationalcapitalismwerepleasedbyAssad’sneoliberal

economicreforms.AlthoughpeoplewereprotestingpolicebrutalityinthestreetsofDamascus,andraisingplacardsthatread,“YestoFreedom,”suchtopicswererarelymentionedinpolitediplomaticcircles.EvenafterAssadisttroopsandsnipersbegantoshootprotesters,andthedemonstrations

becamemassive,theresponseinWashingtonandotherWesterncapitalsremainedtepid.EventsinEgyptandthemilitarycampaigninLibyatookprecedence.OnMarch27,HillaryClintonfamouslyassuredaCBStelevisionreporter:“ManyofthemembersofCongressofbothpartieswhohavegonetoSyriainrecentmonthshavesaidtheybelievehe[Assad]isareformer.”Amonthlater,Obamawasabitstronger,however,urgingAssadto“changecoursenow.”OnlyonAugust,afterthethemeoftheprotestshadshiftedtodemandingthatAssadleave

power,didObamachangehistone,announcing:“ThefutureofSyriamustbedeterminedbyitspeople,butPresidentBasharal-Assadisstandingintheirway.Hiscallsfordialogueandreformhaverunghollowwhileheisimprisoning,torturing,andslaughteringhisownpeople.WehaveconsistentlysaidthatPresidentAssadmustleadademocratictransitionorgetoutoftheway.Hehasnotled.ForthesakeoftheSyrianpeople,thetimehascomeforPresidentAssadtostepaside.”Puttingteethintothepronouncement,theU.S.orderedaboycottofSyrianoil.Thereisno

evidence,however,thatObamahadmuchintentionoffollowingupthestatementwithmilitaryaction;theU.S.wasstilloccupiedinLibyaatthetime.WhydidObamaspeak

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againstAssadatthatmoment?SomecommentatorspointtothefactthattheadministrationhadlostfaceintheMiddleEastbyitsprolongedsupportforMubarakinEgyptwhenhewasbesiegedbyprotestersanditsdelayinshowingenthusiasmfortheArabSpring.Now,theObamaadministrationjudgedthatAssad’sdaysasheadofstatewouldsoonbeover;itdidnotwanttomakethemistakeonceagainofnotdeclaringitselfsoonenoughwiththewinners.Byintervening,theU.S.hopedtokeepalidonthedirectionoftheprotests;maintaining

supportfortheprotestscouldhelptomoderatethemandavoidamoreradicaloutcome—whichAssad’sviolenceseemedlikelytoprovoke.Andontheotherhand,ifanewgovernmentweretotakepowerinDamascus,theU.S.wantedtoberightinpositiontoreapfuturebusinessanddiplomaticrewards.OnFeb.6,2012,ObamasaidconfidentlythatAssad’sfall“isnotgoingtobeamatterofif,

it’sgoingtobeamatterofwhen”(citedin“Syria:TheFalloftheHouseofAssad,”byDavidW.Lesch,YaleUniversityPress2013).ButtheU.S.calculatedpoorlyinregardtotheamountofsupportthatAssadcouldcounton.UnlikeinEgypt,forexample,thetopechelonsofthemilitarystayedloyal.Thephaseofstreetprotestsrapidlyevolvedintofull-scalewar,andinlessthanayear,theU.S.begantoinvolveitselfinthemilitaryaction.HillaryClintonputthesituationverydelicatelyinhermemoir,“HardChoices,”when

writingofthearrangementasshesupposedlyunderstooditinearly2012:“Certaincountrieswouldincreasetheireffortstofunnelarms[totherebels],whileothers[i.e.,theU.S.]wouldfocusonhumanitarianaid”(quotedinPhillips,“TheBattleforSyria”).Inreality,beginningin2012,theCIAhadahandinclandestinelyfunnelingarmsacross

theTurkishbordertoSyrianrebels.InJulyofthatyear,Clintonsaidin“HardChoices,”shedevelopedaplanwithCIAdirectorPetraeustotrainandequipaforceof“moderate”rebelswho“couldbetrustedwithAmericanweapons”(citedin“TheBattleforSyria”byChristopherPhillips,YaleUniversityPress).Inamoreup-frontcapacity,inFebruary2013,theU.S.startedgivingmedicalsuppliesand

othernon-lethalaidtotheinsurgents.Theninrapidfashion,inaccordwithObama’sauthorizationofApril2013,supplyingarms

totherebelgroupsbecameofficial.WhydidtheU.S.involveitselfmilitarily?Foronething,fromtheU.S.pointofview,thestakeshadgoneup—additionalinternationalforceswereparticipatingintheconflict.Irananditsally,Hezbollah,gaveAssadamajorboost,whichcausedthemajorU.S.allyintheArabworldandarch-competitortoIran,SaudiArabia,toincreaseitsaidtotheanti-Assadside.U.S.ambassadorRobertFordlaterremarked,“WedidnotanticipatethatHezbollahwouldgoininsuchabigwayin2013.Wethoughtwe’dgettonegotiationsbysummer2013becausetheregimewouldbeonitsbackheels,wedidnotseeHezbollahcomingatall”(quotedinPhillips,“TheBattleforSyria”).TheU.S.couldnotstandbyifitinsistedonremainingaplayer;butitstilldallied.Evenif

PresidentObamafromtimetotimesaid,“Assadneedstostepdown,”hisadministrationheldbackfromtakingsufficientactiontooverthrowAssadoutrightbymilitaryforce.WithwarsraginginIraq,Afghanistan,andLibya,theU.S.realizedthatbecomingboggeddowninSyriacouldbecostly.Inaddition,ithadlittleconfidenceinthescatteredFSAmilitias,andfearedblowbackifarmsshouldgetintothehandsofIslamistgroupings,overwhichithadfarlesscontrol.In2012,SecretaryofStateHillaryClintonexpressedthedilemmathatU.S.warmakers

facedasshearguedagainstpoliticianswhowantedmoremilitaryaidtobesenttoSyria:“Whatarewegoingtoarmthemwithandagainstwhat?We’renotgoingtobringtanksoverthebordersofTurkey,Lebanon,andJordan.Weknowal-QaedaissupportingtheoppositioninSyria.Arewesupportingal-QaedainSyria?Hamasisnowsupportingtheopposition.ArewesupportingHamasinSyria?Ifyou’reamilitaryplannerorifyou’resecretaryofstateand

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you’retryingtofigureoutdoyouhavetheelementsofanoppositionthatisactuallyviable,thatwedon’tsee”(quotedinLesch,“Syria:TheFalloftheHouseofAssad“).Accordingly,U.S.participationinmilitaryactionagainstAssadwaslimitedandsporadic—

mainlycalculated,asObamamadeclearonmanyoccasions,asalevertobringAssadtothenegotiationstable.AlesspublicizedhopewasthatsectionsoftheregimewouldeventuallybowtothepressureandejectAssad(perhapsinacoup).Severaltimes,theU.S.entertainednegotiateddealswithRussiaandothergovernmentstoallowAssadtostayatleastuntilfutureelectionscouldbeorganized.Forseveralyears,theCIAcontinuedtoworkwithSaudiArabianoperativestoferry

thousandsofsmallweaponsovertheTurkishborder,destinedforselected“moderate”rebelmilitias.Theprogramwascostlybuthadlittleeffectinbuildingupawell-organizedmilitaryoppositionthatcouldforceAssad’sarmytoeaseitsattacks—letaloneseriouslythreatentheseatofpowerinDamascus.Soon,U.S.aidtorebelmilitiasdribbleddowntopracticallynothing.Infact,theU.S.programactedtorestrictthetypesofarmsthattherebelscouldacquire,preventingtheiracquisitionofanti-aircraftmissilesandotherheavyweaponry.AftermuchdebateinWashington,theCIAwasauthorizedtosupplysomerebelswithTOWanti-tankmissilesfromstocksheldbySaudiArabia—andthemissilesdidseemtohavehelpedmilitiasthatreceivedthemtomaketemporarygainsagainsttheAssadforces.Ontheotherhand,theCIA’sattemptstotrainmilitiamembersinthefightagainstAssad

werecompletelyineffectual.TheCIAstatesthatitspentbillionsonthetrainingproject,basedmainlyinJordan,butitencounteredonefailureafteranother.Afterawhile,thefewtraineeswhomadeitovertheborderintoSyriaweredirectedintothewaragainsttheIslamicStateandinstructednottofightAssad’sforces.After2014,theU.S.turneditsattentionalmostexclusivelytothefightagainstISIS.

SocialistAction’searlyanalysisSocialistActiontriedtofollowdevelopmentsinSyriaascloselyaspossibleduringthefirst

yearsoftherevoltandcivilwar,asnewsreportscametricklingin.Ouranalysiswasrootedinthehistoricprogramandprinciplesoftherevolutionarysocialistmovement.Thoseprinciplesincludetherightofoppressednationstoself-determination(asagainstimperialistintervention)andTrotsky’sthesisofPermanentRevolution,whichunderscorestheneedandabilityoftheoppressedmassesofunderdevelopedcountries,undertheorganizedleadershipoftheworkingclass,totranscendthelimitationsofbourgeoissocietyandtomakeasocialistrevolution.Trotsky’sthesispointsoutthatfundamentaleconomicanddemocraticgainsfortheoppressed(suchasfullnationalliberation)canonlybeachievedwiththeoverthrowofcapitalism.Therevolutionaryprinciplesthatunderpinouranalysiswerefullyreflectedtwoyears

intothewar,wheninSeptember2013wewroteasuccincteditorialoutliningSocialistAction’spositiononSyria.Inmyopinion,theessentialsofour2013position,thoughrequiringupdating,remainaccurateeventoday.Wewroteatthetime:“SocialistActionstandssquarelyopposedtoallU.S.interventionin

SyriawhilesimultaneouslysupportingtherightofthepeopleofSyriatoself-determination.SocialistActionwasamongthefirsttohailthemassiveandrepeatedpopularandpeacefuluprisingsthatchallengedthedictatorialregimeandneoliberaleconomicpoliciesofSyrianPresidentBasharal-Assad.Thesemobilizationswereregularlymetwithbrutemilitaryforce.“Todaytheseforces,organizedlargelyinLocalCoordinatingCommitteesthatprovidea

modicumofdefenseandsignificantvitalsocialservicestoSyria’sbeleagueredpeople,if

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theyprovecapableofsinkingdeeprootsintotheentirepopulation,canbecomecentraltoanyworking-classchallengetoAssad’spower,orthatofanyothertyrantwhomightfollow.”AnunfortunateshiftinourlineHowever,justamonthlaterandinto2014,SocialistAction’spositiononSyriabeganto

shift.Bytheendof2014,areaderofournewspaperwouldnolongerhavereadofoursolidaritywiththestrugglesoftheSyrianpeople.Althoughthelocalcommitteesandlocalmilitiasstillexisted—andsomepro-democracyandanti-Assadstreetprotestsstilltookplacewhenoutoftherangeofgovernmentattack—ourpaperignoredthem.Infact,althoughalargeproportionofrebelgroups—perhapsamajority,accordingto

somesources—remaineddemocraticnationalists(eventhoughsomehadanIslamicorientation),thestruggleagainstAssadwasnolongergivenanycredibilityatallinourliterature.ThewarwascharacterizedpurelyasaproductofU.S.imperialisteffortstooverthrowAssad;itwasportrayedasa“U.S.-orchestratedwar”initsentirety.Allorganizedforcesintheopposition—evenincludingISIS—werelumpedintoanamorphousgroupingofstoogesforU.S.“regime-change”objectives.Theword“rebels”wasnowplacedinquotes,sinceSocialistActionarticlesassumed(wrongly)thatvirtuallynovestigesofthepopularrebellionstillexisted.Thebeginningsofthispoliticalshiftmadeitsappearanceinafewsentencesinthe

SocialistActionpamphlet,“Syria2014:ImperialistInterventionandCivilWar,”byChristineMarie.Thepamphlethadmuchtorecommendinit.Itreportedonthepresenceofdemocraticlocalcommitteesinmanytownsandvillagesbutexplainedandwarnedofthedangersofimperialistintervention,pro-capitalistleadershipwithinthestruggle,andthegrowingtakeoverofthearmedstrugglebyconservativeIslamicforces.However,theintroductionbyJeffMackler,writteninNovember2013,wasfarmore

pessimisticintonethantherestofthepamphlet’scontents,anddescribedthepro-democracymassmovementashavingbeencompletely“marginalized”and“essentiallydefeated.”Whileacknowledginginthepamphletthat“therearereportsthatinafewtowns,

revolutionary-mindedactivistscontinuetotrytodevelopalternativeandradicallydemocraticcouncils,”ComradeMacklerdismissedthemasinsignificantinalteringthe“reactionary”directionofthestruggle.Thatstatement,asthewarwenton,turnedouttohavesometruthinit,butthecouncilshadfarmorelifeinthematthetimethaninComradeMackler’sdiagnosis.“Today,”hewentontosay,“Assad’sorganizedopponentsareundeniablyandoverwhelminglycutoutofthesameclothasAssad,withthelatter[thatis,theopponents],atbest,usingthemasssentimentforfundamentaldemocraticrights,freedom,andjusticetoachievereactionaryends.”AnOctober2014SocialistActionnewspaperarticlebyJeffMacklerwentstillfurther.Not

onlyhadtheanti-Assadforcesbecome“reactionary,”saidthearticle,buttheywerenowallseenasworkingonbehalfofU.S.imperialism.“Tragically,inSyriatoday,”Macklerwrote,“weknowofno‘rebel’forcethathasnotbeenalignedwiththeU.S.warmachineoritsallies.Thereareno‘rebels’withanyprogressivecredentials,whethertheyareoftheISISvarietyorthosebackeddirectlyorindirectlybyU.S.imperialism—suchastheso-calledFreeSyrianArmy.Weareforthedefeatofthemall.”ThePoliticalResolution,whichComradeMacklerwroteforthe2014SocialistAction

NationalConvention,triedtoexplain:“…today’swarinSyriaisawarbetweenU.S.imperialism’sdirectandindirectcapitalist-fundamentalistandreactionaryforcesonthe

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onehandandthecapitalistAssadgovernmentontheother.TheSyriamasseshavenoindependentlyorganizedpolitical,military,oreconomicpresence.”Today,witharticles,interviews,andentirebooksontheSyrianwarreadilyavailable,it

canbeseenevenmoreclearlythatthisevaluationinour2014Resolution,andinComradeMackler’svariousarticles,waswildlyinaccurate.Itwasnottruethatthedemocraticmovementhadbeendefeated;infact,inthatperiodtowncouncilsandlocalandFSAmilitiasmadegreatstridesagainstbothAssadisttroopsandagainsttheencroachmentofISIS.Theverylargecouncilsthatmanagedthecitygovernmentofrebel-heldAleppowerenotoverthrownbytheAssadistsuntiltheendof2016,althoughthebombardmenthadmadeitdifficultforthemtofunction.ThedurabilityofthepopularmovementwasglimpsedduringthebriefceasefireofMarch2016,whenanti-AssadstreetdemonstrationstookplaceinhundredsofSyriantownsandcitiesundertheslogan,“TheRevolutionContinues.”Itwasfartooearly,backin2014,tosimplyslamthedoorontheseforcesinourliteratureandcondemnthemasbeing“reactionary”andinthepayoftheimperialists.Evenindiscussionsleadinguptoour2014SocialistActionConvention,severalcomrades

intheNationalCommitteearguedthattheResolution’sassumptionsappearedfarover-generalizedandnotinaccordwithreportsinthenews,butsincethesectiononSyriawasaveryminorpartofalongandcomplexresolution,theyultimatelyvotedinfavorofthegenerallineofthedocument.IpresentedtheoralInternationalReporttotheConventionthatyear,andIdon’trememberevenmentioningSyriawithinit—ourattentionwaselsewhere.ItisequallyunfortunatethatforwelloverayearSocialistActionhadnofurther

discussionsondevelopmentsintheSyrianwar.Thus,itwasashockwhen,inNovember2015,ComradeMacklersubmittedanarticlethatmovedevenfurtherawayfromourearlierpositions.MackleroriginallymotivatedhisarticletothePoliticalCommitteeasprovidingan

analysisofthedirectentryoftheRussianmilitaryintothewarandthebeginningofmassivebombingbytheRussians.ButMackler’sarticle,whenitappeared,surprisedsomecomradesbyconcludingthatRussia’sactionsinproppinguptheAssadregimeweregenerallypositiveandevenprogressive;theywereportrayedasanecessarymeasuretoavoiduttercatastrophe.Thearticleincludedthethunderingassertionthat“theRussianinterventionmaywellhavepreventedtheovertmarchingofreactionaryjihadist/religiousfundamentalistgroupsorotherimperialist-alliedforcesintoDamascuswitharesultingLibyan-typechaos,anarchy,andbloodbathtofollow.”Asaresult,thearticleconjectured,“theopportunitiesforfutureSyriananti-capitaliststrugglemaybecomesomewhatimproved.”InthePCandNationalCommitteediscussionsofthearticlethatfollowed,somecomrades

tookexceptiontothisglowingacceptanceoftheRussianinterventionandtheastonishingassertionthatthebrutaladvanceoftheAssadforcesmightsomehow“improveopportunitiesforanti-capitaliststruggle.”TheypointedtothemassiveciviliancasualtiesthattheRussianbombinghadcaused.Howdidslaughteringworkingpeopleanddrivingthemfromtheirhomesbetterequipthemtoorganizeastruggleagainstcapitalism?TheSAPoliticalCommittee,bymajorityvote,rejectedthelineofComradeMackler’s

articleandrefuseditforpublication.(ItisimportanttostressherethatthemajorperspectivesoutlinedinthisResolutiononSyriaareidenticaltothoseofthemajorityoftheSocialistActionPoliticalCommitteein2015.)MacklerthenappealedthePC’sdecisiontotheNationalCommittee,andafteralengthy

oralandwrittenNCdebate,aslightlyimprovedversionofthearticlewasapprovedbyamajorityoftheNationalCommitteeandpublishedinJanuary2016.Thatarticle,togetherwithanotheronethatMacklerwroteinJuly2016,werelatersubmittedbyhimtoserveas

