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The Xianbei and its The Xianbei and its KingdomsKingdoms

Reading:Reading: Klein, Kenneth Douglas, Klein, Kenneth Douglas, The contributions of The contributions of

the fourth century Xianbei States to the the fourth century Xianbei States to the Reunification of the Chinese EmpireReunification of the Chinese Empire..

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The Xianbei and its The Xianbei and its KingdomsKingdoms

The XianbeiThe Xianbei The MurongThe Murong The Former YanThe Former Yan The Later YanThe Later Yan The Southern YanThe Southern Yan The Western QinThe Western Qin The Southern LiangThe Southern Liang Sixteen Kingdoms: A ComparisonSixteen Kingdoms: A Comparison

Reference: Reference: Western YanWestern Yan Xianbei WomenXianbei Women

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The XianbeiThe Xianbei The Xianbei The Xianbei 鮮卑 鮮卑 originated in Manchuria which originated in Manchuria which

was geographically isolated and not caught up in was geographically isolated and not caught up in the constant warfare between rival warlord states. the constant warfare between rival warlord states.

They were able to develop in a region that was They were able to develop in a region that was outside the main area of conflict where it was outside the main area of conflict where it was possible to combine Chinese and tribal peoples.possible to combine Chinese and tribal peoples.

Under the Xiongnu, the Xianbei leadership was Under the Xiongnu, the Xianbei leadership was confined to the local chieftain level.confined to the local chieftain level. The Xianbei had a weak confederacy.The Xianbei had a weak confederacy. Authority was in the hands of small chiefs who Authority was in the hands of small chiefs who

only occasionally united under a charismatic only occasionally united under a charismatic leader.leader.

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The Xianbei (2)The Xianbei (2) They appeared in Chinese records for the first time about They appeared in Chinese records for the first time about

45CE (Han Dynasty) – relations with the Later Han were 45CE (Han Dynasty) – relations with the Later Han were established in 49CE. established in 49CE. Five years later, two chieftains presented themselves Five years later, two chieftains presented themselves

at court and received gifts from the Han emperor at court and received gifts from the Han emperor establishing tributary relations.establishing tributary relations.

At that time, the Xianbei had a language, and an At that time, the Xianbei had a language, and an egalitarian political system but with no hereditary egalitarian political system but with no hereditary succession or hierarchical clan structure.succession or hierarchical clan structure.

The Xianbei was given Northern Mongolia after it The Xianbei was given Northern Mongolia after it allied with the forces of the Han dynasty and the allied with the forces of the Han dynasty and the Southern Xiongnu defeating the Northern Xiongnu.Southern Xiongnu defeating the Northern Xiongnu.

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the Murong was just During the Three Kingdoms Period, the Murong was just one of many nomadic tribes in the northeast; in 237, Wei one of many nomadic tribes in the northeast; in 237, Wei Xuandi used the Murong against the warlords in Xuandi used the Murong against the warlords in Liaodong.Liaodong. The Murong received titles from the Wei (220-265) The Murong received titles from the Wei (220-265)

courtcourt 。。

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The Xianbei (3)The Xianbei (3) During the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, the clans that formed During the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, the clans that formed

five of the 16 Kingdoms were the Murong (all of the Yan five of the 16 Kingdoms were the Murong (all of the Yan kingdoms), the Qifu, and the Tufa (formerly named Tuoba): kingdoms), the Qifu, and the Tufa (formerly named Tuoba):

They had established the following kingdoms*:They had established the following kingdoms*: The Former Yan The Former Yan 前燕前燕 ; 337-370 – Murong (33 years); 337-370 – Murong (33 years) The Later Yan The Later Yan 後燕後燕 ; 383-407 – Murong (24 years); 383-407 – Murong (24 years) The Southern Yan The Southern Yan 南燕南燕 ; 398-410 – Murong (12 years); 398-410 – Murong (12 years) Western Qin Western Qin 西秦 西秦 (385-400; 409-431) -- Qifu (385-400; 409-431) -- Qifu

(15+22=37 years)(15+22=37 years) Southern Liang Southern Liang 南凉 南凉 (397-414) -- Tufa (17 years)(397-414) -- Tufa (17 years)

In 440, the Xianbei united all of China under the Northern In 440, the Xianbei united all of China under the Northern Wei Wei 北魏 北魏 (386-534) under the Tuoba ((386-534) under the Tuoba ( 拓跋拓跋 ) clan.) clan.

*Another Murong kingdom, the Western Yan (384-394), was not *Another Murong kingdom, the Western Yan (384-394), was not recognized by historians as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms as it recognized by historians as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms as it lasted for only 10 years and had only one ruler with no lasted for only 10 years and had only one ruler with no successor.successor.

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The Xianbei (4)The Xianbei (4)StateState FounderFounder YearYear EthnicitEthnicit

yyLocationLocation Conquered byConquered by

Set up at Set up at the end the end of W. Jinof W. Jin

Set up at Set up at the the

beginninbeginning of E. Jing of E. Jin

Former Former YanYan

Murong Murong ZhünZhün

337-337-370370

Xianbei Xianbei LiaodongLiaodong F. QinF. Qin

Set up Set up after the after the Battle of Battle of The River The River

FeiFei

Later YanLater Yan

Southern Southern LiangLiang

Southern Southern YanYan

Western Western QinQin

Murong Murong ChiuChiu

Tufa Tufa WuguWugu

Murong Murong DeDe

Qifun Qifun GuorenGuoren

383-383-407407

397-397-414414

398-398-410410

385-400; 409-431

XianbeiXianbei

XianbeiXianbei

XianbeiXianbei

XianbeiXianbei

N. HebeiN. Hebei

Central Central GansuGansu

ShandongShandong

Central Central GansuGansu

N. YanN. Yan

E. JinE. Jin

E. JinE. Jin

XiaXia

Not part Not part of the 16 of the 16 KingdomKingdom

ss

Western Western YanYan

Murong Murong HungHung

384-384-394394

XianbeiXianbei E. of Fen E. of Fen RiverRiver

Not one of Not one of the 16the 16

The Yan KingdomsFormer Yan (Liaodong), Later Yan (N. Hebei),

Southern Yan (Shandong)

