2015/10/14 1 Other non-Han kingdoms such as the Qiang/Di Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,”...

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Other non-Han kingdoms such Other non-Han kingdoms such as the Qiang/Dias the Qiang/Di

Barfield, Thomas, Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,” The Perilous Frontier,” Ch. 3, Ch. 3, “The collapse of Central Order,” pp. 101-10; “The collapse of Central Order,” pp. 101-10; OROR

Kleeman, Terry F., Kleeman, Terry F., Great Perfection, Great Perfection, pp 87-107; pp 87-107; OR pp 117-210OR pp 117-210

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The Qiang: Ba and Di and their KingdomsThe Qiang: Ba and Di and their Kingdoms

Introduction: The Sixteen KingdomsIntroduction: The Sixteen Kingdoms The QiangThe Qiang

The BaThe Ba The Cheng-Han KingdomThe Cheng-Han Kingdom

The DiThe Di The Former Qin KingdomThe Former Qin Kingdom The Later Qin KingdomThe Later Qin Kingdom The Later Liang KingdomThe Later Liang Kingdom

References: References: Biographies of Di WomenBiographies of Di Women

Empress RenEmpress Ren Empress Dowager Qiang*Empress Dowager Qiang* Empress Liang*Empress Liang* Empress Dowager GouEmpress Dowager Gou Empresses She, Zhang and QiEmpresses She, Zhang and Qi Empress RenEmpress Ren

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Introduction: The Sixteen Introduction: The Sixteen KingdomsKingdoms

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The Sixteen Kingdoms (2)The Sixteen Kingdoms (2)

StateState FounderFounder YearYear EthnicityEthnicity LocationLocation Conquered Conquered byby

Set up at Set up at the end of the end of

W. JinW. Jin

Cheng HanCheng Han

Han-ZhaoHan-ZhaoLi XiongLi Xiong

Liu YuanLiu Yuan304-304-329 329

304-304-347347

Di (Ba)Di (Ba)

XiongnuXiongnuSichuanSichuan

Hebei-Shansi Hebei-Shansi borderborder

E.Jin E.Jin

L.ZhaoL.Zhao

Set up at Set up at the the

beginning beginning of E. Jinof E. Jin

Later ZhaoLater Zhao

Former YanFormer Yan

Former Former LiangLiang

Former QinFormer Qin

Shi LeShi Le

Murong Murong ZhünZhün

Zhang GuiZhang Gui

Fu JianFu Jian

319-319-351351

335-335-370370

317-317-376376

350-350-394394

Xiongnu (Jie)Xiongnu (Jie)

Xianbei Xianbei

HanHan

DiDi

HebeiHebei

Huanghe DeltaHuanghe Delta

Central GansuCentral Gansu

N of Wei RiverN of Wei River

F. Yan F. Yan

F. QinF. Qin

F. QinF. QinSplit into Later Split into Later Yan, Later Qin Yan, Later Qin

and W. Qinand W. Qin

Set up Set up after the after the Battle of Battle of The River The River

FeiFei

Later QinLater Qin

Later YanLater Yan

Western QinWestern Qin

Later LiangLater Liang

Northern Northern LiangLiang

Southern Southern LiangLiang

Southern Southern YanYan

Western Western LiangLiang

XiaXia

Northern Northern YanYan

Yao ChangYao Chang

Murong Murong ChiuChiu

Qifu Qifu GuorenGuoren

Lü GuangLü GuangDuan Ye/Shen XiDuan Ye/Shen Xi

Tufa WuguTufa Wugu

Murong DeMurong De

Li HaoLi Hao

Helian Helian BoboBobo

Gao Gao Yun/Feng Yun/Feng

BaBa

384-384-417417

384-384-407407

385-400; 385-400; 409-431409-431

386-386-403403

397-397-439439

397-397-414414

398-398-410410

400-400-421421

407-407-431431

408-408-436436

QiangQiang

XianbeiXianbei

XianbeiXianbei

DiDi

XiongnuXiongnu

XianbeiXianbei

XianbeiXianbei

HanHan

Xiongnu Xiongnu (Tiefu)(Tiefu)