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theplatformofthe“TendencyA”groupinginSocialistAction’s2016NationalConvention.ThemotiontoapprovethegenerallineofthosetwoarticleswasadoptedbythemajorityofdelegatesattheConvention.TheJanuary2016articleintroducedanewtendencyinourpresstoignore,downplay,or

evendenythesavageryoftheAssadregime.SocialistActionnewspaperarticlesduringthenextcoupleofyears,whilecorrectlyrefusingtoofferanypoliticalendorsementtotheAssadgovernment,atthesametimeapplaudedthemilitaryvictoriesofthecounter-revolutionaryAssadistarmy.Thearticlescompletelydisregardedtheextensivedocumentationoftheregime’sterrorbombingofworking-classcivilianpopulationsandmanyofitsworstmassacres—oftenclaiming,incontradistinctiontothewell-publicizedfacts,thattherewas“noproof.”ThearticlesevencomplainedthatAssadhadbeenunjustly“demonized”forthebrutalityofhismilitaryandsecurityforces.Thus,inourMarch2018edition,whenRussianandSyrianplaneswerebombingthe

townsandcitiesofEasternGhoutawithoutmercy—killingcloseto1500civiliansanddisplacingmanytensofthousands—SocialistActionofferednocompassion,letalonesolidarity,withthevictims.Instead,authorJeffMacklermerelyechoedthe“official”explanationoftheSyrianstatemediaforitssiegeandbombardment:“TheU.S.-alliedterroriststherehadbeenshellingdowntownDamascusandotherpopulatedareasinthiscapitalcityformostofthepastsevenyears.”Thereareatleastacoupleofthingsinthisexplanationthatneedadjustment.Thefirsthas

todowiththeblanketreferencetoso-called“U.S.-alliedterrorists.”Leavingasidetheexaggerationthatallrebelgroupsfallunderthedesignationof“terrorists,”IthinkitcanbedemonstratedthatthemilitiasinEasternGhouta,whichincludedabroadspectrumofgroupingsandideologies,hadlittleornolinkswiththeUnitedStatesin2018.Therewerethreemajorarmedalliancesinthearea,whichsometimesfeudedandfoughtamongthemselves.ThethreewereJaishal-Islam,acoalitionofIslamistunitsthatobtainedsomeSaudisupport;Faylaqal-Rahman,anformerlyQatar-supportedaffiliateoftheFreeSyrianArmywitharelatively“moderate”Islamicorientation;andHay’atTahriral-Sham,thealliancedominatedbyformeral-Nusramembers.Afewyearsago,Faylaqal-Rahmanreceivedsomeweapons,includingTOWanti-tank

missiles,fromtheMilitaryOperationsCommand(MOC)inJordan,whichhadbeensetupundertheaegisoftheCIA’soriginallysecret“TimberSycamore”programinlate2012.SaudiArabiacontributedmoneyandarmstotheendeavor,andJordan“facilitated”theoperation—whilereportedlystealingalotofthearmsbeforetheyeverenteredSyria.ButnumerousnewsreportsindicatethatU.S.andSaudiaidtoMOC,whichwasnotgreatinthefirstplace,wasgreatlydiminishedin2016,andcametoacompletehaltafterTrumpsuspendedtheprograminthesummerof2017.Atthattime,aswasdoneearlierundertheObamaadministration,Washingtoninstructed

allSyrianrebelgroupstoengageinthefightagainstISISintheeastofthecountryiftheywantedtogetanyU.S.aid.(Some200SyrianrebelsmadethejourneytoTanf,intheeast,intheseveralmonthsfollowingTrump’sannouncement.)MoreegregiousinMackler’sMarch2018articleisthefactthathisremarkswerewritten

asifthefewtentativeadvancesthatinsurgentshadmadetowardsthecenterofDamascus(forexample,thestreetfightingofMarch2017thatfollowedagovernmentattack),andoccasionalcarbombsandreleasesofmortarshells—which,althoughthetacticsweremisguided,resultedinfairlyminimalcasualtiesanddamage—couldpossiblyprovidearationaljustificationforthegiantmassacrethatSyrianandRussianforcesunleashedonciviliansinEasternGhouta.ComradeMacklerconcludedthearticlebyarguinginfavoroftheRussianUNdelegate’s

vetoofaresolutionintheSecurityCouncilforhumanitarianrelieftobesenttoEastern

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Ghouta.Macklermaintainedthattheresolutionwasmerely“theU.S.’sthinlydisguisedefforttosecuresupportforyetanotherimperialistslaughter.”Theresolutioninquestion(#2401)hadbeenplacedbeforetheSecurityCouncilby

SwedenandKuwaitonFeb.9andcalledfora30-daycease-firesofoodandmedicalsuppliescouldbetruckedintotheenclave—whose400,000peoplehadbeenbesiegedbytheSyriangovernmentsince2013.ButtheresolutionwastemporarilyheldupbyRussia,whoseUNrepresentativeclaimedthatwidespreadreportingofheavyciviliancasualtieswasmerely“fakenews”andtheproductof“masspsychosis.”Afteraddingmodifyingconditionstotheresolution,theRussiandelegationvotedforitafewdayslater.Asitturnedout,however,verylittleofthehumanitarianaidwasabletogetthrough,as

theaidtruckscameunderfirebySyrianforces.Throughoutthewar,theSyriangovernmenthasblockedmostUNfoodcaravansfromenteringopposition-heldareas.Starvationanddenyingmedicalaidhavebeenamongtheregime’schoicetacticsinbringingpeoplelivingintheopposition-administeredcitiesandcountrysidetotheirknees.IfcomradeswouldliketohearavoicefromEasternGhoutaduringtheAssadist

bombardmentofMarch2018—avoicethatsevenyearsafterthe2011upsurgestillexpressesthepointofviewofthepopulardemocraticmovementagainsttheAssadregime—takealookatthisshortvideofromtheTwitteraccountofjournalistRamiJarrah(“AlexanderPage”).Pleaselistentothemanwhospeaksinthevideo,comrades,andaskyourselveswhetherhesoundslikea“terrorist”:“…AssadexcuseshimselfbyaccusingusofattackingDamascus!WeattackthecityofDamascus?OurbrothersandsistersandchildrenareinDamascus!…Weareagainstanyonebeingshelled.Notoneshellonacivilian,whethertheyareAlawitesorSunnisorKurds!…Wewishtolivenormallyforjust24hours!…”See:https://twitter.com/RamiJarrah/status/970992515280199681Nobodycoulddeny,ofcourse,thatthedangerthattheU.S.mightchoosetointervene

militarilywasalwaysinthebackground.OnMarch12,infact,afterournewspaperhadgonetopress,U.S.ambassadortotheUNNikkiHaleyominouslytoldtheSecurityCouncilthattheU.S.wouldbewillingtostepinwithfirepowertoenforcetheceasefireandfooddeliveries.RussiathensaidthatiftheU.S.attacked,itwouldrespondwithmilitaryactionagainstU.S.aircraft—andWashingtonbackeddownfromitsthreat.Nevertheless,theallegationsthatthehumanitarianmeasureitselfwascoverfor“another

imperialistslaughter”weregenerallyuniquetoSocialistActionnewspaperintheUnitedStates(althoughtheyreflectedsomewhatsimilarclaimsmade,withlittleevidence,bytheSyriangovernmentandrepeatedonIranianandRussianinternationalnewssites).OurpaperneverexplainedhowtheUnitedStatesmighthaveplannedtomakeuseofUNfoodtrucksforits“slaughter.”Itmustbesaid:Inallthe35proudyearsofSocialistActionnewspaper,ourarguing

againstsendinginfoodtruckstofeedabesiegedcivilianpopulationconstitutedareallowpoint.Instead,wecouldhaveprovidedaserviceifournewspaperhadsimplyexplainedthesheerhypocrisyoftheUnitedStatesinmakingentreatiesonbehalfoftheciviliansofEasternGhouta.TheU.S.hasslaughteredhundreds,perhapsthousands,oftimesmoreciviliansinitshistorythanthebutcherAssadeverhas.Wecouldhavepointedtothefactthat,initscampaignagainstISIS,U.S.bombingleveleda

hugesectionofthecityofRaqqa,withlittleregardforthehighciviliancasualties.(TheSyriangovernmentclaimsthattheU.S.destroyed90%ofthecity.)ThisfollowedontheheelsofthedestructionofmostofMosul,inIraq,byU.S.-directedforces—andofFallujabeforethat.BuildingamovementagainstU.S.interventioninSyriaandtheMiddleEastremainsessential.

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Whatisthenatureofthewar?ThescenarioinwhichtheUnitedStatesisseenasinstigatinganddominatingthestruggle

againsttheAssadregime,firstarticulatedbyComradeMacklerin2014,hasbeenelaboratedinmorerecentSAarticlesandeventracedbackalmosttotheverybeginningsoftheanti-Assadstrugglein2011.Thecomplexmotivationsandstrategiesofotherforcesandcountriesthathaveintervenedinthewar,whichoftencompetewitheachother,areignoredorminimized.Ithinkthattheevidenceismorethansufficienttodemonstratethatseveralconcurrent

andinterconnectedwarshavebeentakingplaceinSyria:1)Massprotests,rebellion,self-defense:Afteritsinitialphaseofpeacefulgatherings

thatwerefiredonbyAssadisttroops,themovementbecamearebellion—whichgainedthesympathyandsupportofahugeproportionoftheSyrianpopulation—againstthetyrannicalregime.AstheAssadgovernmentcontinuedtouseheavymilitaryforcetorepressandpunishtheprotesters,thepeacefuldemonstrationsalmostdisappeared;themassmovementchangeditsnature,wagingarmeddefensiveactionsagainstAssad’scounterrevolutionaryonslaught.Althoughthepopulardemocraticmovementhasnowbeenstrangled,theirrear-guarddefenseagainstAssadcontinuesuntilthisveryday.2)Civilwar:Withinayearorsoafterthebeginningofarmedconflict,variouscombatants

inthewarwereclaimingandfightingoverterritory;atthatpointitbecameacivilwar.Verysoon,however,thecourseofthecivilwarwasshapedbythefactthatoutsideforcesandcountries(includingimperialistcountries)hadinterveneddirectlyintothewarwithaidandtroops,pursuingtheirowninterestsandoftencompetingforinfluenceamongthemilitias.ThecentralcoreoftheconflictinSyriaremainsthatofacivilwar,withoutsideforcesparticipatingintheconflict.3)Warofnationalliberation:Simultaneously,theKurdishPYDwaswagingawarof

nationalliberationinthenortheastpartofthecountry,althoughtheyhavegivennoindicationasyetthatcompleteindependenceisoneoftheirgoals.4)Counter-revolutionaryinsurgency:TheentryofISISintoSyriaentailedawarthat

waswagedmainlyagainsttheanti-Assadrebels,andmuchlesssoagainsttheSyriangovernment.Althoughanti-AssadforceswereabletorepelISISinmanyareas,avastsectionofthecountrythattheoppositionhadbeenadministering,includingthecityofRaqqa,wereconqueredbyISISandaddedtoitsso-calledcaliphate.5)Imperialistwarandoccupation:After2014camethedirectmilitaryinterventionof

theU.S.,alongwithBritainandFrance(inalliancewiththeKurdsandotherSyrianforces),whichwasdirectedagainstISIS.Asaconsequence,theU.S.hasdirectlyoccupiedportionsofeasternSyriawithitstroops,andisconstructingmorepermanentbases.Asmentioned,theUnitedStatesandotherimperialistcountrieswerealsoamongthe

outsideplayersthatintervenedinthecivilwaronthesideofforcesaimingtooverthrowAssad,oratleasttocompelhimtostepdown.U.S.interferencetookplaceatthe“diplomatic”table(inbothovertandsemi-secrettalks)andingivingaverylimitedamountofarms,equipment,andtrainingtothestruggle.Wemustprotestthisinterventionanddemand“U.S.handsoffSyria!”ButthepointtobemadehereisthatthemilitaryaidprovidedbytheUnitedStates,wasdoledoutasifthrough“aneyedropper,”andwashardlyenoughtoaffectthegeneralprogressionofthewar.Totrytobolsterhisallegations,ComradeMacklerhasfromtimetotimereproducedinhis

articlesquotesfromTheNewYorkTimesandU.S.NewsandWorldReportthatdescribetheCIA’sTimberSycamoreproject.Thecitationsshowhowonlyabout60U.S.-trainedmilitiamembersevergotovertheSyrianborder,andthatmostofthemwereimmediatelycaptured,whiletheirequipmentwas“lost”orhandedovertoal-Nusra.Ratherthanproving

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ComradeMackler’sthesis,thereportingonthisfiascomerelyemphasizesthefactthatU.S.militaryaidandtrainingexercisesplayedatinypartinthecivilwar.Likewise,themissilestrikesonSyrianfacilities—in2013andin2018—causedverylittle

damage;SyrianandRussianforceswereevengivenadvancewarning.That“showofforce”wascarriedoutmainlytoappealtopublicopinionintheWest.2018DPRerrsonSyriaAlthoughthescaleofU.S.interventionwashardlyenoughtowarrantlabelingtheconflict

an“imperialistwartooverthrowtheSyriangovernment,”thisshortsightedpointofviewunderliestheSyriasectionofthe2018DraftPoliticalResolutionthatSocialistActioncomradesaretovoteon.Incallingforour2018ConventiontoapprovethisResolutiononSyria,IamalsocallingforrejectionanddeletionoftheSyriasectionoftheDraftPoliticalResolution.InadditiontomagnifyingtheU.S.roleintheSyrianwar,theDraftPoliticalResolutionalso

askscomradestoapproveoftherightoftheAssadregimetocallinmilitaryforcesfromabroad—Russia,Iran,Hezbollah,etc.—tosaveit.Ofcourse,nosocialistswouldopposetherightofaneocolonialcountrytomakealliancestoprotectitselffromimperialistintervention,butinthiscasetheforeigntroopsandairpowerhavebeenusedinacampaignofterroragainstSyria’stownsandcitiesinordertopropupatyrannicalregime.Wewilllookfurtherintothisdevelopmentlaterinthisdocument.Finally,thedraftDPRmakestheastoundingassertionthat“U.S.protestationstothe

contrary,U.S.forcesoftenoperateinconsortwithandalongsideofthejihadistforcesofAlQaidaandISIS,whichitdeploystoadvanceitsregimechangeobjectivesinSyria.Similarly,theU.S.anditsalliesorganize,financeandarmtheso-calledFreeSyrianArmywiththeobjectiveofimperialist-ledregimechangeinSyria.”IthinkitcanbedemonstratedthatallegationsofU.S.-ISIScollusionarecompletelywithoutfoundation;thisdocumentwilldelveintothequestioninalatersection.SocialistAction’sbasicpositiononthewarinSyria—asexpressedinarticlesinourpress

duringthelastseveralyears,asratifiedbyour2016NationalConvention,andaspartlysummarizedinour2018DraftPoliticalResolution—requiresamajorcorrection.Goingforward,weneedfrequentdiscussionsintheleadingbodiesofSocialistActioninordertofullyanalyzedevelopmentsintheSyrianwarastheytakeplace.Thiswillhelptoensureobjective,balanced,andaccuratereportinginourpress,whileadheringtotheprinciplesofrevolutionarysocialism.

II.BackgroundtothewarThesourcesofoppressionFromthetimeoftheancientAssyrians,theareathatnowconstitutesSyriadrewgreat

wealthfromitsagriculturalregion(partofthe“FertileCrescent”),andprosperouscitiesgrewupintheoasesalongmajortradingroutes.Thetemples,mosques,andcastlesthatremaingiveanideaofthearea’swealthandimportancethroughthecenturies.Inthemodernera,however,Syria—likemostoftheregion—sankintoperpetualunderdevelopmentandpoverty,withfrequentpoliticalandsectarianunrest,armedrepression,andwars.Whydidthisformerlywealthyareafallintodecay?Theindustrialrevolutionreachedthe

arealate,andnaturalconditionssuchastheencroachingdesserthaditseffectsaswell.ButthemajorrootsofoppressionandpovertyintheMiddleEasttodayliewiththecrippling

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actionsofWesternimperialism.FollowingthedefeatoftheOttomanEmpireintheFirstWorldWar,themajorperpetratorswereBritainandFrance.Asthequesttocornertheworldoilmonopolyintensified,andparticularlyafterthe

SecondWorldWar,theUnitedStatesassumedtheroleofchiefcolonialexploiter—whileusingsurrogateslikeIsraeltohelppolicetheregion.Syriaisontheperipheryofthemajoroil-producingregion,butitsgeographicallocationatthe“crossroads”oftheMiddleEast,withanextensiveMediterraneanseacoast,putitinthepathofimperialistintervention.SyriawastraumatizedbytheFirstWorldWar.TheBritishblockade,alongwithnatural

factorsexacerbatedbywarandunderdevelopment—adroughtandaplagueoflocusts—resultedinwidespreadfamine,inwhichoneinsevenSyrianslosttheirlives.Evenwithoutthemeddlingbyimperialism,thetaskofbuildinganeweconomicallyviablenationwouldhavebeendifficult.AfterthefalloftheOttomanEmpireinWorldWarI,BritainandFrance—betrayingtheir

promisesofindependencetoArableaders—dividedmostoftheMiddleEastbetweenthem.Theregionwascarvedupintoisolatedvassalstatesthatwereeconomicallyhobbled,withbordersarbitrarilycuttingthroughpopulationgroups,andevenseparatingfamiliesfromtheirkinontheotherside.InseveraloftheMiddleEasternstatesthattheimperialistssetup,Hashemiteclanleaderswereputintoplaceasmonarchs,helpingtosetthepatternofauthoritarianheadsofstatethatcontinuestotoday.ThelargeKurdishnation,however,wasallowednostateatall,butdividedupunderthejurisdictionoffourcountries.WhiletheBritishgrabbedthesouthernportionofgreaterSyria,creatingthekingdomof

JordanandBritish-occupiedPalestine,thecountrythattookthenameofSyriafellunderFrenchrule.Thiswasallaccordingtothe“mandate”setupbytheLeagueofNations.Inmid-1919,aSyrianNationalCongressmetinDamascus,andcalledforanindependent

GreaterSyria,whichwouldincludewhatistodaySyria,Lebanon,Jordan,andIsrael/Palestine.Butinthemeantime,theHashemiteKingFeisal—whosepartisanarmyhadaidedtheWesternAlliesintheWar—madeasecretdealwiththeFrenchtoputhimonthethroneofafarsmallerSyrianstate.ThemilitantnationalistclubscalledtheCongressbackintosessioninMarch1920,andanagreementwasforgedwithFeisaltosetupanindependentstatewithhimasconstitutionalmonarch.FrancethensentanultimatumtoFeisaltodisbandhisArabarmy.WhenthekingindicatedhewouldagreetoFrenchterms,peopleriotedinthestreetsofDamascus.TheFrenchthendecideditwastoolatetothinkanylongerofnegotiations.Theysenttroops(mainlyfromSenegal)andanairsquadron,andattheBattleofMaysalunpushedFeisal’sarmyintoflight.OnJuly26,1920,theFrenchoccupiedDamascus;inParis,theFrenchpremierdeclaredthathiscountrywouldholdSyriafromthatday,“thewholeofit—forever.”JustasBritaindidwithitscolonies,FranceactedtostunttheSyrianeconomy,makingthe

peopledependentonimportsfromFrancefortheirlivelihood,whileheavilytaxingSyrianexports.Yetarmedrevoltsbrokeoutthroughoutthe1920s,andwereonlyputdownwithextrememeasuresbyFrenchandcolonialtroopsandbymurderousaerialbombing.TheFrenchcolonialadministrationcarriedoutadivide-and-rulestrategy,pittingethnic

andreligiousgroupsagainsteachother.ThisstrategyprovidedaprototypeforthemethodsthattheAssaddynastyutilizedmanyyearslater.Intheperiodafterthe2011uprising,however,BasharAssadhadtoworkhardtore-manufactureethnicandsectarianfearsandrivalries,sincetherebellionbeganinmostplacesasaunitedstruggleofSyriansagainsttheregime.TheFrenchsplitoffLebanon,anartificiallystitched-togethernationthatFranceheld

underitscontrolmoresecurelythantherestofSyria.Lebanonwaslargelyconstitutedaroundaright-wingMaroniteChristianleadershipthatwasresolutelyopposedtothepan-Arabsympathiesoftheregionandwasabletodominatetheotherethnicgroupsthathad

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beenpulledunwillinglyintotherumpLebanesecolonialstate.WiththecreationofLebanon,DamascuswascutofffromitsportinBeirutandfromagriculturallandandwaterresourcesthatservedthecity.Similarly,beforeWorldWarII,aftertheTurkisharmyhadoccupiedthenorthwestern

coastalregionandstagedareferendumthereforunionwithTurkey,FranceobliginglyhandedtheterritoryovertoTurkeyinreturnforpromisesofneutralityinthecomingconflagration.AndtheFrenchcontemplatedthecreationofothermini-statesfromwhatwasSyria—anAlawitestateinLatakia,anotherinthesouthfortheDruze,etc.InsplittingtheseethnicgroupsofffromtheSunniArabmajority,thecolonizersgavethempreferenceinsocialsubsidiesandlowertaxes,withhopesofmakingthemviewtheFrenchastheirexclusivebenefactors.(Similaractionswere,onceagain,employedlaterbytheAssaddictatorship.)Ontheotherhand,theDamascusregion—theheartofthemajoritySunniArab

population—wastreatedbytheFrenchasoccupiedterritory,andpatrolledbycolonialtroopsfromSenegalandelsewhere;Alawites,Kurds,Druze,andotherminoritygroupswereheavilyrecruitedintothesecurityforces.Bythemid-1950s,Alawitesalreadyconstitutedovertwo-thirdsofthenon-commissionedofficersinthemilitary,thoughonly12percentofthepopulation.“Independence”butnorealliberationAttheendofWorldWarII,FranceaccededtoSyrianindependencebutdraggeditsfeeton

withdrawingfromthecountry,leadingtotherenewaloftheSyrianindependencemovement.Frenchtroopsfiredondemonstratorsinseveralcities—killinghundreds—bombedtheOldCityofDamascus,anddestroyedtheparliamentbuilding.Ofcourse,theFrenchwereinaweakenedpositioncomingoutoftheWar.Outof30,000VichytroopsstationedinSyria,only5000optedtoremainthereaspartofDeGaulle’sso-called“FreeFrench”army;therestchosetogobackhometoFrance.Finally,theirBritishimperialistbigbrothersinvadedSyriato“keeporder”andforcedtheremainingFrenchtroopsoutofthecountryandintoLebanon.TheBritishagreedtoleaveSyriainJuly1946,andanominallyindependentparliamentary

republicwassetup.ThegovernmentofthenewSyriawasdominatedbyablocmadeupofwealthymerchants,capitalists,andbigagriculturallandlords,whooftenlivedinthecities.Thepoor,peasant,andworking-classmassesachievedlittleoftheirdemands.Althoughrevoltswerecommonthroughoutthe20thcentury,Syriasufferedfromalackof

revolutionaryleadership—adeficiencythatwasfeltthroughouttheMiddleEast.Noforcesofanysizeexistedintheregionthatunderstoodtheneedtobuildamovementthatcouldfundamentallybreakwithimperialismandwithcapitalismingeneral.Instead,thepopularstrugglewasgenerallysubsumedunderreform-orientedpetty-bourgeoisandbourgeoisleadership—usuallyofamilitarynature.Beginningin1949andforthenextdecade,aseriesofmilitarycoupsandcounter-coups

occurred—somemorenominally“leftist”thanothers—withaninterregnumofseveralyears,beginningin1954,inwhichaparliamentaryrepublicwasinpower.IntheprocessthearmybecameenshrinedasthemajorarbiterinSyrianpolitics.Inthemeantime,anideologicalcurrent,theArabSocialistBa’athParty,hadbeengaining

strength.Followingitsfoundingin1947,theBa’athParty,inSyriaasinLebanonandothercountries,originallyconsidereditselftobe“nationalist,populist,socialist,andrevolutionary.”Itwasnon-Marxistbutcalledforsweepingeconomicreforms,includingthenationalizationofsomeindustries,landreform,andunionizationofworkers.