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The MurongThe Murong The Murong had not been able to assert control over The Murong had not been able to assert control over

the steppe from their isolated position in Liaodong.the steppe from their isolated position in Liaodong. When the Xiongnu collapsed, border states ruled by When the Xiongnu collapsed, border states ruled by

the Murong clan of Xianbei origin survived by the Murong clan of Xianbei origin survived by stressing defense and internal organization.stressing defense and internal organization. They were allies of China as well as China’s They were allies of China as well as China’s

raiders. raiders. The leader of the Xianbei in the mid 200s was The leader of the Xianbei in the mid 200s was

Murong Hui Murong Hui 慕容廆慕容廆 , (269-333) who had initially , (269-333) who had initially fought against the Jin forces.fought against the Jin forces. He submitted to Jin in 289 and was given the title He submitted to Jin in 289 and was given the title

Duke of Liaodong.Duke of Liaodong. He was the first Murong leader to provide his sons He was the first Murong leader to provide his sons

with a Chinese education and adopt some Chinese with a Chinese education and adopt some Chinese customs.customs. Consequently, for three generations the Murong Consequently, for three generations the Murong

leaders received Chinese education.leaders received Chinese education.

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The Murong (2)The Murong (2) After constant attacks with fellow Xianbei chief, After constant attacks with fellow Xianbei chief,

Duan Jie Duan Jie 段階段階 , Murong Hui married one of Duan , Murong Hui married one of Duan Jie’s daughters. Jie’s daughters. From then on, the Murongs intermarried with From then on, the Murongs intermarried with

the Duan and shared power with them (but the Duan and shared power with them (but reserved the dominant position for themselves).reserved the dominant position for themselves).

Murong Hui and his Duan consort had three sons Murong Hui and his Duan consort had three sons -- Murong Huang -- Murong Huang 慕容皝慕容皝 (297-348), Murong Ren (297-348), Murong Ren 慕容仁慕容仁 , and Murong Zhao , and Murong Zhao 慕容昭慕容昭 ..

Murong Hui Murong Hui 慕容廆 慕容廆 changed the Murong from a changed the Murong from a tribal to a mixed state society; he developed a new tribal to a mixed state society; he developed a new centralized bureaucracy that would not alienate centralized bureaucracy that would not alienate the tribal followers.the tribal followers.

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The Murong (4)The Murong (4) The three major changes were:The three major changes were:

Adopting and encouraging agriculture and craft Adopting and encouraging agriculture and craft production; it was so successful that he was production; it was so successful that he was able to export grain to China.able to export grain to China.

Using Chinese administrators for organizing Using Chinese administrators for organizing this new economy.this new economy.

Using Chinese advisors to organize the army Using Chinese advisors to organize the army which remained in Xianbei hands -- its units still which remained in Xianbei hands -- its units still retained a tribal organization but the ability for retained a tribal organization but the ability for local tribal leaders to act on their own was local tribal leaders to act on their own was reduced. reduced.

In battle and in planning they were taking In battle and in planning they were taking orders from a central command.orders from a central command.

In 302, the Murong was attacked twice but was In 302, the Murong was attacked twice but was able to defeat them despite the attackers’ able to defeat them despite the attackers’ numerical superiority. numerical superiority. Impressed by the successes, many Xianbei Impressed by the successes, many Xianbei

joined the Murong.joined the Murong.

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The Murong (5)The Murong (5) Murong Hui’s half century of rule provided the stability Murong Hui’s half century of rule provided the stability

and continuity resulting in Xianbei descendants to and continuity resulting in Xianbei descendants to establish the Northern Zhou dynasty (557-581). establish the Northern Zhou dynasty (557-581). During Murong Hui's rule as tribal chief, the Jin During Murong Hui's rule as tribal chief, the Jin

Dynasty's central government was in constant Dynasty's central government was in constant turmoil and eventually collapsed due to infighting turmoil and eventually collapsed due to infighting and rebellions.and rebellions.

The Murong refused to be drawn into the fight, so, The Murong refused to be drawn into the fight, so, except for some local battles with the neighbors, except for some local battles with the neighbors, Murong Hui had many years of peace to develop his Murong Hui had many years of peace to develop his kingdom.kingdom.

As the Xianbei kingdom was at peace and was able As the Xianbei kingdom was at peace and was able to offer food and safety, many refugees came from to offer food and safety, many refugees came from the south.the south.

Murong Hui treated the ethnic Han refugees with Murong Hui treated the ethnic Han refugees with kindness so most chose to stay, greatly kindness so most chose to stay, greatly strengthening his power.strengthening his power.

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The Murong (6)The Murong (6) The majority of the refugees were farmers but The majority of the refugees were farmers but

there were also artisans and former officials and there were also artisans and former officials and Murong Hui tried to attract these refugees in order Murong Hui tried to attract these refugees in order to increase the productivity. to increase the productivity.

The Chinese officials became an important part of The Chinese officials became an important part of the Murong court advising Murong Hui on strategy the Murong court advising Murong Hui on strategy and government and helping to lay the foundation and government and helping to lay the foundation for a dynastyfor a dynasty

The Chinese advisors convinced him of the The Chinese advisors convinced him of the possibility of ruling China itself.possibility of ruling China itself.

Around 322, Murong Hui began attacking the Around 322, Murong Hui began attacking the neighboring Xianbei states and each conquered tribe neighboring Xianbei states and each conquered tribe was incorporated into the Murong state as a separate was incorporated into the Murong state as a separate unit, increasing the size of the army; border Chinese unit, increasing the size of the army; border Chinese were also conquered and put to work.were also conquered and put to work. By the time of his death, he was head of an By the time of his death, he was head of an

emerging dynasty and the population had emerging dynasty and the population had increased 10 times from the start of his reign. increased 10 times from the start of his reign.

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The Murong (7)The Murong (7) Murong Hui never claimed any title beyond that given Murong Hui never claimed any title beyond that given

to him by the Jin. to him by the Jin. His son, Murong Huang His son, Murong Huang 慕容皝慕容皝 (297-348), transformed (297-348), transformed

the Murong from a nomadic tribe to a Chinese state. the Murong from a nomadic tribe to a Chinese state. It was not easy as the Murong had a long tradition of It was not easy as the Murong had a long tradition of

fraternal/lateral succession, a tradition that was in fraternal/lateral succession, a tradition that was in conflict with the Chinese tradition of primogeniture.conflict with the Chinese tradition of primogeniture.

A compromise was made in which the ruler A compromise was made in which the ruler succeeded in Chinese fashion but his brothers and succeeded in Chinese fashion but his brothers and uncles were appointed to key posts.uncles were appointed to key posts.

The best generals and advisors were members of the The best generals and advisors were members of the imperial lineage who looked at the state as their imperial lineage who looked at the state as their common property.common property.

The chances of civil wars of succession were The chances of civil wars of succession were lessened but not eliminated and Huang drove his lessened but not eliminated and Huang drove his brothers into exile or rebellion.brothers into exile or rebellion.

Murong Huang proclaimed himself King of Yan in 337 Murong Huang proclaimed himself King of Yan in 337 which the Jin emperor was forced to accept in 341; of which the Jin emperor was forced to accept in 341; of his 18 sons, three became emperors.his 18 sons, three became emperors.

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The Former YanThe Former Yan Yan Yan 燕燕 was the name of the old northeastern was the name of the old northeastern

kingdom in the Warring States Period.kingdom in the Warring States Period. By claiming the title of King of Yan, Murong By claiming the title of King of Yan, Murong

Huang downplayed his tribal origins.Huang downplayed his tribal origins. Most of Manchuria and the Jin court formally Most of Manchuria and the Jin court formally

recognized Murong Huang’s claim as king and recognized Murong Huang’s claim as king and his son, Murong Jun his son, Murong Jun 慕容儁 慕容儁 , had the title , had the title "Prince of Yan"."Prince of Yan".

His many Chinese advisors never commented on His many Chinese advisors never commented on tribal affairs nor asked the Xianbei to take up tribal affairs nor asked the Xianbei to take up farming and guided him toward pragmatic farming and guided him toward pragmatic policies that would increase the state’s power.policies that would increase the state’s power.

Instead, they pressed for a six point program:Instead, they pressed for a six point program:

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The Former Yan (2)The Former Yan (2) Waterworks for irrigation should be repaired and Waterworks for irrigation should be repaired and

maintained.maintained. More refugees put to work farming.More refugees put to work farming. Excess merchants and craftsman forced to farm.Excess merchants and craftsman forced to farm. The number of students cut and the excess forced The number of students cut and the excess forced

to farm.to farm. The ruler should listen to criticism.The ruler should listen to criticism. Excess officials dismissed.Excess officials dismissed.

Murong Huang agreed to five of the suggestions Murong Huang agreed to five of the suggestions except for the dismissal of excess officials as he was except for the dismissal of excess officials as he was expanding the state and the nomads had a tradition of expanding the state and the nomads had a tradition of buying their allies with titles and offices.buying their allies with titles and offices.

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The Former Yan (3)The Former Yan (3) After the death of Murong Huang, Murong Jun After the death of Murong Huang, Murong Jun

慕容儁慕容儁 (319-360), his eldest son and successor, (319-360), his eldest son and successor, spent the next few years crushing small spent the next few years crushing small rebellions and conquering eastern China.rebellions and conquering eastern China. In 352, Yan forces captured the Zhao emperor In 352, Yan forces captured the Zhao emperor

Ran Min and seized most of the former Later Ran Min and seized most of the former Later Zhao territory.Zhao territory.

Murong Jun declared himself emperor in 352 Murong Jun declared himself emperor in 352 and incorporated their Chinese territories into and incorporated their Chinese territories into a functioning government.a functioning government.

To distinguish the state established by Murong To distinguish the state established by Murong Jun from other Yan states historians refer to it as Jun from other Yan states historians refer to it as the Former Yan the Former Yan 前燕 前燕 (337-370).(337-370).

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The Former Yan (4)The Former Yan (4) During Murong Jun’s reign the state expanded from During Murong Jun’s reign the state expanded from

modern Liaoning and parts of Hebei to nearly all of modern Liaoning and parts of Hebei to nearly all of the territory north of the Yellow River as well as the territory north of the Yellow River as well as some substantial holdings south of the Yellow River. some substantial holdings south of the Yellow River.

Xianbei strategies towards the steppe people were Xianbei strategies towards the steppe people were more sophisticated than those of the Chinese.more sophisticated than those of the Chinese. Tribal leaders were won over by a series of Tribal leaders were won over by a series of

marriage alliances linking them to the Murong.marriage alliances linking them to the Murong. They disrupted formations of tribal They disrupted formations of tribal

confederations.confederations. When an attack was launched it involved fast When an attack was launched it involved fast

moving troops who knew steppe conditions and moving troops who knew steppe conditions and its aim was the capture of whole peoples. its aim was the capture of whole peoples.