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ThesepoliciesweregenerallyheldincommonwiththoseofcontemporarynationalistmovementsinotherMiddleEasterncountries—severalofwhichcametopowerduringtheworldwideanti-colonialrevoltofthe1950sand’60s.ThemajorexampleintheregionwasthatofEgypt;GeneralGamalAbdelNasser’soverthrowofthemonarchyin1952rockedtheMiddleEast.Hisembraceofpan-Araband“socialist”rhetoric,hisgovernment’snationalizationoftheSuezCanal(1956),anditsstandingfastagainsttheimperialistsandIsraelintheensuingSuezCrisislaunchedNasser’spopularitywithmassesacrosstheregion.InSyriaduringthatperiod,theBa’athpartywasthesecondlargestinparliament;after

1957,togetherwiththeCommunistParty,itcontrolledthegovernment.ButafterunionwithEgyptintheUnitedArabRepublicwasdeclaredin1958,parliamentwasdissolvedandnon-Nasseristpartieswerebanned.(NasserhadagreedtoaunionofthetwocountrieslargelyinordertocounterthegrowinginfluenceoftheCommunistParty.)NassernationalizedvastsectionsofSyria’seconomyduringtheunion,butmanySyriansacrossthepoliticalspectrum(especiallythenon-Sunnipeoples)chafedundertheauthoritarianregimeandtheeconomicandpoliticaldominationbytheEgyptiangovernment.Right-wingarmyofficerslaunchedacoupinDamascusin1961tosecedefromtheUAR,

andbattlesbrokeoutwithNasseritesectionsofthearmy.ButNassersoondeclaredthathewouldrecognizeanindependentelectedSyrianrepublic,andtheparliamentarygovernmentcametopoweragain.Justayearlater,aMarch1962coupoverthrewtherepublic.Anothercoup(February

1963)wasengineeredbyNasseriteandBaathistofficers(mainlyAlewites),andasecondcoupamonthlater(the“March8Revolution”),transferredruletoaBa’athistregimeheadedentirelybythemilitary.Anothercoupin1966broughtleftist-inclinedmilitaryofficers,ledbyGeneralSalahJadid,topower.NowitwastheBa’athists’turntobanallotherparties,thoughcivilianswerereturnedtotheheadofthegovernment.TheNasseriteswerepurgedfromthemilitary,andforeignpolicytiltedmoretotheSovietbloc.InSeptember1970,“BlackSeptember,”SyriasenttroopsandtanksintoJordantoaidthe

forcesledbythePalestinianLiberationOrganizationthatwereunderattackbytheJordanianking.WhenIsraelandtheUnitedStatesthreatenedtointervene,Syriaquicklywithdrew,leavingthePalestinianexilepopulationtobemassacred.ThatfiascoincreasedtherivalryinsidetheBa’athleadership:PrimeMinisterJadidhadarguedforfullsupportofthePalestinians,whileMinisterofDefenseHafezal-Assad,representingamoremoderategroupingcenteredinthemilitary,wasagainstit.Finally,onNov.13,1970,Assadseizedthegovernment,inwhatwascalledthe“Corrective

Revolution.”Jadidwasdenouncedasadictatorandsenttoprison,wherehediedtwodecadeslater.TheNewYorkTimespointedoutatthetime(Nov.21,1970):“AdmirersofGeneralAssad

welcomehisseizureofpowerwithintherulingBaathpartyasthepredictablevictoryofpragmatismoverideology.”Nationalizedindustryandsocialwelfarepolicieswererolledback,althoughtheypersistedtosomedegree,andadirectappealforsupport(withvaryingsuccess)wasmadetotheprivatesectorandtheSunniMuslimbourgeoisiethoughtechniquessuchastax-freezones.Laborlawswererelaxed,andtheunionswerefoldedintoastate-runapparatus.UnderAssad,anew173-member“People’sCouncil”wassetup,inwhichtheBa’athParty

heldhalftheseats.Ba’athistsalsoconstitutedhalfofAssad’s26-mancabinet,withminorparties(StalinistCommunists,Nasserites,andsocialdemocrats)takingtherestoftheposts.Anewconstitutionwasapprovedin1973,whichdeclaredSyriatobeasecular,socialiststate,withIslamrecognizedasthemajorityreligion.

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Ofcourse,Syria’s“socialism”wasalwaysinnameonly.Buttheworkingclassandpeasantsobtainedsomebenefits,whichhelpedtowedmanyofthemtothepro-Assadbase.Forexample,landwasexpropriatedanddividedamonglandlessfarmers,massiveirrigationandruralelectrificationprojectswereundertaken,roadswerebuilt,andstatefarmsweresetup.Subsidieswereexpandedforfoodproducts,dieseloil,fertilizers,andmachinery.Theseitemswerepaidforinpartbyincreasedoilrevenues;afewyearsbeforeAssadtookpower,apipelinehadbeenbuiltconnectingtheoilfieldsinthenortheastwithSyria’sMediterraneanportatTartous.TheUSSRandwealthyArabstatesalsocontributeddevelopmentfunds.Withtheindustrythathadbeennationalizedduringpreviousregimes,abloatedandself-

seekingstatebureaucracyhademerged.Assadenlargedthebureaucracystillfurther,alongwiththemilitary,andtiedthemclosertohisregime;favoritismandcorruptionbecamerife.Favoredindividualsandfamilies(especiallyfromtheAlawiteethnicgroup,whichtheAssadfamilybelongedto)prosperedwithpostsinthegovernmentandsecurityapparatus,andwithlucrativestatecontracts.Anewenlargedcapitalistclasswasbuilt,whichsawitsfortunestieddirectlytotheregime.PatrickSeale,inhis“Assad:TheStrugglefortheMiddleEast”(1980),calleditthe“military-mercantilealliance.”The“secularism”withinSyria’sstatedgoalswasafluidandpragmaticconcept,butit

appealedtomany“modernists”amongtheurbanelite.Also,bydescribingitselfasadefenderofreligiouspluralismandArabunityacrossthereligiousdivide,thestatewasabletocementtheallegianceofmanyAlawis,Druze,Christians,andotherreligiousminorities—whohadsufferedpersecutionbySunniMuslimsundertheoldOttomanregime.(Andinthatway,whentheupsurgebeganagainstBasharAssadin2011,theregimewasabletoraisethealarmamongtheseminoritygroupingsbyfalselyportrayingitasanIslamistsectarianinsurgency.)SincethefirstdecadesofAssadistrulesawageneralgrowthintheeconomy,thealliance

withtheSovietUnionblocwassolid,andAssadcontinuedtoplaytothepan-Arab,anti-Israel,andanti-imperialistsympathiesofthemasses,theregimewasabletoknitsomeadditionalportionsofSyriansocietybehindit—includingmanywhoformerlyhadtendedtobacktheMuslimBrotherhood,suchasthemajorityoftheSunnibusinessclass.Atthesametime,apolicestatewassetup,withruthlessmethodsofrepressionthat

continuedundertheruleofhisson,BasharAssad.Utilizingthe1963“stateofemergency,”whichlastedforhalfacentury,independenttradeunionsandprotestdemonstrationswerebanned,andanextensivesystemofpolice,prisons,torturechambers,andadomesticspyapparatuswasbuilttokeepdownpoliticalopposition.Mostimportantly,thestatesecurityapparatusandelitemilitaryunitsandofficers’corpswerefilledwithAssadloyalists—helpingtofortifytheregimeagainstfurthercoups.Stalinistslaudthe“progressive,anti-imperialist”militaryTheCommunistPartyinSyriawasoneofthe“opposition”partiesthatkneltdowntothe

Assadregime,evenservingforatimeinAssad’scabinet.ThepartyfollowedthecourseofitsStalinistcounterpartsworldwideingenerallysupportingthenationalistmilitaryregimesoftheMiddleEastundertherusethattheywereanti-imperialist(andthuspro-Soviet)andwouldsomehowopenthedoortoworking-classadvancementinthedistantfuture.TheSyrianCPrejectedthethesisofPermanentRevolution,insteadfollowingthevague

Stalinistdictumofa“two-stage”progression—firstthroughcapitalism,andsometimelater,bygradualmeans,movingtowardsocialism.Thispolicy,whichledinexorablytoclass-collaborationwithpro-capitalist“nationalist”regimes,hadbeenhatchedintheSovietUnion

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underStalinandhissuccessors,andwasfaithfullycarriedoutbyCommunistPartiesaroundtheworld.InGuatemala,forexample,littlemorethanayearbeforethe1954CIA-backedcoupthat

overthrewthereformistgovernmentthere,theCommunistPartydeclaredthatitconsideredthearmedforcestobetherepresentativesofa“progressiveandanti-imperialist”nationalbourgeoisie.Itdenouncedproposalstoarmtheworkersandpoorpeasantsasbeing“themaneuversofinternalreaction,attemptingtocounterposeaworkers’andpeasants’unitedfronttothearmedforces.”Unfortunately,thesupposedly“progressive”armedforcessoonralliedtothecoupplottersandconnivedintheterroristicdictatorshipthatfollowed.(SeethediscussioninMichaelLöwy,“ThePoliticsofCombinedandUnevenDevelopment,”Verso1981.)ButterribledefeatssuchastheoneinGuatemaladidnotshaketheStalinist

“theoreticians”inMoscow.Oneofthem,V.G.Solodovnikov,explainedinabookwrittenin1973thatso-called“nationaldemocratic”countriessuchasEgypt,Iraq,andHafezAssad’sSyria—despitetheirauthoritarianregimes—embodieda“democraticdictatorshipoftherevolutionarypeople.”Inthosecountries,hesaid,“themilitaryintelligentsiaisthemostanti-imperialistforce.Inordertowithstandthepressureoftheimperialistsandtheexploiterclassingeneral,thedemocraticmilitaryintelligentsiatakespoliticalpowerintoitsownhands”(quotedinLöwy).Incontrast,Trotsky,aslongagoasthe1920sinhisanalysisofChina,pointedoutthatthe

capitalistclassintheneo-colonialandunderdevelopedworldis“organicallyandunbreakablylinkedwithworldfinance.”Notwithstandingtheoccasionalrousing“anti-imperialist”rhetoricofcertainpoliticalleaders,hestressed,thebourgeoisiethatkeepstheminpowerisunwillingandunabletoremainindependentofimperialism.Trotskyreturnedtothatthemetowardtheendofhislife,in1939,inhisanalysisofthe

anti-colonialstrugglethatwasjuststartingtogetunderwayinIndia:“TheIndianbourgeoisieisincapableofleadingarevolutionarystruggle.TheyarecloselyboundupwithanddependentuponBritishcapitalism.Theytremblefortheirownproperty.Theystandinfearofthemasses.TheyseekcompromiseswithBritishimperialismnomatterwhattheprice,andlulltheIndianmasseswithhopesofreformsfromabove.TheleaderandprophetofthisbourgeoisieisGandhi.Afakeleaderandafalseprophet!”(“IndiaFacedwithImperialistWar,”July25,1939,in“WritingsofLeonTrotsky,1939-1940).Ourmethodinlookingatnationalliberationstrugglesistolooktotheworkingclassitself

forleadership,inalliancewiththepoorpeasantry.Inspeakingoftherightofself-determination—i.e.,therightofoppressed,colonizednationstoindependencefromimperialism—revolutionarysocialistsdonotneglecttheclassstruggleandthecrucialroleoftheworkingclasswithintheoppressednation.BeforetheRussianRevolution,LeninwasapioneeramongMarxistsinpointingtothepotentialimportanceoftheworkingclassintheanti-imperialiststrugglesinunderdevelopedandneo-colonialcountries.Leninpointedoutinhis1916thesis,“SocialistRevolutionandSelf-determination”thatthestrugglefornationalliberationandtheclassstrugglereinforceeachother.TheRussianRevolution,whichtookplacethefollowingyear,producedconvincing

evidenceofthenecessityofmakingasuccessfulsocialistrevolution,ledbytheworkingclassandinvolvingtheranksofthepoorpeasantry,asanessentialrequirementinachievingliberationfornationalitiesthatareoppressedbyimperialism.Trotskyexplainedyearslater,inregardtoUkraine’srighttoself-determination,“The

rightofself-determinationis,ofcourse,ademocraticandnotasocialistprinciple.Butgenuinelydemocraticprinciplesaresupportedandrealizedinoureraonlybytherevolutionaryproletariat;itisforthisveryreasonthattheyinterlacewithrevolutionarytasks.TheresolutestruggleoftheBolshevikPartyfortherightofself-determinationof

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oppressednationalitiesinRussiafacilitatedintheextremetheconquestofpowerbytheproletariat.Itwasasiftheproletarianrevolutionhadsuckedinthedemocraticproblems,abovealltheagrarianandnationalproblems,givingtotheRussianRevolutionacombinedcharacter”(“WritingsofLeonTrotsky,1939-40).Later,therightofself-determinationofoppressednationalitiesintheSovietUnionwas

truncatedbyStalinandhishenchmen—justastheysabotagedthefightagainstimperialistdominationinthecolonialworld.InSyria,becauseoftheirpolicyinsupportofAssad,evenservingasa“loyalopposition”withintheAssadgovernment,theStalinistsfoundthemselveswithlittleinfluenceamongpeoplewhoprotestedtheregimein2011.ThetreacheryoftheStalinists,infact,tendedtogivewhatwasmistakenlyperceivedas“Marxism”and“communism”abadnameinmanyquartersoftheSyrianopposition.Thelackofanauthenticrevolutionarysocialistmass-basedleadershipcreatedapoliticalvacuumthatwasfilledinpartbyIslamistclericsandmilitiaforces.Regardless,eventoday,theStalinistsandgroupsliketheWorkersWorldPartyinthe

UnitedStatespersistinpraisingthegovernmentofSyria,andsimilarregimes,asbeingwithinthecampof“progressive”and“anti-imperialist”countries.BonapartismIftheStalinistlabels“democraticnationalist,”“anti-imperialist,”and“progressive”donot

appeartoaccuratelydescribeSyria’speculiarbalancebetweencompetinggroups,itscombinationofdemagogueryandrepression,howshouldwecharacterizetheregime?ThegovernmentputinplacebytheelderAssad,andcontinuedbyhisson,mightbe

viewedastheapparatusofa“Bonapartist”state,similarinmanyrespectstothosethatMarxandTrotskyanalyzedintheirownepochs.Bonapartismreferstoaformofcapitaliststatethatissetup,generallyasatemporarymeasureintimesofclassconflict,aroundaNapoleon-likestrongman(oftenamilitaryfigure)whoappearstostand“above”thestruggleofclasses.Protestandrevoltarekeptincheckbymeansofhalf-wayreforms,maintaininga“socialpact”withcompliantforcesintheworkers’movement,andsheerdemagogueryontheonehand,andbythethreatofrepressionontheother.Trotsky,forexample,consideredtheregimeofGen.LázaroCárdenezinMexicotohave

hadaBonapartistcharacter.Hewrotein1938:“Thegovernmentveersbetweenforeignanddomesticcapital,betweentheweaknationalbourgeoisieandtherelativelypowerfulproletariat.ThisgivesthegovernmentaBonapartistcharactersui-generis[inaclassbyitself].…Itraisesitself,sotospeak,aboveclasses”(quotedinLöwy).InSyriaunderHafezAssad,theworkersmovementwasfarweakerthanithadbeenin

Mexico,andSyrianworkersandoppositioncurrentsfellpreytomuchmoresevererepressionthanMexicohadeverseen.However,theHafezAssadregimesucceededinbringingameasureofstabilitytoSyria.Althoughafewcoupswereattempted,theydidnotgetveryfar.GuerrillawarfarebyIslamistscontinuedforyears,butretaliationwasalwaysswiftandmerciless.In1980,forexample,onlyhoursafteranabortedassassinationattemptonAssad,alarge

numberofimprisonedIslamists(somereportssayover1200)wereexecutedintheircells.Andin1982,afteranuprisingbytheMuslimBrotherhood—anuprisingthathadrootsintheconflictbetweenSunniArabsintheregionandtheAlawite-centeredgovernment—Assadorderedhistroops(almostallAlawites)tobesiegethetownofHama(amainlySunnicenteroftheinsurgency).TheOldCitywasvirtuallydestroyedbyaerialbombing.Thepopulationwasorderedtofleeandwarnedthatanyoneremainingwouldbeconsideredarebel.Thenamassacretookplace,withmanyfamiliesslaughteredintheirbeds.Thedeaths

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wereestimatedashighas20,000(journalistRobertFisk),38,000(aboastbyAssad’sbrotherRifaat),and30,000to40,000(SyrianHumanRightsCommittee).ThememoryoftheHamaMassacrepersistedformanyyearsintheconsciousnessof

SyriansasawarningofwhatmighttakeplaceiftheAssadregimefeltitselftobeprovoked.Tragically,BasharhasdonemorethanfollowinthebloodyfootstepsofHafezAssad;hisruthlessnesshasfarout-distancedthatofhisfather.WewillsaymoreaboutrepressionunderBasharAssadinamoment.Basharinpower:Neo-liberalismandausterityInthe1990s,HafezAssadcamedownwithaprolongedillness.Thequestionaroseasto

whowouldsucceedhim.Theheirapparent,eldestsonBasselal-Assad,diedinacarcrashin1994,andhisyoungerbrotherBasharwasimmediatelyrecalledtoSyriafromhismedicalstudiesinEngland.Basharwasgroomedforthesuccessionbyfirstenteringmilitaryschool;in1998,hewasputinchargeofSyria’smilitaryforcesinLebanonandsoonbecameabrigadiergeneral,providinghimwiththeessentialauthorityhewouldrequirewithintheall-importantmilitaryhierarchy.HafezAssaddiedintheyear2000,andamonthlater,hissonBasharbecamethenew

president,commanderofthearmedforces,andheadoftheBa’athPartyofSyria.DavidW.Lesch,in“Syria:TheFalloftheHouseofAssad,”commented:“TheAlawite-dominatedmilitary-securityapparatus,aswellasleading(mostlySunni)businessmentiedintotheregime,sawinBasharal-Assadthebestchance(orperhapstheleastworst)ofmaintainingtheirpolitical,economicandsocialpositionsandstatus.This,aboveallotherreasons,iswhyBasharbecamepresident.Hewasyoung,hehadgainedacertainamountofpopularity,hewasanAlawite,andmostimportantly—hewasanAssad.”Aftergainingarubber-stampapprovalbythenationalassembly,theissueofBashar’s

ascensiontothepresidencyforaseven-yeartermwaspresentedinareferendumtotheelectorate;noothercandidateswereontheballot.Basharreceived99.7%“yes”votesbyofficialcount,and97.6%inanewreferendumsevenyearslater.AlthoughSyriaisofficiallyarepublic,weshouldhavenoillusionsthatanykindof