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The Former Yan (4)The Former Yan (4) The Murong success was due to their ability to:The Murong success was due to their ability to:

Control the steppes. Control the steppes. Maintain Xianbei loyalty.Maintain Xianbei loyalty. Willingness to employ Chinese officials: Willingness to employ Chinese officials:

Who promoted agricultural productionWho promoted agricultural production Who gave the Xianbei ruling skills and a Who gave the Xianbei ruling skills and a

financial base.financial base. Who maintained the support of the subject Who maintained the support of the subject

Chinese population.Chinese population. When Murong Jun died in 360, the throne went to his When Murong Jun died in 360, the throne went to his

young son, but the court questioned his fitness to young son, but the court questioned his fitness to rule. rule.

They tried to persuade Jun’s brother, Murong Ke They tried to persuade Jun’s brother, Murong Ke 慕容慕容恪 恪 (d.357), to take the throne (fraternal/lateral (d.357), to take the throne (fraternal/lateral succession) but Murong Ke refused; instead, he ruled succession) but Murong Ke refused; instead, he ruled as the regent.as the regent.

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The Former Yan (5) The Former Yan (5) During Murong Ke’s regency, Yan reached new During Murong Ke’s regency, Yan reached new

heights of power as Ke led it to new conquests.heights of power as Ke led it to new conquests. On his deathbed, Ke recommended that his On his deathbed, Ke recommended that his

brother, Murong Ba brother, Murong Ba 慕容霸慕容霸 , later renamed , later renamed Murong Chui Murong Chui 慕容垂慕容垂 , to succeed him as regent., to succeed him as regent.

But a rival candidate, Murong Ping But a rival candidate, Murong Ping 慕容評 慕容評 seized power and the state declined quickly seized power and the state declined quickly under his command:under his command:

Internally, the political elite began to expand Internally, the political elite began to expand their domains and deprive the treasury of their domains and deprive the treasury of revenue.revenue.

Externally, it was facing strong military rivals Externally, it was facing strong military rivals — the Former Qin in the west and the Eastern — the Former Qin in the west and the Eastern Jin to the south.Jin to the south.

Murong Chui was forced to flee to the Former Qin, Murong Chui was forced to flee to the Former Qin, Yan’s enemy in the west, and helped them conquer Yan’s enemy in the west, and helped them conquer the Former Yan (see Slides 34, 35)the Former Yan (see Slides 34, 35)

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The Later YanThe Later Yan The Later Yan The Later Yan 後後燕 燕 (384-407/9), was founded by (384-407/9), was founded by

Murong Chui Murong Chui 慕容垂 慕容垂 (r.384-396) who had fled from (r.384-396) who had fled from the Former Yan and worked with the Former Qin.the Former Yan and worked with the Former Qin. In 384, Chui rebelled against the Former Qin and In 384, Chui rebelled against the Former Qin and

declared a new dynasty, the Later Yan.declared a new dynasty, the Later Yan. This caused the other Murong leaders – his sons, This caused the other Murong leaders – his sons,

nephews and the younger brother of the last emperor of nephews and the younger brother of the last emperor of the Former Yan to rebel against the Former Qin. the Former Yan to rebel against the Former Qin.

In 387, Murong Chui proclaimed himself emperor In 387, Murong Chui proclaimed himself emperor and allied with Tuoba Gui and allied with Tuoba Gui 拓拔珪 拓拔珪 against the against the Eastern Jin. Eastern Jin.

When both Murong Chui and Tuoba Gui grew in When both Murong Chui and Tuoba Gui grew in strength, their interests began to clash and strength, their interests began to clash and Tuoba Gui began to ally with the Western Yan Tuoba Gui began to ally with the Western Yan (not one of the Sixteen Kingdoms).(not one of the Sixteen Kingdoms).

In 393 Murong Chui attacked and eliminated the In 393 Murong Chui attacked and eliminated the Western Yan then attacked Tuoba Gui in (395) Western Yan then attacked Tuoba Gui in (395) but he died (396) and but he died (396) and his successor, Murong Bao his successor, Murong Bao 慕容寶 慕容寶 (r.396-398), was killed in a power struggle.(r.396-398), was killed in a power struggle.

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The Later Yan (2)The Later Yan (2) He was succeeded by his (Murong Bao’s) son, Murong He was succeeded by his (Murong Bao’s) son, Murong

Sheng Sheng 慕容盛慕容盛 (398-401) who was killed in a rebellion.(398-401) who was killed in a rebellion. The Empress Dowager, mother of Murong Sheng, The Empress Dowager, mother of Murong Sheng,

then forced the court to bypass both the former then forced the court to bypass both the former emperor’s son and brother and instead enthrone emperor’s son and brother and instead enthrone Murong Sheng’s uncle, Murong Xi Murong Sheng’s uncle, Murong Xi 慕容熙 慕容熙 (402-(402-407), son of Murong Chui.407), son of Murong Chui.The Empress Dowager was having an affair with The Empress Dowager was having an affair with

Murong Xi who was 12 years younger than her Murong Xi who was 12 years younger than her son, Murong Sheng.son, Murong Sheng.

Murong Xi was said to have been cruel and so was Murong Xi was said to have been cruel and so was killed in another coup and the adopted son of killed in another coup and the adopted son of Murong Bao (Gao Yün) succeeded (407) to the Murong Bao (Gao Yün) succeeded (407) to the throne as the last emperor of the Later Yan.throne as the last emperor of the Later Yan.

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The Northern YanThe Northern Yan The adopted son, The adopted son, Murong Yün or Gao Yün Murong Yün or Gao Yün 高雲 高雲

was ethnically Korean and a descendant of one of was ethnically Korean and a descendant of one of the three royal houses whose ancestors were the three royal houses whose ancestors were captured by Former Yan.captured by Former Yan. He was adopted into the Later Yan imperial He was adopted into the Later Yan imperial

house after helping the emperor Murong Bao house after helping the emperor Murong Bao put down a rebellion by Murong Bao's son.put down a rebellion by Murong Bao's son.

He declared a new dynasty in 409 which He declared a new dynasty in 409 which historians refer to as the Northern Yan.historians refer to as the Northern Yan.

He was assassinated and his successor, one of He was assassinated and his successor, one of the generals, Feng Ba the generals, Feng Ba 馮跋 馮跋 , (r.409-430) was of , (r.409-430) was of Han ancestry.Han ancestry.

After his death, his brother and successor Feng After his death, his brother and successor Feng Hong Hong 馮弘 馮弘 (430-438) killed all of Feng Ba’s 10 (430-438) killed all of Feng Ba’s 10 sons.sons.

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Southern Yan Southern Yan The Southern Yan The Southern Yan 南燕南燕 (398-410) was established by (398-410) was established by

Murong De Murong De 慕容德 慕容德 (336-405), (336-405), 1515thth son, of Murong Huang. son, of Murong Huang. He was also the younger brother ofHe was also the younger brother of emperor Murong emperor Murong

Jun of the Former Yan and Jun of the Former Yan and Murong Chui founder of the Murong Chui founder of the Later Yan Later Yan

After Murong Chui's son Murong Bao lost most of Later After Murong Chui's son Murong Bao lost most of Later Yan's territory to Northern Wei, Murong De went south Yan's territory to Northern Wei, Murong De went south with his troops and established Southern Yan, in modern with his troops and established Southern Yan, in modern Shandong but was unable to expand further.Shandong but was unable to expand further.

Southern Yan was conquered by the Eastern Jin in 410 Southern Yan was conquered by the Eastern Jin in 410 (some histories say it was conquered by the Liu-Song (some histories say it was conquered by the Liu-Song 劉宋 劉宋 – – successor dynasty to the Eastern Jin -- as the leading successor dynasty to the Eastern Jin -- as the leading general, Liu Yu general, Liu Yu 劉裕劉裕 , later usurped the Jin throne and , later usurped the Jin throne and founded Liu-Song.founded Liu-Song. Although Murong De tried to establish a working Although Murong De tried to establish a working

administration he was unable to do so as his reign was administration he was unable to do so as his reign was short – only seven years (his successor ruled for five short – only seven years (his successor ruled for five years). years).

The Southern Yan continued to exist until 410 by allying The Southern Yan continued to exist until 410 by allying itself with the Later Qin.itself with the Later Qin.

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Western QinWestern Qin The ruling family of Western Qin The ruling family of Western Qin 西秦 西秦 was the Qifu was the Qifu 乞乞

伏 伏 clan.clan. It was Xianbei but it was made up of a confederation of It was Xianbei but it was made up of a confederation of

several groups who came into the frontier lands of several groups who came into the frontier lands of Inner Mongolia from the steppes.Inner Mongolia from the steppes.

These groups formed an army that shared a common These groups formed an army that shared a common mythology. mythology.

They banded together to push into the rich frontier They banded together to push into the rich frontier lands occupied by farmers, largely Chinese and moved lands occupied by farmers, largely Chinese and moved into modern Gansu in the mid 3into modern Gansu in the mid 3rdrd Century. Century.

The ancestors of the founder, Qi-fu Guoren The ancestors of the founder, Qi-fu Guoren 乞伏乞伏国仁 国仁 (r.385-388) had come from the desert regions and his (r.385-388) had come from the desert regions and his father, had submitted to the Former Qin.father, had submitted to the Former Qin.

When Fu Jiān was killed, Qi-fu Guoren and his uncle When Fu Jiān was killed, Qi-fu Guoren and his uncle rebelled and in 385 Qifu Guoren founded the most rebelled and in 385 Qifu Guoren founded the most minor of all the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Western Qin minor of all the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Western Qin 西西秦 秦 (385-400, 409-431).(385-400, 409-431).

Western Qin was destroyed by Yao Xing of the Later Western Qin was destroyed by Yao Xing of the Later Qin in 400 but the Qifu was able to come back and in Qin in 400 but the Qifu was able to come back and in 409.409.

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Western Qin (2)Western Qin (2) The first part of their reign was (385-400)The first part of their reign was (385-400) After being defeated by Yao Xing of the Later Qin, After being defeated by Yao Xing of the Later Qin,

they came back and ruled from 409-431 when they came back and ruled from 409-431 when they were finally conquered by the Xiongnu they were finally conquered by the Xiongnu Kingdom, Da Xia.Kingdom, Da Xia.

There were four reigns:There were four reigns: the founder ruled for 3 years, the founder ruled for 3 years, the second for 2 years and was toppled but the second for 2 years and was toppled but

came back 9 years later and ruled for 13 years. came back 9 years later and ruled for 13 years. the third king ruled for 17 years and the third king ruled for 17 years and the last for 3 years.the last for 3 years.

All the rulers called themselves kings.All the rulers called themselves kings.

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Southern LiangSouthern Liang The Southern Liang The Southern Liang 南凉 南凉 (397-414) was founded (397-414) was founded

by the Tufa by the Tufa 禿髮 禿髮 family of family of Xianbei ethnicity.Xianbei ethnicity. The name of the empire Liang The name of the empire Liang 涼 涼 comes from the comes from the

prefecture Liangzhou prefecture Liangzhou 涼州涼州 . . The Tufa clan was a distant relative of the Tuoba The Tufa clan was a distant relative of the Tuoba

clan but according to the History of the Jin (clan but according to the History of the Jin ( 晋晋书书 ) the name was changed from Tuoba to Tufa ) the name was changed from Tuoba to Tufa because one of the Tufa ancestors was born on a because one of the Tufa ancestors was born on a blanket, and in the Xianbei language, "Tufa" blanket, and in the Xianbei language, "Tufa" meant "blanket." meant "blanket."

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Southern LiangSouthern Liang When the ruler of Liang, Lü Guang, was in When the ruler of Liang, Lü Guang, was in

trouble, the Tufa broke off one end of the Liang trouble, the Tufa broke off one end of the Liang state to form the Southern Liang.state to form the Southern Liang.