“democracy”existsthere—evenbythegrosslydistortedstandardsofthecapitalisttwo-partysystemintheUnitedStates.Itistrue,ofcourse,thatAssad“won”the2000and2007unopposedreferendums.Heeven“won”theelectionof2014,inwhich,inamannerofspeaking,hedidhavesome“opposition.”Accordingtogovernmentdata,BasharAssadreceived88.7%ofthevote,whilehistwoopponents—includinga“communist,”Maheral-Hajjar—got7.5%betweenthem.ButthepollsinAssad’sSyriaarehardlysecret,withgovernmentwatchersoftenlookingovervoters’shoulderstomakesurethattheycasttheirballot“correctly.”Moreover,thelastelectionwasheldinthemidstofthecivilwar,withasubstantialportionofthecitizenrynotvotingbecausetheywereinexileorlivinginthebroadareasofthecountryunderrebelorKurdishcontrol.Althoughmanypeopleintherefugeecampsandabroaddidvote,theoverwhelmingmajoritydidnot.Thus,itisastoundingthatsomegroupsontheU.S.leftwereabletogushoverwhatthey

sawasthe“democratic”attributesoftheregime.Forexample,WorkersWorldnewspaper(June24,2014)reportedthecommentsfromapanelofU.S.leftistswhohadrecentlyreturnedfromSyria,wheretheyobservedthepresidentialelections.WorkersWorldstated:“AlldescribedhowthroughoutSyria[thiswaswhenAssadcontrolledbarelyathirdofthecountry],thesupportforPresidentBasharal-Assadwasmassive,leavingnodoubtthathewasthelegitimatevictor.”ThenewspaperquotedJulyBello,apanelistwhoisactiveontheAdministrative

CommitteeofUNAC.Bellowsaid:“ObservingthepopularsupportfortheSyrianelection

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wasamovingexperience.Thepeoplevotedfromtheirhearts.…TheoverwhelmingresponseofthepeopleinsideandoutsideofSyriasentapowerfulmessagetotheworldofloyaltytotheircountryandtothegovernmentthatiscurrentlysafeguardingit.”Ofcourse,whenBasharfirstcametopower,hewasprojectedasayoung,mild-mannered

modernizer.Hepledgedtofightcorruptionandimprovegovernmenttransparency,andevenexpressedsomemutedcriticismsofhisfather’sauthoritarianregime.Inresponse,groupsofintellectualsinthecitiesbegantomeetinforums,wheretheyspokeoutabouttheneedtorollbacksomeofthemoreonerouspoliciesofthepast—likethe1963stateofemergency.Demandsforamulti-partyparliamentarysystem,releasingallpoliticalprisoners,andforwomen’srightswereputforward.Remarkably,theforumswerenotimmediatelyrepressed.Forawhilethegovernmentevengavetheappearanceoflisteningtotheircriticisms,andasagestureofseeminggoodwill,anumberofpoliticalprisonerswerereleasedfromprison.Ayearafteritbegan,however,intheautumnof2001,the“DamascusSpring”wasput

down;someofitsmostoutspokenparticipantswerearrestedandsentencedtoyearsinprisononfakechargeslike“incitingracialandsectarianstrife.”Thesameyear,theSyriangovernmentpassedthePressLaw,whichsubjectedallprintedmedia(evenposters)togovernmentcensorshipandcontrol.In2007,Facebookwasbanned,alongwithotherinternetservicesthatwereconsideredtobepossiblechannelsforpoliticaldissent.In2010,ayearbeforethemassrebellionbegan,HumanRightsWatchcommentedina

report:“Syria’sprisonsarefilledagainwithpoliticalprisoners,journalists,andhumanrightsactivists…itisclearthatafteradecadeinpower,Basharal-Asadhasnottakenthestepsnecessarytotrulyimprovehiscountry’shumanrightsrecord.Hehasfocusedhiseffortsonopeninguptheeconomywithoutbroadeningpublicfreedomsorestablishingpublicinstitutionsthatareaccountablefortheiractions.SowhilevisitorstoDamascusarelikelytostayinsmartboutiquehotelsanddineinshinynewrestaurants,ordinarySyrianscontinuetoriskjailmerelyforcriticizingtheirpresident,startingablog,orprotestinggovernmentpolicies.“Thestateofemergency,enactedin1963,remainsinplace,andthegovernmentcontinues

torulebyemergencypowers.Syria’ssecurityagencies,thefearedmukhabarat,continuetodetainpeoplewithoutarrestwarrants,frequentlyrefusetodisclosetheirwhereaboutsforweeksandsometimesmonths,andregularlyengageintorture.”SarahLeahWhitson,MiddleEastdirectoratHumanRightsWatch,saidfurtherina2010

article,“WhetherPresidental-AsadwantedtobeareformerbutwashamperedbyanentrenchedoldguardorhasbeenjustanotherArabrulerunwillingtolistentocriticism,theoutcomeforSyria'speopleisthesame:nofreedom,norights.…Al-Asad'srecordafter10yearsisthathehasdonevirtuallynothingtoimprovehiscountry'shumanrightsrecord.”InregardtoWhitson’squestionabouttheinfluenceofthe“oldguard,”whichhasbeen

posedbymanyothercommentators,thereisevidencethat“hard-line”militaryelementsfromhisfather’sregimedidhaveaneffectonBasharAssad’sactionsinallowingtheretrenchmentoftheauthoritarianstate.Thiswasreflected,forexample,inthesituationsoonafterthe2011uprisinghadbegunwhenAssaddrewbackfromearlierindicationsthathemightgrantsomeoftheprotesters’demands—insteadoptingtoemployheavyrepressionagainstthemovement.Butinregardtoeconomicreforms,itappearsthatBasharmanagedtosweepasidethe

objectionsofmanyold-lineBa’athistsandgovernmentbureaucratswhohadastakeintheperpetuationofthestate-controlledandcorporatistsystem.Hiseconomicreformsweresubstantial,withanaccelerationoftheprocessthatbeganunderhisfathertowardprivatizationsandopeningtheeconomytoforeigninvestment.

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Beginninginthe1970s,andmoresoduringthe1980sand’90s,theHafezAssadregimehadtakenanumberofstepstowarda“market”economy.Itrolledbackstatesubsidiestoindustry,directingfundsinsteadtothemilitary.Morecrops(suchascotton)weregrownfortheexportmarket.State-ownedindustriesweregenerallynotprivatizedunderHaffezAssad,buttheywereforcedtocompetewithprivateenterprises,whichwerehandedspecialtaxbreaksandotherincentives.Theprivatesectorwasencouragedtobecomethemainengineofeconomicdevelopment,insteadofthestate.ButsincetheweakSyriancapitalistclasswasunableorunwillingtoboosttheirinvestmentssufficientlyindomesticindustryandinfrastructure(astandardprobleminunderdevelopedcountries),thegovernmentincreasinglyoptedfordealswithmulti-nationalcorporations.Asthenewmillenniumbegan,theSyrianeconomybegantoweaken.Revenuewasdown.

TheGulfStateswerelesslavishinsharingtheiroilmoneywithSyria,nowthatconfrontationwithIsraelhadbecomelessofapriorityforthem.ThewithdrawaloftheSyrianarmy,officials,andworkersfromLebanonin2005deprivedtheregimeofhundredsofmillionsofdollarsinremittancesandinmoneygainedfromsmugglingovertheborder.Moreover,Syrianoilproductionpeakedin1996;by2006Syriahadbecomeanetimporterofoil.Inordertodealwiththeseproblems,theBasharAssadregimechosetogreatlydeepen

theprocessofneoliberalreform.InDecember2000,statefarmsandotherstate-ownedlandswereprivatized;farmcooperativeswerebrokenup.Althoughsomepeasantswerenodoubtpleasedoverhavingbeengivenownershipofthelandtheyworked,thereformallowedpeopletorentoutorselltheirlandtoothers.Inaninstant,decadesoflandreformwereundone.Onceagain,asinthecolonialdaysofthepast,muchofthelandbecameconcentratedintolargeprivatelyownedestates,nowmostlyownedbywealthypeoplewhowereloyaltotheregime.By2008,28percentoffarmersutilized75percentofirrigatedland,while49percentoffarmershadonly10percent.Unlikehisfather,BasharsoughtloansfromtheIMFandtheWorldBank.AnIMF

assessmentoftheliberalizationperiodfrom1990to2005offeredpraisefortheseriesofeconomicreformsbytheAssads,fatherandson.UnderBashar,thereportenthused,“Priceshavebeenlargelyliberalized[i.e.,pricesskyrocketedforworkingpeople],tradeandforeignexchangeregimeshavebeensimplifiedandliberalized[i.e.,foreigncorporationscouldcomeinwithlessrestrictionsandoversight],thetaxsystemhasbeenstreamlined,andtheprivatesector’sfieldofactivityhasbeenbroadenedtovirtuallyallsectorsoftheeconomy,includingbankingandinsurance.”Thecountry’sprivatesector,whichrepresented52percentofGDPin2000,balloonedto

61percentsevenyearslater,andasmuchas70percentby2010,accordingtosomeestimates.ButthosewhogotrichwerecenteredwithintheinnercircleofAssadloyalists.Bashar’smulti-billionairecousinRamiMakhloufwasthemostnotoriousofthefabulouslywealthymembersoftheAssadfamily.AccordingtotheFinancialTimes,Makhloufissaidtohavecontrolledthroughhismanylinksaround60percentoftheSyrianeconomy,usingstatechannelstoblockcompetition.Before,Assad’sfamilyandtheircroniesplunderedthepublicsector;nowtheycapturedthenewlyprivatizedpropertyandbusinessesfortheirownuse.Althoughtheeconomywasgrowingatanaveragerateoffivepercentbeforetheuprising

erupted,thisgrowthwasmainlyattributedtooilrevenues—95percentofwhichwassoldtoEuropeancountries—underpinnedbytheincreaseininternationaloilpricessince2002.Thefactthatoilreserveswerebeingexhaustedwasworrisome.Butnevertheless,viewedfromDamascus,timesweregood.InvestorsfromwealthyArabstates,likeQatarandSaudiArabia,sensedthatmoneycouldbemade,andwerereadytopourmoneyintotouristhotelsandresorts,realestate,andfinancialservices.ShopsincentralDamascusandAleppowere

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overflowingwithexpensiveimportedgoods,caféswerecrowdedwithyuppies,andthestreetswerefilledasneverbeforewithnewlypurchasedautomobiles.Povertyinruralareas;migrationtothecitiesInthemeantime,however,thegulfwidenedbetweenrichandpoor,andbetweenbigcity

andcountryside.InaccordwithIMFdictates,subsidiestothepoorwereslashed.Subsidiesforfertilizeranddieselfuel(essentialforheating,waterpumps,andtransportingcropstomarket)werecancelledafter2005;thepriceofdieselfuelmorethantripledvirtuallyovernightinMay2008.Thepriceofbasicfoodstuffsroseby20percentin2010,whilewheatpricesroseby30percent.Medicalcare,oncefree,becameincreasinglyprivatizedandfee-based.Schools,particularlycollegesanduniversities,werealsoprivatized.Unemploymentwascloseto20percentin2010,andmuchhigheramongyouth.The

MinisterofLaborandSocialAffairsreportedinDecember2011thatunemploymentstoodatbetween22and30percent.TheshareofwagesinSyria’sGDPfellfrom40.5percentin2004tolessthan33percentin2008-2009.AccordingtoaUNreport,theamountofpeoplelivinginpovertyroseto33.6percent(almost7millionpeople)in2007,including56percentofthoselivinginruralareas.Povertyincreasedmostinthehistoricallypoornortheasternagriculturalregionofthe

country,knownastheJezira.TheareaservesasSyria’sbreadbasket(responsiblefor70percentofwheatproduction)butmuchofitisdependentonirrigation;theeffectsoftheseveredroughtbetween2006and2011weredeepestthere.Theregimemismanagedthecrisis,continuingtheover-ambitiousagriculturaldevelopmentprojectsoftheHafezAssadyears.Monoculturesofwater-needycropssuchascotton,togetherwithovergrazing,depletedgroundwaterreservesandimpoverishedthesoil.Fertilelandbecamedesert.Closeto75percentoffarmersintheJezirasufferedneartotalcropfailure;byJanuary2008,flocksofcattleandgoatshadbeenreducedbyhalf.Theuseofpollutedriverwatertoirrigatecropscausedoutbreaksoffoodpoisoningamongconsumers.TheSyriangovernmentunderBasharAssadbroughtsomeindustrytothenortheast

region,suchastheFrench-ownedandChinese-builtLCScementfactoryinJalabiyya—Syria’slargestprivate-sectorinvestmentoutsideoftheoilindustry.But,aswastypical,thefactoryhiredveryfewlocalvillagersforitsunskilledjobs.SkilledworkersandmanagerswerebroughtinfromcitiesinthewesternpartofthecountryandfromEgypt.Evenbeforethedrought,between2002and2008,Syriahadlost40percentofits

agriculturalworkforce.Withtheonsetofthedrought,closeto1.5millionruralpeopleabandonedtheirfarmsandvillagesandmigratedtothecities,ortoshantytownsandtentcampsoutsidethecities,insearchofwork.Thismigrationcontributedtothesituationinwhichsome40percentofSyria’shousingstockwasestimatedtohavebeenbuiltwithoutpermitsandtohavelackedstate-providedwaterandelectricity.Asinthenortheast,similardevelopmentsduetodepletionofwaterreservestookplacein

otherregionsofthecountry—suchastheprovinceofDaraa,neartheJordanianborder.InearlyMarch2011,justdaysbeforeprotestserupted,anInternationalCrisisGroupteamreportedinDaraathat“localresidentswarnedofanexplosivesituation;anysparkmightcauseittodetonate.”Understandingthestrongpre-wargapbetweenrichandpoor,andbetweencityand

countryside,canhelpustoseethesocialcharacteristics—includingtheclassbasis—oftherevoltagainstAssad.Thereisevidence,ofcourse,thatmuchoftheinitialorganizingofthepro-democracy

upsurgewascarriedoutby“tech-savvy”youthinthecitiesandcampuseswhohadbeeninspiredbytheirrebellingcounterpartsinEgyptandTunisia.TheeventsoftheArabSpring

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hadatremendouslyenergizingeffectonstudentyouth—manyofwhomwerechildrenofthebourgeoisie.Nevertheless,theprotestmovementsooncaughtfirewithinthecommunitiesofpoor

migrantsringingthecities.FromthereitspreadtothesmallhometownsandruralvillageswheremanypeoplehadbecomedisaffectedwithAssad’sneo-liberalpolicies.Incontrast,peoplefromthecentralcities,especiallyinDamascusandAleppo,wereslowertojointheprotests—thoughmanycityyouthmadetheirwaytoparticipateindemonstrationsinworking-classsuburbs,wherepolicerepressionwaslessconcentratedandtheywerelesslikelytobeidentifiedbyinformers.ThiswasunlikeEgyptandTunisia,wherethemajorprotestdemonstrationstookplaceinthecenterofthecapitalcities.Theclassdividecouldbeglimpsedinlaterphasesofthewarinthelineofbattlethat

bisectedthecityofAleppo.Theworking-classandpoorerareasofAleppoanditssuburbswereinthehandsofrebelforcesandfunctionedunderrebelcommittees,whilethebourgeoisandupper-middle-classareasremainedgenerallyloyaltoAssad.Butpoorerpeople,andthosewithpeasantbackgrounds,aremoreapttobesocially

conservative,traditional,andreligiousintheirbeliefsthanthemore“sophisticated”andwealthierpeopleofthebigcities.InBasharAssad’sSyria,moreover,religiousclericshadgainedinfluenceineducationandcharitableworks,asthestatewithdrewsubsidiesandfromsocialinvolvement.Andoncetheprotestmovementwasunderway,meetingsoftenhadtotakeplaceduringtheFridaysermoninmosquessinceregularpoliticalmeetingswereprohibitedbytheregime.Thoseareamongthereasonswhyagreatnumberoftheorganizingcommitteesandthelocalmilitias,atthesametimethattheycalledfordemocraticreforms,tookonanIslamiccharacterfromthebeginning.EvenamongtheIslamists,therewasagreatdealofvariationingoalsandbeliefs;for

instance,somecalledforSharialawstobeappliedwhileothersdidnot.SomecalledforatheocraticstateinwhichIslamicteachingswereparamount,whileotherssoughtapluralistorseculardemocracy.Moreover,theseIslamic-influencedgroupingsthatreflectedthebeliefsandmoresofthelocalpeoplemustbedistinguishedfromthosewhoareoftentermed“jihadists”—groupingsthatsoughttowageawartospreadtheirausterebrandofIslamovertheworld,andtopunishorkillallwhomtheyviewedasinfidels.(TheoriginsandroleofradicalIslamintheSyrianstruggle,andISISinparticular,willbediscussedlaterinthisResolution.)ItisimportanttorefrainfromdenigratingIslamic-orientedorganizationswithinthe

struggleagainsttheAssadregime,withoutmakinganyattempttodistinguishtheirspecificpoliticalgoals.ItmighthelpustounderstandthatvariousIslamic-orientedgroupshavedisparateandconflictingpoliticalviewsbycomparingthesituationinSyriatothatoftheUnitedStates—wheresociallyconsciousChristianchurchcongregationshaveservedasorganizingcentersforimmigrantrights,Blackrights,andtheantiwarmovement.Obviously,theseprogressiveChristianshavelittleincommonwiththeBible-thumpingsegregationistsoftheSouth,thereactionaryTeaPartymobs,andtheanti-women“righttolifers,”whoalsoprofesstobeChristians.Workingpeoplewhoaresociallyconservativeandreligious,andexpressbackward

opinionsonissueslikewomen’srights,canbewontoprogressiveideas,andeventosocialism.Thepathfromsocialconservatismtowardclass-consciousnessandpoliticalmaturationisgenerallyslowanduneven,butitcanmoveatlightningspeedintimesofsocialcrisis,whenpoliticalactionsaregivenrevolutionaryleadership.Infact,thatispreciselywhathappenedduringtheRussianRevolution,whenhundredsofthousandsofworkersandsoldiers,whohadarrivednotlongbeforefromthecountryside,werewontotheprogramoftheBolshevikParty.