All rulers of the Southern Liang proclaimed All rulers of the Southern Liang proclaimed themselves “king”.themselves “king”.

There were three rulers, the first ruled for 2 There were three rulers, the first ruled for 2 years, the second for 3, and the third for 12. years, the second for 3, and the third for 12.

There was continuous warfare with the There was continuous warfare with the surrounding states during the last years of the surrounding states during the last years of the dynasty.dynasty.

In 414 the Tufa king surrendered to the Western In 414 the Tufa king surrendered to the Western Jin.Jin.

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Sixteen Kingdoms: A Sixteen Kingdoms: A ComparisonComparison The first Xiongnu dynasty fell as the nomads thought the The first Xiongnu dynasty fell as the nomads thought the

court was too Chinese.court was too Chinese. The second Zhao dynasty of Shi Le and Shi Hu fell The second Zhao dynasty of Shi Le and Shi Hu fell

because it was unable to provide a competent because it was unable to provide a competent government for its Chinese subjects who revolted and government for its Chinese subjects who revolted and killed the foreign advisors.killed the foreign advisors.

Like the Xiongnu kingdoms, the Ba and Di kingdoms Like the Xiongnu kingdoms, the Ba and Di kingdoms were short-lived – Cheng-Han (43 years); Former Qin were short-lived – Cheng-Han (43 years); Former Qin (44 Years); Later Qin (33 years), Later Liang (17 years).(44 Years); Later Qin (33 years), Later Liang (17 years). Succession to leadership in the Ba and Di kingdoms was usually Succession to leadership in the Ba and Di kingdoms was usually

violent — both Li Shou and Fu Jiān rose to power after violent — both Li Shou and Fu Jiān rose to power after murdering and deposing the former emperors.murdering and deposing the former emperors.

The greatest problem for the Former Qin was to create a central The greatest problem for the Former Qin was to create a central government which could control the tribal peoples and at the government which could control the tribal peoples and at the same time provide an administration acceptable to the Chinese.same time provide an administration acceptable to the Chinese.

Sixteen Kingdoms: A Sixteen Kingdoms: A Comparison (2)Comparison (2)

The first Xianbei dynasties survived the initial The first Xianbei dynasties survived the initial anarchy period because they were well-organized and anarchy period because they were well-organized and conservative.conservative. The rulers had learned through experience and The rulers had learned through experience and

experimentation to organize and run a dual system experimentation to organize and run a dual system of administration for the Xianbei and the Chinese of administration for the Xianbei and the Chinese population on a small scale where mistakes in population on a small scale where mistakes in policy were not fatal.policy were not fatal.

They were able to develop stable forms of They were able to develop stable forms of government over several generations.government over several generations.

These Xianbei dynasties had enough power to These Xianbei dynasties had enough power to defend themselves against invasions.defend themselves against invasions.

The Murong rule lasted for over a 100 years before The Murong rule lasted for over a 100 years before they declared the establishment of the Former Yan.they declared the establishment of the Former Yan.

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Sixteen Kingdoms: A Sixteen Kingdoms: A Comparison (3)Comparison (3)

The Xianbei Kingdoms of Yan, did not last that long either The Xianbei Kingdoms of Yan, did not last that long either but they have had experience in the gradual development but they have had experience in the gradual development of a dual organization for government administration.of a dual organization for government administration.

The Murong rulers failed to conquer all north China The Murong rulers failed to conquer all north China because of:because of: Internal power struggles. Internal power struggles. Offices filled with relativesOffices filled with relatives

The very able ones helped to extend Murong rule to The very able ones helped to extend Murong rule to the Central Plain (during the collapse of the Former the Central Plain (during the collapse of the Former Zhao) Zhao)

Others were not so able and the Yan was later Others were not so able and the Yan was later conquered by the Former Qin.conquered by the Former Qin.

They had to face the power of the Northern Wei, led They had to face the power of the Northern Wei, led by the Xianbei Tuoba clan.by the Xianbei Tuoba clan.

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Sixteen Kingdoms: A Sixteen Kingdoms: A Comparison (4)Comparison (4)

In developing a dual administration system, the In developing a dual administration system, the Xianbei eventually evolved a working government Xianbei eventually evolved a working government until the Tuoba clan went on to conquer all of until the Tuoba clan went on to conquer all of northern China and ruled it as the Northern Wei northern China and ruled it as the Northern Wei dynasty (420-589) for 169 years.dynasty (420-589) for 169 years.

Different Xianbei clans and people of Xianbei and Different Xianbei clans and people of Xianbei and mixed origins went on to establish the Northern Qi, mixed origins went on to establish the Northern Qi, the Northern Zhou, the Sui and the Tang dynasties.the Northern Zhou, the Sui and the Tang dynasties.

The Sui was able to unite all of China.The Sui was able to unite all of China. The Tang The Tang is regarded by historians as a high point in is regarded by historians as a high point in

Chinese civilization. Its territory, acquired through Chinese civilization. Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, was greater the military campaigns of its early rulers, was greater than that of the Han period, and rivaled that of the than that of the Han period, and rivaled that of the later Mongol Yuan and the Manchu Qing dynasties. later Mongol Yuan and the Manchu Qing dynasties.

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Next ReadingNext Reading Holmgren, Jennifer, Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Marriage, Kinship and Power in

Northern China:Northern China: ““Imperial marriage in the Native Chinese and non-Imperial marriage in the Native Chinese and non-

Han State, Han to MingHan State, Han to Ming”” ““The Harem in Northern Wei Politics, 398-493 AD: A The Harem in Northern Wei Politics, 398-493 AD: A

Study of Tuoba attitudes towards the institution of Study of Tuoba attitudes towards the institution of empress dowager and regency governments in the empress dowager and regency governments in the Chinese dynastic system during early Northern WeiChinese dynastic system during early Northern Wei””

““Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A study of the Gao Family of the Century China: A study of the Gao Family of the Northern ChNorthern Ch’’i, c.520-550i, c.520-550””, in VI, pp 1-50. , in VI, pp 1-50.

Dien, Albert E., ed., Dien, Albert E., ed., State and society in early medieval State and society in early medieval ChinaChina,“Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu ,“Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu (Last Lord of the Northern Ch’i, c.. 565-73” in pp 269-(Last Lord of the Northern Ch’i, c.. 565-73” in pp 269-330.330.

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ReferenceReferenceWestern YanWestern Yan

Historians do not include the Western Yan Historians do not include the Western Yan 西燕 西燕 (384-394)(384-394) among the Sixteen Kingdoms as it lasted for only 10 among the Sixteen Kingdoms as it lasted for only 10 years.years.

After the Former Qin ended, Murong Hong After the Former Qin ended, Murong Hong 慕容泓慕容泓 (d. (d. 384) founded his empire of (Western) Yan – Murong Hong 384) founded his empire of (Western) Yan – Murong Hong was a son of the Former Yan emperor, Murong Jun and a was a son of the Former Yan emperor, Murong Jun and a younger brother of Former Yan emperor, Murong Wei.younger brother of Former Yan emperor, Murong Wei.

In 384, he heard that his uncle Murong Chui had rebelled In 384, he heard that his uncle Murong Chui had rebelled against Former Qin and so he gathered several thousand against Former Qin and so he gathered several thousand Xianbei soldiers and claimed his former title of Prince.Xianbei soldiers and claimed his former title of Prince.

He was killed by his officials who supported his brother He was killed by his officials who supported his brother Murong Chong Murong Chong 慕容沖慕容沖 (d. 386) who wanted to lead them (d. 386) who wanted to lead them back to their homeland in the East. back to their homeland in the East.

In their march eastward, the Western Yan was weakened In their march eastward, the Western Yan was weakened by power struggles and was defeated by Murong Chui.by power struggles and was defeated by Murong Chui.

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Reference Reference Xianbei WomenXianbei Women

Empress Duan, Wife of Murong HuangEmpress Duan, Wife of Murong Huang Empress Kezuhun, Wife of Murong Jun*Empress Kezuhun, Wife of Murong Jun* Princess Duan, First Wife of Murong Chui*Princess Duan, First Wife of Murong Chui* Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5thth Wife of Murong Wife of Murong

ChuiChui

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Xianbei Women:Xianbei Women:Empress Duan, Wife of Murong Empress Duan, Wife of Murong

HuangHuang Lady Duan (Empress Duan Wenming Lady Duan (Empress Duan Wenming 段王后 段王后 (ca.337) (ca.337)

was a daughter of a tribal chief, a Xianbei state of was a daughter of a tribal chief, a Xianbei state of during the Three Kingdoms Period.during the Three Kingdoms Period.

Curing the Jin dynasty the clan adopted the Han name Curing the Jin dynasty the clan adopted the Han name Duan and the leader was given the hereditary title of Duan and the leader was given the hereditary title of Duke (303).Duke (303).

After their tribe was defeated and absorbed by Former After their tribe was defeated and absorbed by Former Yan, the Duan clan remained powerful -- several Former Yan, the Duan clan remained powerful -- several Former and Later Yan empresses and officials, were members of and Later Yan empresses and officials, were members of the Duan clan. the Duan clan.

Lady Duan was posthumously named Empress Dowager Lady Duan was posthumously named Empress Dowager by Murong Jun and so she might have been his mother.by Murong Jun and so she might have been his mother.

After Murong Chui became emperor of the Later Yan he After Murong Chui became emperor of the Later Yan he excluded her from her husband’s temple and instead excluded her from her husband’s temple and instead enshrined his own mother, the Lady Lan, who was a enshrined his own mother, the Lady Lan, who was a concubine.concubine.

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Xianbei Women:Xianbei Women: Empress Kezuhun, Wife of Empress Kezuhun, Wife of

Murong JunMurong Jun Empress Kezuhun (Empress Kezuhun ( 可足渾皇后可足渾皇后 ) was married to Murong ) was married to Murong

Jun while he was the heir-apparent and was named Jun while he was the heir-apparent and was named Empress in 353 after he had claimed imperial title. Empress in 353 after he had claimed imperial title.

Her son Murong Wei succeeded to the throne.Her son Murong Wei succeeded to the throne. After the death of her husband, she was named Empress After the death of her husband, she was named Empress

Dowager and was involved in governmental matters, Dowager and was involved in governmental matters, even though Murong Jun's brother, Murong Ke, served even though Murong Jun's brother, Murong Ke, served as regent.as regent.

While dying, Murong Ke recommended that military While dying, Murong Ke recommended that military responsibility be given to Murong Chui, but Empress responsibility be given to Murong Chui, but Empress Dowager Kezuhun disagreed, and continued to dominate Dowager Kezuhun disagreed, and continued to dominate the court; Murong Chui fled and joined the Former Qin.the court; Murong Chui fled and joined the Former Qin.

She accused the wife of Murong Chui, of witchcraft and She accused the wife of Murong Chui, of witchcraft and when Murong Chui, returned he posthumously demoted when Murong Chui, returned he posthumously demoted Empress Kezhuhun to commoner status and enshrined Empress Kezhuhun to commoner status and enshrined Murong Jun's concubine, Consort Duan as Empress Murong Jun's concubine, Consort Duan as Empress Dowager.Dowager.

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Xianbei Women: Princess Duan, Xianbei Women: Princess Duan, First Wife of Murong ChuiFirst Wife of Murong Chui

Princess Duan (d.358), posthumously named Empress Princess Duan (d.358), posthumously named Empress Chengzhao (Chengzhao ( 成昭皇后 成昭皇后 literally "the successful and literally "the successful and accomplished empress”), was the first wife of the accomplished empress”), was the first wife of the Murong Chui.Murong Chui.