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III.FromupsurgetocivilwarAssadrepressestheprotestmovementAftertheprotestmovementhadbegun,thefateofthecountrywaslargelyinthehandsof

BasharAssad.Accordingtomanyaccounts,millionsofSyrianswaitedwithgreatexpectationsforAssad’sMarch30,2011,televisedaddresstotheSyriannationalassembly.Assadhadmadeearliercommentsindicatingthathemightoffersignificantreforms,andthevicepresident,Farougal-Sharaa,smoothedthewayfortheTVaddress,cheerilyassuringthepopulationthatAssadwouldsaythingsthatwouldpleasethemall.Assadbeganhisspeechbyexpressingmutedapprovaloftherecentmassdemocracy

protestsintheMiddleEast(theArabSpring),agreeingthatsomechangeswerecertainlyinorder,“ifthepeoplewantthem.”Hedeclaredthatthe“Arabstreet”wasthe“realleader”ofsociety.Hemadeclear,however,thatSyriawas“different”thanothercountriesintheregionbecauseof“thelinksbetweenmyselfandthepeople.”AssadconcededthatSyriacouldcertainlyuse“reforms”andthatsomeprotestershad

“goodintentions.”Buthewentontopaintapictureinwhichtheprotests,citybycity,hadbeenincitedbyconspiratorsfromabroad,whousedtheinternetandsatelliteTVstationstocreatedivisionsandreligioussectarianism.Then,Assadcharged,“thesepeople”started“shootingpeopleindiscriminatelytocreatemoreanger.”(Thiswasinthefirstweeksofthepeacefulprotests,whentheonlyoneswhowerearmedwereregimesnipersandprovocateurs.)Assadfellbackonthebloodandthunderrhetoricofhisfather’sregime,claimingthat

Syriawasthevictimof“agreatconspiracy,whosetentaclesextend”toforeignpowersthatwereplottingtodestroythecountry,andwarned,“wehavetoprotectourselves.”Heconcludedbystatingominouslythat“buryingseditionisanational,moral,andreligiousduty.…Thereisnocompromiseormiddlewayinthis.”This2011speechlaidthegroundworkfortherhetoricthathasservedtheAssadregime

throughoutthewar:Theoppositiongroupingsareattheircorenothingbutreligioussectarians,gangsters,andterroristsinthepayofaforeignconspiracy;thereforetheyaresubjecttoexterminationbymilitarymeans.AllSyrianswhorefusetostanduptofighttheterroristsarelikewiseguilty—andwillbedealtwith.AlthoughAssad’scharacterizationoftheprotestersas“terrorists”wassheerfictionin

2011,hisregimeworkedassiduouslytostirupthepotofsectarianviolence.Assadreleasedfromprisonanumberofbattle-hardenedIslamistradicals,whohadhadnothingtodowiththeprotests.SomeofthesemenlaterwentontobecomeleadersofradicalIslamicmilitias.Atthesametime,realprotestleaders,intellectuals,andartistsweredetained,andoftentorturedandkilled.ReligiousshrinesweredemolishedinordertoenragetheSunnipopulation,whileminoritygroupings,liketheAlawites,weregivenfalsewarningsthatbandsofSunnisweremarchingontheirneighborhoodstoseekrevenge.Andasalways,protestersindemonstrationsweremoweddownbysoldiersandsniperswithoutmercy.WiththeprofusionofreportsabouttheatrocitieswagedbytheAssadregime,itis

astonishingthatthesubjectisneverreportedoninSocialistActionnewspaper—asidefromoccasionalroutinementionthatAssad’stroopsfiredonafewprotestsintheearlydays.Missingfromournewspaper’scommentaryisthefactthat,inordertoremaininpower,theSyriangovernmenthasusedextremeviolenceandterrorcontinuallyagainstitsownpopulation.YouwillnotreadinSocialistActionaboutthethousandsofpeoplewho“disappeared”intotheAssadistgulag—someofwhosemangledcorpseswereidentifiedonlyyearslater.

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Atlonglast,intheMay2018issueofSocialistActionnewspaper,writerBruceLesnickventuredtomentionthequestionofrepressionbytheAssadregime:“AndwhatofchargesthattheSyriangovernmentrepressesitsowncitizens?Well,giventhatSyriaisacapitalistcountry—whichmeansthatthemajorityworktoproducethewealthwhileasmallelitecontrolsallthewealthandpower—it’saforegoneconclusionthatthereisrepressionandexploitation.”Thatobservationisfairenough;Marxistsunderstandthatrepressionisthefundamental

purposeofthestateundercapitalism.ButwhatsortordegreeofrepressionarewedealingwithinSyria?Unfortunately,althoughhemighthavecitedhundredsofreportsofsuchrepression,ComradeLesnickwasnotspecificandmerelypointedoutthatanothercapitalistcountry,theUnitedStates,hasresortedtorepressionthroughthecenturies—genocideagainstNativeAmericans,slavery,segregation.Andso,isSyriaalsoguiltyofrepressiveacts?ComradeLesnickshruggedoffthequestion,saying,“StillmostcrimestheAssadgovernmentisaccusedofhavenotbeenproven.”Naturally,amongthecountlesschargesofterror,brutality,andsadismthathavebeen

madeagainsttheAssadgovernment,whetherornot“most”ofthemhavebeenprovenisunclear.ButmoretothepointisthefactthatamountainofevidenceexiststoverifythetremendousnumberofhorriblecrimesagainsthumanitythathavebeenperpetratedbytheAssadregime—massacres,torture,blockadesoffoodtothecities,andmore.Hereareafewofthereportsthatarereadilyavailableon-lineandinthemajormedia:ExhibitA:ProtestersshotandkilledInDecember2011—atwhichpointsome4000protestershadbeenkilledbythe

government—HumanRightsWatchissuedan88-pagereportbasedoninterviewswithmorethan60Syriansoldiersandintelligenceofficerswhohaddefected.Thereportnamescommandersandofficials,uptothehighestlevelsofthegovernment,whoorderedorcondonedkillings,torture,andunlawfularrestsduringthe2011protests.(See:https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/12/15/all-means-necessary/individual-and-

command-responsibility-crimes-against-humanity)Asamplequotefromthereportisthefollowing:“‘Said,’whowasdeployedtoTalbiseh

withthe134thBrigade,18thDivision,saidthatafterthemilitarymovedintothetowninearlyMay,intelligenceagenciesandthemilitarystartedconductingdailyraids,arresting‘anyoneolderthan14years—sometimes20,andsometimesahundredpeople.’Saidalsosaidthatthearrestraids,authorizedbythemukhabaratandthemilitary,wereaccompaniedby‘brazenlooting’andburningofshops.”Anothersoldiertoldtheresearchers:“Atonepointwekilledeightpeoplein15minutes.

Theprotesterswereunarmed.Theydidn’tevenhaverocks!That’swhenIdecidedtodefect.Ithrewawaymygunandrantowardstheprotesters.SomebodypickedmeupinavanandtookmehometoDaraa.”EightdefectorstoldHumanRightsWatchthattheyhadwitnessedofficersorintelligence

agentskillingsoldierswhorefusedtofireonunarmedprotesters.Hereisonequote:“Thesoldierswereinfront.ColonelKhaderandthesecurityagentswerestandingrightbehindus.YusufMusaKrad,a21-year-oldconscriptfromDaraa,wasstandingrightnexttome.AtsomepointthecolonelnoticedthatYusufwasonlyshootingintheair.HetoldFirstLieutenantJihadfromtheregionalbranchofMilitaryIntelligence.Theywerealwaystogether.Jihadcalledasniperontheroof,pointedatYusuf,andthesniperthenshotYusuftwiceinthehead.SecurityagentstookYusuf’sbodyaway.ThenextdaywesawYusuf’sbodyonTV.Theysaidthathehadbeenkilledbyterrorists.”

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ExhibitB:TortureAyearlater,inJuly2012,HumanRightsWatchreleasedaseparatereportontortureby

theAssadregime,inwhichitidentifiedthelocations,agenciesresponsible,methodsoftorture,andcommandersinchargeof27detentionfacilitiesinthecountry.The81-pagereportwasbasedonmorethan200interviews,andcontainedmapsofdetentionfacilities,videoaccountsfromformerdetainees,andsketchesoftorturetechniquesdescribedbypeoplewhohadwitnessedorbeensubjectedtothem.(See:https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/07/03/syria-torture-centers-revealed)Techniquesoftorturethataredescribedincludebeatingswithbatonsandwire,electric

shock,burningwithcarbatteryacid,sexualassault,pullingoffingernails,andmockexecution.ThisquotefromaformerSyrianintelligenceofficerlistssomeofthemethodsthatwere

used:“Themildestformoftortureishittingpeoplewithbatonsontheirarmsandlegsandnotgivingthemanythingtoeatordrink.Thentheywouldhangthedetaineesfromtheceilingbytheirhands,sometimesforhoursordays.IsawitwhileIwastalkingtotheinterrogators.Theyusedelectricstun-gunsandanelectroshockmachine,anelectriccurrenttransformer.Itisasmallmachinewithtwowireswithclipsthattheyattachtonipplesandaknobthatregulatesthecurrent.Inaddition,theyputpeopleincoffinsandthreatenedtokillthemandclosethecoffin.Peoplewerewearingunderwear.Theypourhotwateronpeopleandthenwhipthem.I’vealsoseendrillsthere,butI’veneverseenthembeingused.I’vealsoseenthemusingmartialartmoves,likebreakingribswithakneekick.Theyputpinsunderyourfeetandhityousothatyousteponthem.Ialsoheardthemthreateningtocutoffthedetainees’penises.”Oneofthevictimstoldtheinterviewers:“Theyforcedmetoundress.Thentheystarted

squeezingmyfingerswithpliers.Theyputstaplesinmyfingers,chest,andears.IwasonlyallowedtotakethemoutifIspoke.Thenailsintheearswerethemostpainful.Theyusedtwowireshookeduptoacarbatterytogivemeelectricshocks.Theyusedelectricstun-gunsonmygenitalstwice.IthoughtIwouldneverseemyfamilyagain.Theytorturedmelikethisthreetimesoverthreedays.”Threeyearslater,inMay2015,theSyrianObservatoryforHumanRightsclaimedthatat

least60,000peoplehaddiedasaresultoftortureordireconditionsintheprisonssincethebeginningoftheprotests.Aroundthesametime,AmnestyInternationaldocumented17,723deadintheregime’storturecenters.ExhibitC:TopAssadistofficialsimplicatedEvidencethatpoliticalrepressionwasapprovedbythehighestechelonsoftheSyrian

governmentiscontainedintheover600,000documentsissuedbySyria’ssecurityapparatusthathavebeensmuggledoutofthecountryandarenowhousedin265boxesstoredinEurope.ThecollectionwasformedundertheauspicesoftheCommissionforInternationalJusticeandAccountability,aninvestigativebodyformedin2012inresponsetotheSyrianwar.ThecoreofthedocumentsweregatheredbyAbdelmaiidBarakat,afunctionaryintheSyriangovernmentbeforehedefected.Otherpaperswerecollectedbyactivistsintheearlyphasesofthewarwhengovernmentofficeswerequicklyabandonedafterrebelforcesseizedgovernment-heldterritory.Theworkofthecommissionresulted,in2016,ina400-pagelegalbrief,whichlinkedthe

murderandtortureoftensofthousandsofSyrianstoawrittenpolicyapprovedbyAssadandthendiffusedamongpoliceandintelligenceagenciesandothergovernmentalandBa’athPartyofficesthroughoutthecountry.

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BarakatwasabletoobtainthedocumentsduetohispositionasanemployeeoftheCentralCrisisManagementCell,anorganoftheBa’athPartycomposedoftopSyrianofficialsandcreatedbyAssadinMarch2011todealwiththeoutbreakofprotests.AnarticlebyBenTaubintheApril18,2016editionofTheNewYorkergivesathoroughaccountofthefunctioningoftheCrisisCell,andBarakathimselfgivesmoredetailsinadepositionhesworetoinacourtsuit(Colvinv.SyrianArabRepublic)inWashington,D.C.,inDecember2017.BarakatstatesinhisdepositionthattheCellwasthehighestnational-securitybodyin

Syria,outsideofAssadhimself.ThechairmanwasMohammadSaidBekheitan,thehighestofficialoftheBa’athPartyafterAssad.Bashar’syoungerbrother,Maher,wasanoccasionalguest.TheCrisisCellmetalmostdailyintheearlymonthsofthedemocracyupsurgetoformulatetheregime’sstrategyandtacticsofrepression.Theseplansweredetailedinthedailyminutes,whichwerethendeliveredbycouriertoBasharAssadinperson.ItwasAssad’sroletogivethefinalgo-ahead,andreturntheplanstotheCrisisCenterforimplementation.Sometimes,Barakat,reported,Assadmaderevisions.Nosecuritydecisions,hesaid,weretoosmalltonotrequireAssad’sapproval.Barakat’sjobwastoprocessthemountainofconfidentialsecuritymemosthatcameto

theCellfromaroundthecountryregardingtheperceivedthreatofprotests.HereadthepapersandsummarizedthemforuseinCrisisCellmeetings.Soonafterhestartedwork,inApril2011,hebeganleakingdocumentstocontactsintheSyrianopposition,whoforwardedthemtoMiddleEasternnewsmedia.Barakatfoundthatalthoughtheregimeclaimedthatitwasallowingpeaceful

demonstrations,thememosshowedthatsecurityagentsweretargetingprotesterswithviolence.Hesaidinhisdeclarationthatthecommunicationswereverystrictabouttheprescribedvocabularytobeemployed.Non-violentprotesterswereroutinelyreferredtoas“terrorists”or“outlaws,”whichindicatedthatmilitarymeanscouldbeusedagainstthem.Thesamevocabularyisinusetoday.Civiliancasualtieswere“deadpeople,”whilecasualtiesamongsecuritypeoplewere“martyrs.”Barakatstatedinhis2018declarationthathewitnessedtopofficialsdiscussingsending

agentsprovocateursintocrowdsofdemonstrators,plantingweaponsinmosques,andevensellingweaponstopeopleinordertocreateapretextforviolentcrackdowns.Documentsthathavebeenreproducedon-lineincludearrestwarrants.Onedocument,

translatedintoEnglish,wassenttoBa’athPartyandsecurityoperativesfromDamascus,callingfortheimmediatearrestof“especiallythoseincitingdemonstrations”and“membersofthecoordinationcommitteeswhoorganizedemonstrations.”“Cleaneverysectorofthosewantedpeople,”thedirectiveorders.AnotherdocumenttranslatedintoEnglishisarequestfromtheMinistryofInteriorforinformationextractedduringinterrogationsof“detaineeswhoincitedprotestsandthosewhohadcontactswithforeignbodies.”(See:https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/06/12/inenglish/1528799235_796657.html Eventually,inFebruary2012,Barakatfelthehadbeendiscovered.Heransackedtheoffice

andgrabbedhundredsofadditionaldocuments,includingminutesofCrisisCellmeetings,andthenquicklyfledovertheborder.WhathappenedtothetensofthousandsofprotestersthatBarakatsaidwere“targeted?”

TheSyrianNetworkforHumanRightsestimatesthat80,000Syrianshavedisappearedafterbeingdetainedbythegovernment.In2015,HumanRightsWatchandtheEuro-MedMonitorforHumanRightsestimatedthat65,000hadbeenforciblydetainedbythegovernment,afigurethatisnotinconsistentwiththeupdatedSNHRestimate.Ofthe65,000whowereabducted,58,148werecivilians.ComradescanreadanAugust2015reporthere,withshortbiographiesofwell-knownpoliticalactivistsandintellectualswhohave

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disappearedafterbeingdetainedbytheSyriangovernment:http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/Dahaya-EUROMID_en.pdfExhibitD:HangingswithoutfairtrialsWhatwasthefateofallthosepeople?In2015,AmnestyInternationalissuedareport,

basedoninterviewswith84formerprisonguardsandprisonerswhowerewitnesses,whichconcludedthatfrom5000to13,000prisonersweresecretlyhangedatthenotoriousSaydnayaprisonfromtheearliestmonthsoftheuprisinguntil2015.Thereport’sauthor,NicoletteWaldman,wrote:“Beforetheywerehanged,victimswere

condemnedtodeathinatwotothree-minutehearing.Thedeathsentencewassignedbytheministerofdefence,whowasdeputizedtosignbyPresidentAssad.Itisinconceivablethatallofthetopofficialsdidnotknowaboutit.Thiswasapolicyofextermination.”ExhibitE:Corpsesshowsignsoftorture,starvationAndwhatoftheprisonerswhowerenothangedbutwerekilledbyothermeans—torture,

beatings,starvation,rape,medicalneglect—inAssad’sdungeons?WhowerethenamelesspeoplewhosecrumpledbodiesweretakenfromtheprisonsanddumpedintomassgravesontheoutskirtsofDamascus—generallybeforedawnmostTuesdaymornings?Acluetotheirfatewasrevealedwhenthelargestcollectionofevidenceofthehorrible

conditionsinSyrianprisonscametolight.In2014,adefectorcode-named“Caesar”leftSyriawithphotographicimagesofover6,700corpsesofpeoplewhohaddiedintheprisons.Between2011and2013,Caesar’sjobasapolicephotographerwastophotographandarchivethebodiesfromvariousprisonsandtwoDamascus“hospitals”(reallytorturecenters).Hesmuggledover53,000imagesoutofSyriaondiscsandthumbdrivesuntilhedefectedtoEurope.Intime,thecollectionofphotoswasgiventoHumanRightsWatch,whichwasabletoverifyasamplingof27ofthecorpsesbycomparingthemtolivingphotosofactivistswhohadbeendetainedbytheregime.HRWconductedextensiveinvestigationsintothecircumstancesofthedetentions,and

spoketofamilymembersandwitnesses.Manyofthecorpsesdisplayedevidenceofstarvation,infection,andtorture.By2016,about730ofthevictimsinCaesar’sphotoshadbeenidentified.BasharAssadhasbeenquestionedaboutthephotographsonseveraloccasions.Lastyear,

inaYahooNewsinterview,Assadreferredtothemas“justpropaganda,justfakenews.”ButinJuly2018,investigatorswhoarereviewingtheregimedocumentsinourExhibitCsaidthatsomeofthedocumentsverifyCaesar’sphotos.Apparently,theinvestigatorsfoundnamesandnumbersthatmatchinbothphotosanddocuments.TheybelievethatthelinksarecompellingenoughthattheycouldeventuallyleadtoprosecutionsofsomeofficersoftheregimewhoarenowinEurope.Foraninterestingreport,withinterviews,see:https://www.channel4.com/news/syrias-disappeared-new-evidence-that-military-

leaders-knew-of-torture

ExhibitF:Regimedocumentsrevealdeathsofthe“disappeared”Finally,inrecentweeks,eventheSyriangovernmenthasreleasedevidenceverifyingthat

manyprisonersmetahorrificendintheprisons.Partlyinresponsetointernationalpressure,theregimequietlyupdatedthecivilregistriesoftownsaroundthecountry—changingthestatusofhundredsofpeoplewhohadbeenunaccountedforwhileindetentiontothecategoryof“deceasedduetonaturalcauses.“

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Whethertheseindividualsdiedsolelyastheresultofnaturalcauses,likediseaseorthefrequentlyclaimed“heartattack,”however,hasbeenchallenged.Forexample,Muadamiyatal-Sham,atownof50,000intheDamascuscountryside,hasbeennotifiedofthedeathsinprisonof500ofitsformerresidents.Amongthem,wasYahyaShurbaji,anon-violentdemocracyactivist,whowasrecordedasdyingatthenotoriousSaydnayaprisonandtorturecenteronJan.15,2013,almosttwoyearsafterhewasdetained.Butthefactthatthreeotherpoliticaldetaineesdiedthereonthesamedateputstheallegationthattheyalldiedofnaturalcausesintoquestion.TerrorbombingofcivilianneighborhoodsOfcourse,documentingthehorrorsoftheprisonsandtorturecentersonlyliftsthe

curtainononeelementofrepressioninAssad’sSyria.MostciviliandeathsoccurrednotbecauseofarrestsbutbecauseoftherelentlessbombingofpopulatedareasbySyrianandRussianaircraft.ItwasestimatedthisyearbytheSyrianObservatorythatpro-Assadforceswereresponsiblefor85percentoftheciviliancasualtiesduringthewar—withonly15percentcausedbythecombinationofISIS,theU.S.,andtherebels.DuringSocialistAction’spre-conventiondiscussionin2016,ComradeMacklerandafew

comradeswhoagreedwithhispositiononSyrianotonlyminimizedtheamountofciviliandeathsanddestructionbutinsistedthatitwasprimarilyduetowhattheycalled“collateraldamage”—thatis,theunavoidabledeathsthatoccurwhenciviliansareinthefiringlineofmilitaryaction.Moreover,ComradeMacklermaintained,bywayofanalogy,thatevenTrotsky’sRedArmykilledsomeciviliansduringtheCivilWarinRussia.Itistrue,ofcourse,thatastheBolsheviksstruggledtoholdontopower,therevolutionaryarmyandpoliticalpolice(theCheka)wasforcedtomeettheWhiteTerrorwiththeso-calledRedTerror.Numbersofanti-Bolshevikfightersandsaboteurs,kulaks(richpeasants)whowerewithholdingtheirgrain,armydeserters,andevenstrikingworkerswerearrestedandexecuted.I’msuremostcomradesareaware,however,thatTrotskyneverwagedapurposefulcampaignofterroragainstentirecities,killingtensofthousandsofnon-combatants,obliteratingwholeneighborhoodswithbarrelbombs(filledwithnails,oil,orchemicalsanddesignedespeciallytokillpeople),orattemptingtostarvetheinhabitantsintosubmission—asAssadhasdone.IdonothavethespaceorthetimeinthisalreadylongResolutiontodocumenttheextent

ofthedestructionandciviliancasualtiescausedbytheAssadregime.Buttheinternetcontainsmanyphotosandvideos(includingdroneshotsand“before&after”shots)ofthedestroyedsectionsofAleppoandothercities.ComradesmightalsobeinterestedinwatchingtheseriesofshortvideosthatCNNjournalistClarissaWardmadeacoupleofyearsago,“UndercoverinSyria,”madeinbombed-outrebel-heldareasofthecountry.See:https://www.cnn.com/2016/03/14/middleeast/syria-aleppo-behind-rebel-

lines/index.htmlTheAssadregime,truetoform,blamesthebombed-outcities—pock-markedwith

demolishedshellsofhospitals,schools,andmosques—onactionsbythe“terrorists.”OnemeasuringstickofwhethertherebelswereguiltyofdestroyingthecitiescanbeseenbylookingatcontemporarymapsofAleppo.Itcanbeseenthattheheaviestdamage,exceptforthatinthebattle-scarredOldCity,correspondsalmostexactlywiththeneighborhoodsthatwereheldbyrebelforcesinthesummerof2016.TheseareaswerevictimsofbombingbyRussianandSyrianaircraft.Thewealthierwesternandcentralareasofthecity,whichremainedloyaltoAssad,sufferedonlylightdamage.MAPSBELOW:

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(KEY:Red=regimeareas;green=rebelareas;brown=disputedborderareas;yellow=

Kurdish-heldareas)Governmentinrebelareas

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ComradeMackleraskedrhetoricallyintheJuly20,2016,issueofSocialistActionnewspaper:“Dareweassertthattheimperialist-occupiedportionsofSyria—atonepointsome50percentormoreofthecountry—representafundamentalviolationoftherightofoppressednationstoself-determination?”Whileitmaybetruethatatthehighpointoftheinsurgency,oppositionalforces

administeredaroundhalftheterritoryofthecountry,neithertheUnitedStatesnorotheranyotherimperialistcountryhadmuchtodowithit.Supplyinglightarmsandahandfulofanti-tankmissilestoafewselectedmilitias,plustheprobableundercoverpresenceofafewCIAagentsandspecialops,hardlyconstitutedan“imperialistoccupation”ofhalfthecountry.TherealityoflifebehindrebelbattlelineswasfarmorecomplexthanSocialistAction

newspaperadmittedtowithits“imperialistoccupation”mythology.Severalmillionpeoplelivedinrebelareas,raisedtheirfamilies,harvestedcropsorconductedtheirbusinesses,wenttoschool,andservedonlocalgovernmentalboards.Relativelyfewweremilitiafighters—letaloneU.S.-paid“terrorists.”Andlikewise,therewasnorigiddivisionbetweentheperiodoforganizingmassprotests

andtheperiodofarmedstruggle.Numerousarticlesinthebourgeoismedia,aswellasaccountsinbooksandontheinternet,underscorethefactthatcivilianmobilizationsandpoliticalorganizingcontinuedforyearsthroughoutthecountry,eventhoughwarwasragingatthesametime.Asofficialsoftheoldregimewithdrewfromtownsandvillages,grassrootsforces—

courts,electedcouncils,andadministrativecommitteesandofficials—tooktheirplaceinordertoprovideservicestothepopulation.Thedownsidetothegrassrootscharacterofthesebodieswasthatmostgovernmentalfunctionswerecarriedoutonastrictlylocalbasis.OrganizationsliketheSyrianNationalCoalitionandtheLocalCoordinatingCouncilstriedtoprovidecoordinationbetweenlocalities,butlittlesemblanceofaunifiedalternativestateapparatuswaseverbuilttogovernlargeblocksofterritory—atleast,untiltheIslamicState(ISIS)steppedin.Itwasevendifficulttosetupbodiestocollecttaxes,whichmadesomeareasreliantonaidfromUNICEFandforeignNGOs,orfromIslamicdonorsabroad.Thenoosegrewmuchtighter,ofcourse,whentheSyriangovernmentanditsalliesbegan

toblockadefoodsuppliesfromreachingmanytownsandcitiesandtobombthemrelentlessly.Assadisttroopsandalliedmilitiaspursuedascorched-earthpolicy,burningfieldsofgrainusedtofeedthepeople.Inthosecircumstances,thenormalfunctionsoflocalgovernmentinprovidingwaterandsanitation,schools,bakeries,transport,etc.,werestretchedtoincludereliefandrescueoperations,andinrepairingandmaintainingbombed-outhospitalsandschoolsorrelocatingthemintocellarsorotherrelativelyshelteredareas.Thegenesisofthealternativegovernmentswasoftenintheprotestcommitteesthathad

beensetupinmanyareasduringtheearlymonthsof2011.Verysoonafterthedemonstrationshadfirstbrokenout,thenetworkofLocalCoordinatingCouncilswassetupbyactivists—includingradicalstudentsandleftists—whoperceivedtheneedtocoordinateprotestactionsandforgecleardemandsthroughoutthecountry.Then,aftertheregimehadwithdrawnfrommanyareas,thestrugglecommitteesoftenmorphedintoadministrativebodiesworkingtoprovidenecessaryservices.Later,afterthemovementhadbecomemilitarized,andtherebellionhadspreadtobroaderareasofthecountry,oppositionalmilitiasalsoparticipatedinsettinguplocalgovernments.Insomecases,frictionorconflictarosebetweenthecivilian-basedlocalcouncilsthatwerealreadyinplaceandrivalgroupingscreatedbythemilitias,particularlytheIslamist-basedmilitias.Lawcourtswereusuallythefirstalternativegovernmentalinstitutionstobesetupin

localareaswhentherebelstookover.Thecourtswereseenasnecessarytoadjudicateeverydaydisputesandcriminalmatters,aswellastodecidedisputesbetweenthevarious

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rebelmilitias,suchashowtodividecachesofweaponstheyhadseizedorareasofcontrol.TherewereoftenfewexperiencedjudgesorlawyerstotaketheplaceoftheoldAssadistjudiciary.Forthatreasonlocalsheikhs(triballeaders),whowereversedinSharialaw,wereoftenappointedasjudges.SomecourtsappliedSyriancivillaw,butthatwasgenerallysupplantedbysomeversionofShariaasIslamistmilitiastookholdinmanydistricts.Intime,manycourts,suchastheonesinAleppo,wereabletogainindependenceofthemilitias.TherewasanefforttoinstallageneralcourtsystemthatwouldemploytheUnifiedArabCode—alegalcodebasedonShariathatmanycountries,suchasTurkey,employ.Somefiveyearsafterthestartoftheanti-Assadupsurge,severalhundredvillages,towns,

andcities—perhaps400to700,accordingtoSyrianexileandauthorLeilaal-Shami—werestillruledbycommitteesinoppositiontotheAssadregime.Themajorexampleofacityruledbypopularcommitteesandlocalself-defenseunitswas

theeasternportionofAleppo,hometothecity’sworking-classandtheshacksofmigrantpoorpeasants—containingasmanyas300,000people.AleppowasfirstliberatedinJuly2012,buttheinsurgents’ammunitionsoonranout,someofthefighterssquabbledamongthemselves,andISISwasabletotakeadvantageofthestalematetoenterthecity.InJanuary2014,amasspopularrebellion—whatLeilaal-Shamicallsthe“revolutionwithintherevolution”—tookplace,asarmedpeoplesweptISISoutofallofwesternSyria,includingAleppo.From2014untiltheendof2016,whenthebesiegedandravagedcitywasfinallyoccupiedbyAssadisttroops,Aleppowasmanagedbylocalcommittees,allunderthecoordinationoftheMunicipalCouncilofAleppo.Foralongwhile,untilAssadistbombingmadenormalfunctioningimpossible,politicalandculturallifeflourished—withindependentnewspapersandradiostations,healthcareprojects,basementschools,andtheatregroups.“Islamization”ofthestruggleEarliersectionsofthisresolutionhavealreadypointedoutsomeofthefactorsbehindthe

meteoricriseofIslamic-orientedmilitiaswithintheanti-Assadstruggle.Tosummarize,theyinclude:1) Theprevailingconservativeandreligiousbeliefsoftheruralandsmall-town

populationinpartsofSyriawheretherebelliontookhold.2) ManymilitiassawanadvantageintakinginIslamicbeliefsandgoalsinorderto

attractfundingfromwealthyIslamicbenefactorsandstateslikeQatarandSaudiArabia.

3) DuetothedrawbackoftheAssadregimefromprovidingsocialservicesandadequateschools,themosquesandmadrasastookonmanyofthosefunctions,whichincreasedthestandingoftheMuslimclergyamongthepoorpopulation.

4) Sincetheregimebannedmostpoliticalmeetings,themosqueswereoftenusedasorganizingcentersfortheprotests.

5) Sinceworking-classorganizationssuchasindependenttradeunionsandpoliticalpartieswereprohibited,working-classideologyandorganizationcouldnotbewidelydisseminated.Islamicteachingswereabletotakeuptheslack.

6) TheAssadregimeworkedtoratchetupreligioussectarianism.ItfacilitatedtheentryofradicalIslamistsintothecountryfromIraqandevenfreedanumberofthemfromprison,whilejailingsecularpoliticalactivists.

ItisworthnotingthattheriseofIslamismasapoliticalforcewasaphenomenonthattookplacethroughouttheMiddleEastduringrecentdecades.Intheperiodthroughthe1970sandprobablyintothe1980s,thenationalistmovementsintheregionwereheavilyinfluencedbysocialistandMarxistideas.Thiswasduetothehistoricallegacyofastrong

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working-class,socialist,andStalinistmovementthroughoutthecolonialandneo-colonialworld.Inaddition,militaryandeconomicaidfromtheSovietUnionandtheEasternBlockhelped

framethecharacterofmanyoftheliberationmovementsandnationalistregimes.Assad’ssecurityapparatus,forexample,receivedtrainingbytheEastGermanStasi.Obviously,thefalloftheSovietUnionin1991andthecut-offofaideliminatedthisinfluence.Atthatpoint,proponentsofIslamicideology,whohadconsiderablesourcesoffunding,wereabletostepintothepoliticalbreach,attractingmanydisaffectedyouthintothemadrasas.Somecommentators,suchasChristopherPhillipsin“TheBattleforSyria,”believethatthe

falloftheUSSR—andtherevelationsthatwerecirculatingatthetimeofthewretchedconditionsthathadexistedwithintheSovietbloc—wasofkeyimportanceincausingbroadsectorsofrebelliousMiddleEasternyouthtorejectsocialismandMarxism.Ithink,however,thatPhillipshastheequationbackwards:MiddleEasternactivistsbecamedisenchantedwiththeStalinistCommunistParties—andwithideasthattheytooktoberepresentativeofMarxism—primarilybecauseoftheirlonganduglyexperiencewiththeStalinistsintheMiddleEastitself.TheStalinists’repeatedsell-outsofnationalmovements,coddlingofIsrael,supportformilitarydictatorslikeHafezAssad,andineffectivereformistperspectivescausedmanyMiddleEasternnationaliststoturnawayfromthem.Thiscoincided,ofcourse,withanumberofspectacularvictoriesbyradicalIslamic

groupingswhogavethesuperficialappearanceofeffectivelyfightingbothU.S.imperialismandthecynicismandcorruptionoftheMiddleEasternregimes.ThevictoryofMuslimclericsinIranin1979,andtheabilityofthemassmovementtheretostanduptotheUnitedStates,alsoinspiredmanyyoungpeople.AmajorarmedvictorywastheexpulsionofSoviettroopsfromAfghanistanbythemujahedeen—ironicallywiththehelpoftheUnitedStates.Themujahedeenbecamethenucleusofalooseperipateticgroupingthatsoonbecameal-Qaeda—whichlatergavebirthtoISIS.PoliticizedIslamism—includingthatofthemostreactionaryvariety—willcontinueto

contendfortheheartsandmindsoftheSyrianpeoplewhoseekchange,atleastfortheforeseeablefuture.Butofcourse,theologicaldiscoursecannotprovideaneffectiveanswertothegraveeconomicandpoliticalproblemsthattheSyrianpeopleface.Itwilltakearevivalofthemilitantworking-classmovement,perhapsinstrikeactionorinaresurgenceofpro-democracyprotests,tobegintoprovideacounterweighttotheattractionthatIslamismnowholdsformanyoftheSyrianmasses.Wecanbehopefulthataclass-struggleleadershipwillgrowoutofthatstruggle,whichbeginstoinvestigateandutilizethemethodsandprogramoftherevolutionarysocialistmovement.TheradicalIslamistslackaprogramthatprovidesthefar-reachingandfundamental

objectivesthatarenecessarytosatisfyingtheyearningoftheSyrianmassesfordemocracyandeconomicjustice.Suchobjectivesrequiretheoverthrowofcapitalism,andonlytherevolutionarysocialistmovementcanprovideaneffectiveprogramtoaccomplishthat.Bymeansofamethodologytoguidethebroadmassesinstruggle(transitionaldemands),arevivedsocialistmovementcansupersedetheattractionthatradicalIslamistshavehadonsectionsofthepopulation,especiallyrebelliousyouth.Inthemeantime,itisfruitlesstolooktoAssad’sarmyanditsforeignalliestoeffectively

combatreactionaryIslamism.ThedestructionwroughtbytheAssadistsonlystrengthenedthehandofISIS,Duringthewar,themosteffectivefightersagainstthesereactionaryforces,bothoftheISISandtheal-Nusravariety,werethegrassrootscommitteesofcitizensinopposition-governedareas,togetherwiththeFSAandothernon-sectarianmilitias.ThosewerethepeoplewhopushedISISbackinthe2014period,althoughtheirlackofweaponryandtheeffectsofcontinualAssadistandRussianbombingweakenedthemtothepointthatISISwasabletostagearesurgence.Inthepostwarfuture,weshouldcontinuetolooktothe

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beleagueredSyrianpeople,thoseintherefugeecampsortryingtorebuildtheirshatteredvillagesandcities,toprovideleadershipagainstanycomebackbyISIS.

DidtheU.S.“create”or“fightalongside”ISIS?HowdidISISarise,andwhowasresponsible?Aspointedoutabove,theSocialistAction

2018DraftPoliticalResolutionmakestheclaim:“…U.S.forcesoftenoperateinconsortwithandalongsideofthejihadistforcesofAlQaidaandISIS,whichitdeploystoadvanceitsregimechangeobjectivesinSyria.”JeffMackler’sarticlesinSocialistActionoftenmadethesameallegation.InFebruary2018,hewrote,“Inpointoffact,theU.S.created‘theextremist’threatinIraq,ISIS,withtheobjectiveofoverthrowingthegovernmentofthatcountry.”ElsewherehewrotethatISISisthe“U.S.secretweaponinSyria.”DidtheU.S.“create”ISIStooverthrowtheIraqigovernment?No,itdidnot.IslamicState

emergedfromasmallgroupofmilitantsfightingagainsttheU.S.occupationofIraq,andoperatingunderthenameofal-QaedainMesopotamia,oral-QaedainIraq(AQI).ManyoftheinitialcadrespenttimeinU.S.-runprisonsinIraq;underthoseconditionsofextremesufferingandisolation,theywereabletoindoctrinatenewrecruitsandbuildtheirnetworks.Theretoo,amergertookplacebetweenSalafist(ultra-conservativeIslamist)militantsandformerBaathistofficersfromSaddamHussein’sarmy.ThecapturedIraqimilitarypersonnelbroughtmilitaryknow-howandprofessionalismintotheneworganization.ThegrouplaterreceivedaninfusionofrecruitsfromamongSunniswhowantedtofight

theShi’ite-dominatedU.S.puppetgovernmentinBaghdad.ForeignIslamistradicalsandadventurers—manyofwhomhadbeenhardenedonotherbattlefronts,suchasAfghanistan—alsojoinedthemix.ThegroupwagedguerrillawarfareagainsttheU.S.occupation;in2004-2005,theirprincipaltargetbecametheShi’ites.Withcapturedweaponryandaswellofrecruits,thegroupwasabletoseizeandholdterritory,andeventuallyentirecities—whichinturnincreaseditsresources.Assad’sregimebefore2011workedtofacilitatetheoperationoftheAQIagainsttheU.S.

presenceinIraq.SyriaopeneditsbordersforforeignIslamiststoeasilyenterIraqinordertojoinal-Qaeda,andallowedtheuseofSyrianterritoryasasafezoneforal-Qaedaoperativestofallbackin.Atonepoint,theU.S.andtheIraqigovernmentmanagedtopushtheAQIalmostentirelybackintoSyria,butthemovementwasabletorebound.InthefirstyearsofthecivilwarinSyria,ISISoperativescrossedtheborderintheother

direction—fromIraqintoSyria.Atthebeginning,beforeitstakeoverofeasternSyriain2014,ISISmilitantsbeganapatientprocessofproselytizing—infiltratingpoorneighborhoodsandtryingtowinovergroupingsandindividualswhowerefeelingdisaffected,perhapsfrustratedwiththepaceofvictoriesagainsttheregime.ISISalsotriedtogainfavorwithvariousSunnitriballeaders,givingthemmoneyandfavors.AfteritssuccessfuloffensiveofJune2014inIraq,whichenabledISIStofillitsarsenal

withheavyweaponsthatithadcapturedfromtheU.S.-suppliedIraqiarmy,ISIShadgainedenoughstrengthtodefeattheFSAandotherlocalmilitiasinSyriaanditsoonconsolidatedits“caliphate”onSyriansoil.TheAssadregime,ofcourse,hadhelpedtotillthegroundinwhichISIScouldthrive,

throughitsactionsaimedatincreasingthesectariannatureofthepro-democracyrevolt.ShabeehathugsoftenmockedSunnibeliefsandtargetedSunnisforviolentabuseinordertoincreasetheirresentmentagainstotherreligiousgroupings.TheAssadregimealsofacilitatedtheriseofISISinSyriabylargelyrefrainingfrom

militaryoperationsagainstit,atleastinthefirstyearsafterISISarrivedonthescene.Theregimerecognizedthatthemoreimmediatethreatstoitsrulewerethepro-democracy

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rebels,whohadpopularsupportandgovernedlargeareasofthecountryadjacenttothoseheldbytheDamascusregime.Andso,thegovernment’slimitedfirepowerwasbestused,astheysawit,torecapturethoserebelareas.InregardtodealingwithISIS,itwas“liveandletlive,”atleastforawhile.AssadwascontenttoletISISsitinitscaptured“caliphate”intheeasternpartofthecountry,whilepostponingashowdownuntilmuchlater.AslongasISISstayedclearofAssadistterritoryinthewest,theSyrianregimepreferredtoallowISIStohelpAssad’scausebyfightingitoutwiththeotherinsurgentgroupings.TheregimealsopurchasedoilandgasfromISIS-controlledfieldsandfacilitiesona

regularbasis,whichprovedtobeoneofthemajorsourcesoffundingforISISinSyria.Russian-SyrianbusinessmanGeorgeHaswani’sgasplantinTaqbaappearstohavebeenoperatedjointlybyISISandtheAssadregime.MediasourcessuchastheLondonTelegraphandtheFinancialTimesreportedonthisdevelopment.ComradeMacklerallegedinseveralofhisarticlesthatSyriangovernmentforces,along

withtheRussians,haddonethebulkofthefightingagainstISISinSyria.InFebruaryofthisyear,forexample,hewrotethatISISwas“largelydefeatedatthehandsoftheSyriangovernmentarmy,whichlost50,000soldiersinthiseffort,aquarterofitsfightingforce,aidedbyitsinvitedallies—Russia,Iran,andHezbollah…”Theclaimsaredifficulttoverify;Icanfindnosupportfortheminthenewsmedia.The

onlyreferenceIcanfindfortheallegationisanarticlebyBritishjournalistRobertFiskthatappearedintheIndependentbackinOctober2015,andwhichComradeMacklercitedinhisSocialistActionarticleofJanuary2016.Infact,Fiskgavethemoreprecisefigureof56,000SyrianarmydeathsatthehandsofISIS.However,Fisknamednosourcesforhisfigureof56,000;hemerelystatedthatitwas“anofficialsecret”thathesomehowbecameprivyto.RobertFiskisacourageousreporter,whohastraveledatgreatpersonaldangerinto

Syrianbattlezones,buthewritesmostofhisarticleswhileembeddedwithAssadisttroopsandspecializesintidbitsgainedininterviewswithAssadistofficials.WhileFiskhasacknowledgedinhisarticlestherealityofbarrelbombsandgovernmenttorturechambers,heneverthelesswritesinaccordancewiththeAssadistlingoof“liberating”thecitiesfrom“terrorists.”Duetohismyopicreporting,manyofFisk’sclaimsaboutSyriashouldbetakenwithagrainofsalt.Inthisparticulararticle,Fiskattributedthe“56,000deaths”ofSyrianArmysoldiersto

ISISfornootherreasonthanbecausehebelievedthattheFreeSyrianArmywastooineffectualtohavecausedthem.ButneitherFisknorMacklerciteanyspecificbattlesbetweentheAssadistsandISISin2014-2015tohaveaccountedforover50,000deaths.Infact,relativelyfewclashestookplace—maybesevenoreightofanysignificanceoverthestretchofthosetwoyears.ComradescanseealistofbattlesbetweentheSyrianArabArmyandISISfrom2013-2015inWikipedia;thecasualtyfiguresforgovernmenttroops,gleanedfromanumberofnewssources,areimprecisebutseemtoindicateadeathtotalofacoupleofthousandatmost—not56,000.In2016,andespecially2017,theSyriangovernmentsteppeduptheirattacksonISIS,especiallyinthetwoattemptstoregainPalmyra(inwhichacoupleofhundredSyriansoldierswerekilled);butstillthefigureof50,000SyrianArmydeadseemsexcessive.(See:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_and_battles_involving_ISIL)WhataboutthenotionthatISISisfighting“inconsortwithandalongside”U.S.forces?The

conceptishighlyunlikelyonseveralcounts.Foronething,ISIS’sorganizationalandmilitarymethodswereforgedincombatagainsttheAmericans,theirleaderswereimprisonedandtorturedbytheAmericans,andintherecentperiodtheywerebeingbombedtosmithereensbytheAmericans.BywhatstretchoftheimaginationcouldoneimaginethatISISwouldworktogetherwiththeUnitedStatestocounterAssadatthesametimethattheysawthemselvesinacombattothedeathagainsttheUnitedStates?