Her son, Murong Ling Her son, Murong Ling 慕容令慕容令 , was named heir-, was named heir-apparent but he died in battle in 376 and her younger apparent but he died in battle in 376 and her younger son Murong Bao son Murong Bao 慕容寶 慕容寶 lsucceeded to the throne of lsucceeded to the throne of the Later Yan.the Later Yan.

She was the daughter of Duan She was the daughter of Duan 段末柸段末柸 , who was in line , who was in line for the Dukedom of Liaoxi. for the Dukedom of Liaoxi.

Because she came from an honored lineage (originally Because she came from an honored lineage (originally on par with Former Yan's imperial clan, the Murongs), on par with Former Yan's imperial clan, the Murongs), she did not respect Murong Jun’s wife, Empress she did not respect Murong Jun’s wife, Empress Kezuhun (Kezuhun ( 可足渾皇后可足渾皇后 ) and the Empress despised her. ) and the Empress despised her.

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Xianbei Women: Princess Duan, Xianbei Women: Princess Duan, First Wife of Murong Chui (2)First Wife of Murong Chui (2)

In 358, perhaps at the Empress’s instigation, a eunuch In 358, perhaps at the Empress’s instigation, a eunuch falsely accused her of witchcraft and Murong Jun had her falsely accused her of witchcraft and Murong Jun had her and her alleged co-conspirator, Murong Chui's assistant and her alleged co-conspirator, Murong Chui's assistant Gao Bi Gao Bi 高弼高弼 , arrested., arrested.

Princess Duan and Gao were tortured, but they refused to Princess Duan and Gao were tortured, but they refused to admit to the charges of witchcraft, and because of this the admit to the charges of witchcraft, and because of this the torture was intensified. torture was intensified.

Murong Chui sent her a message trying to persuade her Murong Chui sent her a message trying to persuade her to end her suffering by admitting to the charge (and thus to end her suffering by admitting to the charge (and thus end the torture but be sentenced to death). Princess Duan end the torture but be sentenced to death). Princess Duan replied:replied: I am not fearful of death. However, if I falsely implicate I am not fearful of death. However, if I falsely implicate

myself, I admit to treason. I would be betraying my myself, I admit to treason. I would be betraying my ancestors and dragging Your Royal Highness into this ancestors and dragging Your Royal Highness into this disaster. The results are dire, and I will not do this.disaster. The results are dire, and I will not do this.

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Xianbei Women: Princess Xianbei Women: Princess Duan, Duan,

First Wife of Murong Chui (3)First Wife of Murong Chui (3) Because of her refusal to implicate her husband, Because of her refusal to implicate her husband,

Murong Chui avoided being dragged into the case, Murong Chui avoided being dragged into the case, but she died in prison.but she died in prison.

Murong Chui then married her younger sister, but Murong Chui then married her younger sister, but Empress Kezuhun forcibly deposed her and forced Empress Kezuhun forcibly deposed her and forced him to marry her younger sister. him to marry her younger sister.

Murong Chui did not dare refuse but was displeased, Murong Chui did not dare refuse but was displeased, and Empress Kezuhun was unhappy. and Empress Kezuhun was unhappy.

In 369, Murong Chui divorced Empress Kezuhun’s In 369, Murong Chui divorced Empress Kezuhun’s sister after 9 years of marriage and remarried sister after 9 years of marriage and remarried Princess Duan’s younger sister who had previously Princess Duan’s younger sister who had previously been deposed.been deposed.

In 388 he married the niece of his first wife and she In 388 he married the niece of his first wife and she had two sons.had two sons.

In 388, after Murong Chui established Later Yan, he In 388, after Murong Chui established Later Yan, he posthumously honored his first wife as Empress posthumously honored his first wife as Empress Chengzhao.Chengzhao.

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Xianbei Women: Xianbei Women: Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5thth Wife of Wife of

Murong ChuiMurong Chui Empress Duan Yuanfei Empress Duan Yuanfei 段元妃 段元妃 (d. 396) was the niece (d. 396) was the niece

of two of Murong Chui's prior wives (her father was of two of Murong Chui's prior wives (her father was the brother of his first wife, the Princesses Duan.the brother of his first wife, the Princesses Duan.

Murong Chui married Duan Yuanfei around 388. Murong Chui married Duan Yuanfei around 388. His younger brother Murong De married her sister His younger brother Murong De married her sister

Duan Jifei around the same time. Duan Jifei around the same time. Duan Yuanfei was named empress in 388 and Duan Yuanfei was named empress in 388 and

Murong Chui favored her and she gave him two Murong Chui favored her and she gave him two sons.sons.

Empress Duan was described as being intelligent Empress Duan was described as being intelligent and a good judge of character. and a good judge of character.

She saw that Murong Chui's heir, Murong Bao, She saw that Murong Chui's heir, Murong Bao, lacked governing talents and tried to persuade him lacked governing talents and tried to persuade him to make one of his more capable sons, his heir but to make one of his more capable sons, his heir but she was unsuccessful. she was unsuccessful.

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Xianbei Women: Xianbei Women: Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5thth Wife of Wife of

Murong Chui (2)Murong Chui (2) When Murong Bao succeeded to the throne he When Murong Bao succeeded to the throne he

forced her to commit suicide – saying that if she forced her to commit suicide – saying that if she did not do so, he would harm her clan. did not do so, he would harm her clan.

In anger, she said that Murong Bao would soon In anger, she said that Murong Bao would soon cause the empire's destruction, and then cause the empire's destruction, and then committed suicide.committed suicide.

Initially, Murong Bao refused to give her the Initially, Murong Bao refused to give her the honors of an empress' burial, but on the advice of honors of an empress' burial, but on the advice of his officials he agreed to bury her with imperial his officials he agreed to bury her with imperial honors. honors.