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Moreover,theideologyofISIS,aswellasal-Qaeda,speaksagainstsuchanalliance.ISISseestheWesterngovernments,alongwiththeapostateShi’ites,astheirmainenemies.Thatisthecoreoftheirteaching.IftheywereseenassomehowworkinginconsortwiththeU.S.,theywouldprobablylosemostoftheirmostdedicatedadherents.Asamatteroffact,itisagainsttheiconoclasticandisolationistideologyofISIStoworkin

alliancewithanyforeigngovernmentsormilitaryforces.Unlike,forexample,theTalibaninAfghanistan,ISISevenrefuses(atleastinprinciple)toenterintonegotiationswithothercombatants.Accordingtonumerousproclamationsandmanifestos,ISISatitsheightsawitselfastheoneandonlylegitimatestateintheregion.Allotherswereimposters,andtheirterritorywasopengroundforwarandagitation.ISISleaderAbuBakral-Baghdadideclaredin2014,“Thelegalityofallemirates,groups,states,andorganizationsbecomesnullbytheexpansionofthecaliph’sauthorityandthearrivalofitstroopstotheirareas.”Allmilitiagroups,allotherstates,mustbowdowntoISIS!Fromtimetotime,ofcourse,ISISdidfightinconjunctionwithvariousrebelmilitiasin

Syria,butthosetacticalalliancesneverlastedverylong,andISISfrequentlyturnedaroundandattackeditsformerallies.AndISISalsohadcommercialarrangementswiththeDamascusregime,asmentionedaboveinregardtooilsales.YetamilitarypactbetweenISIStheUnitedStatesismorefarfetched—unless,inunlikelycircumstances,ISISwereforcedtodosounderextremeduress.Inseveralarticles,ComradeMacklerallegedthattheUnitedStatesworkedtohelpputISIS

forcesintopositiontogointocombatagainstSyriangovernmenttroops.IntheFebruary2018editionofSocialistAction,hewrote,“Contrarytothearrogantimperialistbraggart,Tillerson,theimpendingdefeatofISISforceswasqualitativelymoreaproductoftheresistanceoftheSyriangovernmentanditsinvitedalliesthanitwastotheuninvitedU.S.invadersandtheirselectivebombingcampaigns.Indeed,aslongasISISforcesproceededsouthwiththeaimofcapturingtheSyriancapitalofDamascus,theywereallowedtoproceedvirtuallyunhinderedbyU.S.-alliedforces.”Unfortunately,ComradeMacklerprovidesnospecificstobackuphisclaimthattheU.S.

purposefullyallowedISIStomovetowardDamascus,makingitverydifficulttojudgethevalidityofhisallegation.Tociteanopposedview,TheNewYorkTimes,inaFeb.4,2018,articleonthematter,quotesaU.S.militaryofficerwhoblamestheinfiltrationofISISintotheDamascusareaonlaxnessbytheSyriangovernmentandtheRussians:“InDecember,Col.RyanDillon,thechiefspokesmanfortheAmerican-ledmilitarycampaigninIraqandSyria,saidinabriefingwithPentagonreporters:‘SyrianregimecommandersineasternSyriasuggestthatISISfighters’fromtheMiddleEuphratesRiverValley‘mayhaveslippedthroughporousSyrianandRussiandefensestoarriveinareasnearDamascus.’“AskedlatelastmonthbyTheNewYorkTimesaboutindicationsthatasmanyas1,000

fightersandfamilymembershadfledtheEuphratesRiverareajustinrecentdays,ColonelDillon’scommandrepliedinastatement:‘WeknowthattheSyrianregimehasgivenISIStheleewaytotravelthroughtheirareaofoperations,butwecannotconfirmanyallegedincidentsoroperationsthataretakingplaceoutsideourareaofoperations.’”Ofcourse,wecannevertakethepressbriefingsofaU.S.militarymouthpieceasthetrue

accountofwhatmighthavehappenedonthebattlefront.TheU.S.militaryliesconstantly.ItisenoughtostatethatdocumentationofinstancesinwhichtheU.S.letISISmembersescapeinordertoallowthemtoharasstheAssadregimeisquiterare—ifitexistsatall.Insearchingfordocumentation,IcollectedascoreofarticlesfromTheNewYorkTimes,Reuters,andothernewssourcesthatdealwithinstancesinwhichtheU.S.didallowISISfightersandtheirfamiliestopassthroughalliedlines,orrefrainedfrombombingthem.However,itisnotevidentthatthoseincidentstookplaceinordertoallowtheISISmilitantstofightAssad.

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Inonecase,forexample,inSeptember2017,theU.S.terminateditsbombingrunsagainstagroupofISISmembersandtheirfamiliesattherequestoftheRussiangovernment—whichwasactingonbehalfoftheSyriangovernmentanditsalliedHezbollahmilitia,inordertofacilitateaprisonerswaptheyhadintheworkswithISIS(seeTheNewYorkTimes,Sept.15,2017).TheISISgroupingwasescortedonitsjourneytoDeiral-ZourprovincebyHezbollahmilitants(seetheReutersdispatch,Aug.28,2017).Andonseveraloccasions,astheLondonTelegraphreportedinJune,theU.S.-supported

SyrianDemocraticForces(SDF)engineeredprisonerexchangeswithISIS,allowingseveraldozenISISmembersandtheirwivesandchildrentobesetfree.ComradeMacklerisspecific,however,aboutoneothercase.InJuly2017,hewrote,“A

June10NewYorkTimesarticle,forexample,notedthatU.S.forcesinRaqqawereattackingISISfromtheNorth,EastandWest,butnottheSouth.ISISforceswereallowedtoevacuateRaqqa,weaponsandmilitarygearintow,headingsouthalongtheEuphratesValleytowardDeirAlZour,whereobviouslytheymightbeusefulinassistingtheISISattempttoblockadeSyrianforcesinthecity.”Actually,TheNewYorkTimesarticlethatMacklercitesdoesnotprovidethedescriptions

orcometotheconclusionsthatheascribestoit.WriterAnneBarnardpiecemerelystatedthat“therearesigns”thattheSyrianDemocraticForces,ledbyKurdishPYDmilitiasandsupportedbytheU.S.—inordertobeableto“takeRaqqawithoutanall-outfight”—wereconsideringletting“moreIslamicStatefightersescapetothesouth.AndtheirleadershavevoicedambitionstofollowthefightsouthtoDeiral-Zour.”Theforcethatshewaswritingabout,with“ambitions”tofightinDeiral-Zour,wastheSDF—notISIS.HerpointwasthatifKurdsintheSDFdecidedtomarchsouthtowardDeiral-Zour,theywouldbefightinginSunniArab-majorityterritory,whereKurdsmightnotbewelcomed.However,furtherreportssoonappearedonthisissue,anditappearedthatanexodusof

ISISfightersfromRaqqa,similartotheonethatBarnardsaidwasbeingcontemplatedinJune2017,actuallydidtakeplaceseveralmonthslater.(AninterestingBBCreportontheevent,withvideo,maps,andphotographs,ishere:https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/raqqas_dirty_secret)InOctober2017,thefighterswereallowedtaketheirweaponsandtocrosswithout

hindrancethroughthesoutherndeserttowardtheborderwithIraq.TheU.S.insisteditwasnotinvolvedinthenegotiationstofreetheISISmilitants,thoughthereshouldbelittledoubtthatitknewaboutit;theU.S.trackedtheirbusandtruckcaravanbyairduringtheirwholejourney.Thestorygainedmomentuminthepressinlate2017afteraTurkomencommanderintheSDF,TalalSilo,defectedtoTurkeyandthenchargedtheSDFandtheKurdishYPGwithhavingmadethe“secretdeal”withISIS.HowmanyISISmemberswereallowedtoescape?RobertFisksaidatleast275.BBCNews

correspondentQuentinSommerville,whowasatthescene,said250fightersplus3500familymembers,andheconfirmedfromwitnessesthattheywerearmedandthatthegroupincludedsomeEnglishandFrench-speakingforeigners.Were250fighters,travellinginbusesandtruckswiththeirwivesandchildren,ableto

mountasignificantcampaignagainstAssad’stroopswhowerebesiegedatDeiral-Zour?No,thatwouldhavebeenimpossible,sincetheSyrianarmyhadbrokentheDeiral-Zoursiegeamonthearlier.MediasourcesspeculatethatsomeoftheISISpeopleinvolvedintheescapecrossedintoIraq,whileothersspreadthroughoutSyria,orwereevensmuggledintoTurkey.NoristhedegreetowhichtheU.S.participatedinthedeal,ifitdidatall,entirelyclear.Andso,itturnsoutthatthereportofthepermittedescapeofISISmembersfromRaqqa,

whichwasreportedasfactinSocialistActionnewspaper(July2017),neverreallyhappened!Itwasonlythreemonthslaterthataslightlysimilarincidenttookplace.This

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underlinestheimportanceinourSyriacoverageofusingverifiablesourcesasafoundationforourarticles,sincewecannotbeonthesceneourselves.Evenwhenusingsourcesthatmightseemreliable,itisnecessarytocarefullyfactcheckandcross-checkwithothersourcesinordertoascertainthetruth.OnehastobeparticularlycarefulaboutreferencingblogpostsonthetopicofU.S-ISIS

collusion.TheblogospherehasgonewildwithfairystoriesallegingthattheU.S.createdISIS,hascollaboratedwithISIS,fundsISIS,refusestoengagetheminbattle,andsoon.Theright-libertarianconspiracysiteGlobalResearch,forinstance,hasdozensofarticlesonthethemeofU.S.-ISIScollusion;thefounderofthesite,MichelChossudovsky,hasmadeaspecialtyofwritingonthetopic—thoughmuchofitisutternonsense.Otherpro-Assadconspiracyblogs,suchasMintPressNews,MoonOverAlabama,and21st

CenturyWire,alsoharpontheallegedU.S.-ISISpartnership,basingtheirconclusionsonastringofhalf-factsandinnuendo.ThecoreofmostoftheirsensationalizedstoriesonSyria,infact,canbetracedbacktostatementsbytheSyriangovernment,ortoarticlesthatfirstappearedinthemediasponsoredbythegovernmentsofRussia(i.e.,RTandSputnikNews)andIran(i.e.,IRNAandPressTV).AcritiqueoftheseblogarticlesisoutsidethescopeofthisResolution.However,itmight

beworthmentioning,bywayofexample,apiecein21stCenturyWirebyStephenLendman,whichcontainedadetailed“report”ofhowtheU.S.hadrefusedtoconductairstrikesinNovember2016againstanISISconvoyfleeingAbuKamal,whichtheRussiansandtheSyrianarmywerealsopursuing.Itsoonturnedoutthatthereport,whichhadoriginatedwiththeRussianDefenseMinistryandpostedonFacebookandintweets,wasdoctored.AreporterfortheDailyBeastdiscoveredthatblurredphotossupposedlyoftheAbuKamaloperation,whichtheRussianshadposted,hadreallybeentakenfromavideogame.OthershotswerediscoveredtobeoldfilephotosoftheairwarinIraq.Aftertheyhadbeencaughtflat-footed,theRussiangovernmentquicklydeletedtheFacebook“report”—butblogssuchas21stCenturyWirestillkeepthefakeryintheirarchivesasifitwerethegospeltruth.

IV.ThesocialistprogramTherightofoppressednationstoself-determinationAnoppressednationstateinthesemi-colonialworldhastherighttodefenditselfwhen

attackedbyimperialism.BasharAssad—despitetherepressionandwarthathisgovernmenthasunleashedupontheSyrianpeople—isheadofstateofacountryinwhichtheUnitedStates(andBritain,France,andotherimperialistcountries)havemilitarilyintervened.Inthatregard,ourrevolutionarydutyistosupporttheSyrianregime’srightofself-determination,andthusdefenditsstruggleagainstimperialism.IntheUnitedStates,itisourresponsibilitytobuildanantiwarmovementthatdemands,“U.S.HandsOffSyria.”Thatpositionreflectstheproudtraditionofrevolutionarysocialism,fromthetimeofthe

BolsheviksandtheThirdInternational,andthroughthefoundingoftheFourthInternational,insupportingtheself-determinationsofneo-colonialcountriesagainstimperialism.WhenAbdelNasser’sEgypt,forexample,wasattackedbytheimperialistsandIsraeloverhisnationalizationoftheSuezCanal,wedefendedNasser—despitetheauthoritariannatureofhissemi-militarypopulistregime.WhenArgentina,ruledbyajuntaofmurderousgenerals,wasattackedbyBritain,whichsoughttomaintaincontrolovertheMalvinasIslands,wesidedwithArgentinaagainstBritain.WhenChinawasinvadedbyJapaninthe1930s,theTrotskyistmovementsidedwithChinaagainstimperialistJapan—despitetheruleofthebutcherChiangKai-ShekinChina.

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ThisResolution,nevertheless,hastriedtodemonstratethatU.S.interventionintoSyriahasbeenarelativelyminoraspectofthewarinthatcountry.Themajoraxisofthewar,from2011untiltoday,hasconsistedofthedestructiveandcounter-revolutionarydriveoftheAssadregimetowinbackpoliticalcontrolofthecountryfromoppositionalforces.TheamountofmilitaryaidandtrainingthattheU.S.providedtorebelmilitias(includingSaudiaidthatwasfacilitatedbytheCIA)wasnotsufficientlylargetohaveaffectedthedirectionorscopeoftheirdefenseagainstAssad’swar—althoughthearmamentsprobablycontributedtosomeoftherebelsuccesses,especiallyinthe2015period.ThisResolutionhasalsoattemptedtoshowthatAssad’sstatedreasonsforinitiatingthe

war—thathewascompelledtodefendSyriaagainstterrorismandanunseenforeignconspiracy—wasasham.TheSyrianpeoplewerenotinthestreets,puttingtheirlivesatriskagainstAssad’ssnipers,becauseoftheCIAbutbecauseoftheirownheartfeltconvictions.TheyarmedthemselvesbecauseoftheirperceivedneedtodefendthemselvesagainstAssadisttroopsandtheShabeehathugs—notbecausetheCIAorderedthemto.Ofcourse,ISISandotherreactionaryIslamistforcesdidentertheconflictandafter

severalyearswereabletotakeover,distort,anddefeatthepopularstruggleinmanyareas.Butlocalpeople,togetherwithmoredemocraticallymindedmilitias,foughtvaliantlyagainstISIS.Forawhile,in2014,theywereabletoturnbackISISsignificantly.Unfortunately,Assad’sarmy,insteadofwagingadeterminedmilitarycampaignagainstISISinthosecrucialearlydays,directeditsgunsagainstthepopularstruggleinstead.WhilewedefendtheAssadregimeagainstimperialism,wedonotsuspendourpolitical

criticismsoftheAssadregime.Weespeciallycannotdefendhiswar,prisons,andtorturedirectedagainstthesectionoftheSyrianpeople(probablyamajorityatthebeginning)whoopposedhisstrong-armmethodsanddemandedthathestepdownfrompower.AndwesupporttherightoftheSyrianpeopletoopposetheregimebywhatevermeansnecessary.ItshouldbelikewiseobviousthatwewouldhavehadnoconfidenceintheAssadregime

tobreakfromimperialismevenifithadnotconductedthewaragainstthemassesofthecountry.Aneffectivefightagainstimperialismrequiresthattheworkingclass,armedwitharevolutionaryprogram,takethelead.AsTrotskypointedoutalmostacenturyago,abourgeoisgovernmentintheneo-colonialworld(likethatofAssad)willultimatelybecompelledtoofferconcessionstotheimperialists.Thesegovernments,eventheonesheadedbymilitaryfigureswhoprofesstobe“socialists,”haveproventhroughouthistorytobeunableorunwillingtocarryoutthoroughdemocraticreformsortoremovetheireconomiesawayfromthedominationofforeigncapital.SocialistActionhashadnodifficultyinthepastinexpressingsolidaritywithmassesof

peoplewhoareinstruggleagainstoppressiveregimeswhilethecountryisunderattackbyimperialism.Inthelate1990s,forexample,wesupportedthefightforself-determinationbythepeopleofKosovoagainsttheSerbianregime,atthesametimethatweleddemonstrationsagainstU.S.andNATObombingofSerbiaunderthedemand,“U.S.OutNow!”Simultaneously,wecriticizedtheKosovoLiberationArmyforacceptingtrainingbytheCIAandarmsfromtheUnitedStates,andpointedoutinourpressthatsuchaidcamewithstringsattachedthatpresenteddangerstotheindependencestruggleoftheKosovars.Butwerefrainedfromusingthatfacttowithdrawoursolidarityfromthestruggle.WeneverinsinuatedthatacceptingsomeU.S.militaryaidhadreducedthejusticeofKosovo’sfight,orthattheKosovarshadfallentothepositionofbeingmerecogsintheimperialistwaragainstSerbia.Iran,andthenRussia,cameintotheSyrianwarnottoensureself-determinationforSyria

buttoshoreupAssad’styrannicalrule(andtomaintainandexpandtheirowninterestsinthecountryandtheregion).Likewise,thebombingofAleppoandothercitiesbyRussianandSyrianaircraft—withtheresultingdeathsofthousandsofcivilians—theAssadist

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forces’burningofcrops,starvingthepopulationthroughblockades,drivingmillionsintoexile,andotherterroristactsagainsttheSyrianpeoplehavecontributedinnowaytothefightforself-determinationagainstimperialism.Althoughoppositionallocalgovernmentshadsprungupinsomethinglike600or700townsandcitiesofSyria,theyweresmashed,oftenbyRussianairstrikesandtheassaultofIranianandHezbollahtroops.Ifanything,Assad’swarhasfurtherweakenedanddestabilizedthecountry,andmadeit

evenmoreofapreyforimperialistintervention.Itisdifficulttospeakoftherightof"self-determination"havingbeenensuredwhenoverhalfthecountry'spopulationhasbeenuprootedfromtheirhomes—dueinnosmallwaytoRussia'sairwar.(Obviously,theU.S.isjustasguiltyofwarcrimesinitsbombingraidsthatresultedinthenear-levelingofthecityofRaqqa.)Likewise,anyhopesforarevivaloftheclassstruggleinSyriahavebeensetbacksinceasignificantproportionofthecountry'sworkingclasshasbeenkilledordispersed,oftenlivinginrefugeecampsabroad.Nowthatthewarappearstobedrawingtoaclose—exceptfortheimpendingmurderous

assaultontheprovinceofIdlibbyAssad'sarmy,aidedbyRussianairpower—thelingeringpresenceofforeignforceshastakenanewsignificance.Nowmorethanever,thehalf-demolishedcountryisupforgrabsbyforeignandimperialistcapital.ThecapitalistsofmanycountriesarejostlingwithoneanotherforpositiontoextracthighprofitsfromarebuildingSyria,includinggainingconcessionstoSyria'soilandgas,morehotelsforthetouristindustry,andsoon.RussianinvestmentsinSyriawereconsiderableevenbeforethewar(some$19.4billion).Ithassinceextractedadditionalconcessionsintheoilfields,andwillplayakeyroleinreconstructioncontractswhenthewarisover.ItishardtosaywhetherRussianarmedtroopswillbepermittedtostayon,beyondtheir

navalbaseatTartousandtheirairbaseatHmeimim—bothofwhicharebeinggreatlyexpanded.ItshouldbeobviousthatthebasesaremeanttoexpandRussianpowerintheMiddleEastandguardtheMediterraneanandtheentrancetotheBlackSea;theyhavenothingtodowithensuringSyrianself-determination.ButifRussiansoldiers,specialops,andarmedcontractorsareallowedtoremaininSyriaaswell,wemightexpecttheywillcontinuetogiveRussiaanadvantageinprotectingitsassetsinthecountry—i.e.,aspotentialstrikebreakersandarmedguards.Theantiwarmovement:“Twolines?”Weshouldpointoutallofthisinarticlesinourpress,andtrytoexplaininapatientand

educationalway—notwrittenonlargebannersintheantiwarmovement—whySyriacanneverachieveself-determinationwhileforeignarmiesandmilitiasarepatrollingitsterritory.WithdrawingallforeigntroopsfromSyriawouldbeakeysteptowardallowingtheSyrianpeopletoruntheirowncountry.ThisResolutiondoesnotadvocateraisingtheslogan“RussiaOutNowfromSyria!”asone

tobeadoptedbytheantiwarmovement.TheantiwarmovementtodayissplitoverthequestionofwhethertheinterventionofRussiaintotheSyrianwarhasbeen,ingeneral,abenevolentactionoradestructiveone.Thedebateoverthatquestion,infact,hasbeenquiteloudandsometimesangry.Forthatreason,anyattempttoarguefortheslogan“RussiaOutNowfromSyria”wouldcutacrossthenecessitytoforgeaunitedantiwarmovementthatcandirectitsactionagainsttheU.S.governmentandmilitary.Theideahasbeenraisedinourdiscussionthattheprocedureoutlinedherewouldbe

tantamounttopresenting“twolines”—onefortheantiwarmovementandanotherinoursocialistpress.Amoment’sthoughtshouldmakeclearthatithasneverbeenourmethod,whenworkingincoalitionsthatareconstitutedaroundlimiteddemandsandissues,toalwaysplaceupfronttheentireperspectiveofsocialistsonanissue.Instead,weuseamore

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transitionalapproach,carefullydistinguishingbetweenmoreimmediateandagitationaldemands,whicharedirectedtowardthestruggleathand,andthosethatshouldbereservedforeducationaluse.Ifworkersarediscussingstrikeactionattheirplant,forinstance,socialistswhoare

involvedintheuniondonotimmediatelyexpoundontheneedforrevolutionaryfactorycommitteesandsoviets—althoughthoseitemsarecertainlyinourmorecompleteprogramfortheworkers’struggle.Ifweweretodeclaimonsuchtopicsinunionmeetings,wewouldbeseenasuttercrazies,peoplewhoweremisdirectingthediscussiononwhatneededtobedonerightthenandthere.Ofcourse,ifwewerespeakingtoworkersonanindividualbasiswhoweremorepoliticallyexperiencedoreducated,andperhapsinterestedinjoiningthesocialistmovement,wemightbringuptheideaofrevolutionaryworkers’councilsandotheritemsfromourbroadersocialistprogram.ThatistheapproachthatIamoutlininghere;thequestionoftheneedtowithdraw

foreigntroopsfromSyriaisonethatweshouldpresentinaneducationalmanner;itisnotasloganforactionbytheantiwarmovement.Wecanlookathistorytoseehowrevolutionarysocialistsapproachedsimilarsituations.

IntheVietnamantiwarmovement,theoldSocialistWorkersPartysupportedslogansthatwereprincipledbutthatatthesametimecoulduniteabroadcoalitionofforcesinaction—“U.S.OutNow,”“BringtheTroopsHomeNow,”andsimilarslogans.However,theparty’sfullviewwentbeyondmerelyopposinganimperialistwar—importantasthatwas.WebelievedthattheVietnamWarwasarevolutionarystruggle.WewereforsocialistrevolutioninVietnam.WesupportedavictoryfortheNationalLiberationFront,althoughwecriticizedtheStalinistleadership.Inthepagesofourpartynewspaper,TheMilitant,andinpartyforums,wetriedtoeducateandconvincenewpeopleofthesoundnessofthoseideas,andatthesametimewinthemtoourparty.Nevertheless,whentheultra-leftSpartacistLeaguecametoantiwarcoalitionmeetings

andarguedforthebroadgrouptoadopttheirsloganof“AllIndo-ChinaMustGoCommunist,”wepointedoutthattheslogan,whileitmightbeappropriateasasubheadinginacommunistnewspaper,wouldbedivisiveifusedasthethemeofaunitedantiwardemonstration.Inanhistoricalexamplemorespecifictotheissueofwhethertosupporttherightof

AssadtocallontheRussianstoaidhiscause,wecanlookbacktoAfghanistaninthe1980s.WhenthereformistgovernmentinthatcountrywasattackedbyU.S.-supportedIslamistforces,theSovietscametotheiraid—butinabrutalfashion,killingmanycivilians.TheAfghanscertainlyhadarighttocallontheSoviets,andsomesocialistsintheUnitedStatesgavesupporttotheSovietinvasion.SocialistAction,ontheotherhand,whiledemandingthattheU.S.keepitshandsoffAfghanistan,didnotsupporttheSovietintervention,becauseitmerelyescalatedthewar—asRussiahasdonesodestructivelytodayinSyria.DuringthatearlyAfghanwar,westatedourpointofviewinournewspaperandpublic

forums.However,SocialistActionnevercalledontheU.S.antiwarmovementtomobilizedemonstrationsaroundthedemand,“RussiaOutofAfghanistan!”ThetargetoftheU.S.antiwarmovement—thenastoday—isonU.S.imperialism,nottheRussiangovernment.

TrotskyonChinaInarecentNationalCommitteediscussion,twoNCmemberspointedtoanothereventin

history,theinvasionofChinabyimperialistJapaninthe1930s.ThecomradesmaintainedthateventhoughChiangKai-Shekwasabloodstaineddictator,likeBasharAssad,LeonTrotskystatedthatrevolutionaryworkersinChinashouldjointhestruggleunderChiang’scommandtorepeltheJapaneseforces.

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Idon’tdisagreeatallwiththegeneralpointthatthecomradesmade.ThesituationofChina’sstrivingforself-determinationagainstanimperialistpowerhadsomesimilaritiestothatinSyriatoday—butit’sworthpointingoutthatthereweremarkeddifferencesaswell.WhereastheSyrianconflictisamulti-facetedwar,themainelementofwhichhasbeenthewarbytheAssadregimeagainstamassrebellion,themainstruggleinChinawasagainstafull-scaleinvasionbyJapan.HorribleastheU.S.killingsofcivilianshavebeeninthefightagainstISISinandaround

Raqqa,theU.S.hasnotdoneanythinginSyriaonascaleapproachingthatoftheJapaneseinChina.TheJapaneseimperialistssentmanythousandsoftroops,bombedanddestroyedcities,massacredandkidnappedthousands.In1931,theyoccupiedthemostindustrializedportionofthecountry,Manchuria—whichtheyturnedintoanoutrightcolony.In1937,theywentontoseizealargepartoftherestofChina,andeventookthecapital,Nanking.ThecontextofTrotsky’sremarksonChinain1937wastotakeastandagainstsectarians

whoarguedforstayingneutralinthewar—supportingneitherChinanorJapan,sinceChinawasruledbyadictator.TrotskypointedoutthatChina,despiteitsoppressivegovernment,wasanoppressedneo-colonialcountry,andthuswarrantedoursupportagainsttheJapanesecolonialinvasion.Toinsistotherwisewas“completepoliticalstupidityandeventreachery.”HemadeananalogywiththeworkofsocialistsintheAmericantrade-unionmovement:“It’slikesayingthatwecannotparticipateinastrikeagainstFordbecauseitisledby[AFLhead,William]Green.CanwegiveGreenfullconfidence?No,butwemusttakepartinthestrikeasthebeststrikers”(InternalBulletinoftheSocialistWorkersParty,reprintedin“WritingsofLeonTrotsky,1936-37”).SinceChiang’sgovernmenthadmadesomeefforttocombatJapan(althoughineffectually),

TrotskyarguedthatChineserevolutionaryworkersshouldnotholdbackfromthestrugglebutshouldfightunderthecommandofChiang’sarmy—withthepurposeofbecomingstrongandinfluentialenoughwithinthearmedforcesandtheworkingclasstohelpleadanoverthrowoftheChinesecapitalistgovernment.InaSeptember1937essay,“OntheSino-JapaneseWar,”Trotskyexplained,“Ofcourse,we

mustpreparefortheoverthrowofChiangKai-Shek.Ifyoucan,replacehim.Ifyoucan’treplacehim,participateinthefightagainstJapanwhilepoliticallyfightingagainsthim.”Thesamemonth,TrotskywroteinalettertoDiegoRivera,“ButcanChiangKai-shek

assurethevictory?Idonotbelieveso.Itishe,however,whobeganthewarandwhotodaydirectsit.Tobeabletoreplacehimitisnecessarytogaindecisiveinfluenceamongtheproletariatandinthearmy,andtodothisitisnecessarynottoremainsuspendedintheairbuttoplaceoneselfinthemidstofthestruggle.”JustasTrotskyshamedChiangfornotdoingenoughtoorganizefortheexpulsionofthe

Japaneseinvaders,healsoroundlydenouncedChiang’seffortstodefeatandterrorizearebellingpopulation—thetypeofwar-makingthatAssadhasbeendoinginSyria.TrotskyinnowayidentifiedChiangwiththeinterestsoftheChinesepeople,nordidhechargethatworkerswhowereinstruggleagainstChiang’sdictatorshipwerebytheiractionssabotagingthestruggleagainstJapan.Thus,theemphasisofTrotsky’swritingsinthisparticularinstancewasnotprimarily

gearedtowarddemonstratingthatitispermissibletobackthedictatorofaneo-colonialcountryinamilitarystruggleagainstimperialism—althoughthatisavalidpoint—buttodemonstratehowandwhyChineserevolutionariesshouldenterthearenaofmassstruggleinordertofurthertheirworkinoverthrowingthedictator.DoesTrotsky’sadvicetoChinesesocialistsapplyinSyriatoday?Ifwehadarevolutionary

partyinSyria,wouldweadviseourcomradestojointheAssadistforcesintheimpendingassaultonIdlibprovince?Shouldwebeinthehelicopterstossingthebarrelbombsontociviliansbelow?InaccordwiththeargumentsIhavemadeinthisResolution,theanswer

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shouldbeobvious—wewouldbeontheothersideofthebarricades,togetherwiththelocalpeoplewhoaredefendingtheirhomes,families,andlivelihoodfromtheattackbytheregimeanditsforeignallies.ThewayforwardSyriarequiresarapidendtoAssad’swaronthepeople;onlywithpeacecantheSyrian

peoplebegintorebuildtheirhomesandtheirlives.Thedemandshouldberaisedworldwidethattherefugeesbeallowedtoreturntotheirhomesandregaintheirproperty(orwhat’sleftofit),withoutfearingthattheSyriangovernmentconfiscatedit.SyriamustnotbecomeanotherPalestine,withgenerationsofpeoplelivinginforcedexile,

andofteninextremepoverty,withouttherighttoreturntotheircountry,villages,andhomes.Likewise,theworldshouldbevigilantagainstattemptsbytheAssadregimetoimposerecriminations—seizingproperty,detentions,torture,andallthehorriblemethodsithasusedinthepast—againstpeoplethatitsuspectsofhavingsupportedtheopposition.Assad,tobesure,stillcountsonagreatdealofpopularsupport.Beforethewar,itwas

estimatedthatclosetohalfthepopulationfeltallegiancetotheregime.Thisincludedmanyamongtheminority(non-SunniArab)ethnicgroupings,thebourgeoisieofthemaincities,thenewrichcreatedbytheregime,governmentofficialsandworkers,peoplewithtiestothemilitary,andmanyothers.Whenthedemocracymovementfirstarose,notjustafewpeoplefromthoselayerswaveredintheirsupportforAssad,andjoinedtheprotestsforreforms.ButtheethnicandreligioushysteriathattheAssadregimefomented,andtheviolencethatitunleashed,pulledmanyofthosepeoplebackintothefoldofAssadsupporters.LivinginthebourgeoisneighborhoodsofDamascusandothercitiesinthewestofSyriathatwererelativelyuntouchedbythewar,withfoodandothergoodsstillplentiful,andhavingnoaccesstomediasourcesotherthanthosecontrolledbytheregime,itwasmucheasierforpeopletobelievethegovernment’sinsistencethatithadtoprotectthemfromIsraeli-backedterrorists,wildSunnibandits,and“jihadist”cutthroats.Thereislittledoubtthatadditionallayersofthepopulationtoday—includingthosewhose

familiessuffereddirectlyfromAssad’swarandrepression,andwhohaveonlycontemptfortheregime—haveneverthelesscometotheconclusionthattheywouldbemoreorlesscontenttoliveunderthejurisdictionoftheDamascusgovernmentagain,ifthathelpsensurethatthewarwillcometoanend.Wecanimaginethatmanywillchoosedictatorshipasalessereviltowaranddeath.Manyothers,however,willmakeathirdchoice—remainingintherefugeecamps,oriftheyarelucky,inexileabroadwheretheyhavefoundjobs,untilthesituationimprovesintheirhomeland.Whatiscertainisthattheconditionsthatgavebirthtotheprotestmovementin2011

havefarfromimprovedaftersevenyearsofwar.Ifanything,theyaremuchworse,withvastsectionsofthecitiesvirtuallyuninhabitable,andindustryandagriculturedestroyed.Assadmightofferafewdemocraticreformsoncethewarhascometoaclose,butwecanexpecttheywillbetokens.Thesecurityapparatus,theprisons,theentiremechanismofrepressionarestillintact.Trulyindependentpartiesandtradeunionsarestillbanned.Thelawsforconfiscationofpropertyareevenmoreonerousthantheyusedtobe.Andthegovernmentseemstobetargetingpoliticaloppositionistswithavengeance.WhenpeacecomestoSyria,itshouldbeajustpeace.PublicforumsintheUnitedStates

andothercountries—sponsoredbythelabormovementandantiwarandcivillibertiesforces—canspeaktothisissueandexpresssolidaritywiththestruggleoftheSyrianpeoplefordemocraticrightsandforeconomicjustice.However,weareagainsttheapplicationofeconomicsanctionsonSyriabytheU.S.andotherimperialistcountries,suchastheonesthatObamaimposedatthestartoftheSyrianprotests.

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ThemovementfordemocraticandradicalchangehassufferedadefeatinSyria,althoughthedenouement,theattackonIdlib,isjustgettingunderway.Thesocialistmovementtoo,whichhadnomassbaseofanyrealsizebackin2011(asidefromthepro-AssadStalinists),hasbeensmashed.Reportsstatethatsomeleftsocialistswerekilledbytheregime,andperhapsothersescapedintoexile.Intime,nevertheless,theclassstrugglewillprobablyreviveinsideSyria,andprotestsfor

democraticrightswillbreakoutonceagain.Butforsomeyears,mostpoliticalorganizingofaradicalnaturewillprobablyhavetotakeplaceunderground.Syria,ofcourse,isnotisolatedfrompoliticaldevelopmentsintherestoftheworld;astherevolutionarysocialistmovementregainsstrengthworldwide,itwillprobablygainadherentsinSyriaaswell.RevolutionariesmightaskthemselveswhichSyrianpopulationgroupwouldbemost

receptivetotheirmessage.IsitthegroupwhobackedAssadduringthewar,andshuttheireyestotheterrorbombingandatrocitiesthatwerecarriedoutinhisname?IsitthebourgeoisyuppieswhoforthelastsevenyearshavesataroundincafesincentralDamascus,livingthegoodlife?Orisitthejoblessworkersandpoorpeasants,thepro-democracystudents,theyoung

menwhofledthedraft,theSyrianArmysoldierswhorefusedtokilltheirfellowcitizens,thegrassrootsmilitiaandFreeSyrianArmymembers—allofwhomweresubjectedtotheregime’sterrorandmanyofwhomnowliveinrefugeecampsinIdlib,orinTurkey,Jordan,andelsewhere.Ithinkitisthelattergroupingwhowillbemostreceptivetotheprogramofrevolutionarysocialism.Suchaprogramwillhavetoofferacomprehensiveseriesofinterlockingtransitionaldemandsthatcanspeaktothestrivingsofthemassesfordemocracy,nationalrights,women’srights,andeconomicliberation.Itwillpointtothenecessityofthosedowntroddenmasses,undertheleadershipofaresurgentworkingclass,totaketheSyrianstatepowerintotheirownhands.Inournewspaperandpublicforums,SocialistActionshouldexpressthefollowing

positions:1)WesaynotoU.S.imperialistinterventioninSyria!Withdrawthetroops!Nobases!2)Self-determinationfortheSyrianpeople!ItisuptothepeopleofSyriatodeterminetheirowndestiny;theyaretheoneswhomustleadthefightfordemocracyandsocialandeconomicjusticeintheircountry.TherecanbenoliberationforSyriaunderimperialistrule.3)ThemilitaryinterventionofRussia,Iran,andtheHezbollahmilitiahasofferednothingprogressiveorbeneficialtothepeopleofSyria—onlydeathanddestruction.WelikewiserejecttheeffortsofSaudiArabia,Turkey,Qatar,andothercountriesintheregiontofunnelaidtoarmedgroupsinSyria,manyofwhichespouseareactionaryfundamentalistcredo.Theachievementofself-determinationforSyriarequiresanendtoallforeigninterventionintothecountry,andthewithdrawalofallforeigntroopsandaircraft.4)TheauthoritarianAssadregimehasnolegitimateclaimtorepresentthepeopleofSyria,havingwagedawarofterrorandethniccleansingagainstlargesectionsofthecivilianpopulation,inwhichmanytensofthousandsofcivilianshavelosttheirlives,andmillionshavebeenuprootedfromtheirhomes.TheAssadgovernmentisprimarilyresponsibleforthesocialcatastrophethatSyriafacestoday.Forthatreason,werejectanycallfororsupporttothemilitaryvictoryofpro-Assadforcesinthewar.5)Itisessentialthatafuture,democraticSyriarecognizeandprotecttherightsofallnationalminoritiesinthatcountry,andupholdtherightofself-determinationforoppressednationssuchastheKurds.

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6)Webelievethatfullself-determinationinSyria,andtruesocialandeconomicjustice,canbeensuredonlybymeansofasocialistrevolutioninthatcountry(andindeed,theentireMiddleEast).ToachievevictoryinthatfightwillrequirethepatientconstructionofarevolutionarysocialistpartythatisdeeplyrootedintheorganizationsandstrugglesoftheSyrianworking-classandpoorpeasantmasses.