HanHan

Wei River Wei River ValleyValley

N. HebeiN. Hebei



Northern Northern GansuGansu


ShandongShandong

Northern Northern GansuGansu

Ordos PlateauOrdos Plateau

S. LiaoningS. Liaoning

E. JinE. Jin

N. YanN. Yan

XiaXia

L. QinL. Qin

N. WeiN. Wei

E. JinE. Jin

E. JinE. Jin

N. Liang N. Liang

N. WeiN. Wei

N. WeiN. Wei

Not part of Not part of the 16 the 16

KingdomsKingdoms

Western YanWestern Yan Murong Murong HungHung

384-384-394394

XianbeiXianbei E. of Fen RiverE. of Fen River Not one of Not one of the 16the 16

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The Qiang The Qiang 羌羌

The ancient Qiang lived in the area in northeastern Qinghai The ancient Qiang lived in the area in northeastern Qinghai 青海青海 and the neighboring border area of eastern Gansu and the neighboring border area of eastern Gansu 甘肃甘肃 .. Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of the Tibetan Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of the Tibetan

Plateau, the world's highest region. Plateau, the world's highest region. Gansu lies between Qinghai and Inner Mongolia and Gansu lies between Qinghai and Inner Mongolia and

borders Mongolia to the north. The Yellow River passes borders Mongolia to the north. The Yellow River passes the southern part of the province.the southern part of the province.

The area left very few, if any, archaeological remains.The area left very few, if any, archaeological remains.

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The Qiang (2)The Qiang (2) The Qiang peoples were referred to very early in The Qiang peoples were referred to very early in

Chinese history.Chinese history. In ancient China, the term Qiang In ancient China, the term Qiang 羌羌 was used as a was used as a

generic reference for the non-Han peoples living in generic reference for the non-Han peoples living in the northwest (the Han are the majority Chinese the northwest (the Han are the majority Chinese people).people). These peoples were frequently at war with the These peoples were frequently at war with the

ancestors of ethnic Hans. ancestors of ethnic Hans. The graph The graph 羌羌 is made up of two elements: is made up of two elements: 人人 (man) (man)

and and 羊羊 (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people. (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people. They were also referred to as:They were also referred to as:

The Qiang of Many Horses.The Qiang of Many Horses. The war captives, and as The war captives, and as Victims used for human sacrifice.Victims used for human sacrifice.

Picture: present day Qiang.Picture: present day Qiang.

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The Qiang (3)The Qiang (3) The name Qiang first appeared on the oracle bone The name Qiang first appeared on the oracle bone

inscriptions as the western enemies of the Shang inscriptions as the western enemies of the Shang 商商 Dynasty (ca. 1400-1100BCE) and according to the Dynasty (ca. 1400-1100BCE) and according to the (Book of Poetry) Shijing (Book of Poetry) Shijing 诗经诗经 , the founder of the Shang , the founder of the Shang 商商 conquered the Qiang.conquered the Qiang. Around 1100 BCE, the Zhou people and their western Around 1100 BCE, the Zhou people and their western

allies conquered the Shang and formed the Zhou allies conquered the Shang and formed the Zhou dynasty.dynasty.

In 771 BCE, the Qiang, with the help of other ethnic In 771 BCE, the Qiang, with the help of other ethnic groups, killed the last emperor of the Zhou groups, killed the last emperor of the Zhou 周周 dynasty, dynasty, and chased away his heir and family. and chased away his heir and family.

During the Warrior Kingdom Period During the Warrior Kingdom Period 战国时代战国时代 , the Qiang , the Qiang were referred to in the works of philosophers but not in were referred to in the works of philosophers but not in the work of historians. the work of historians.

Their expansion into China was stopped by the State of Their expansion into China was stopped by the State of Qin – Qin Shihuangdi.Qin – Qin Shihuangdi.

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The Qiang (4)The Qiang (4) During the Qin During the Qin 秦秦 and Han and Han 汉汉 (221BC-AD220) many (221BC-AD220) many

groups of non-Han origin were referred to as the groups of non-Han origin were referred to as the Qiang. Qiang. Groups such as the Ba and the Di were considered Groups such as the Ba and the Di were considered

part of the Qiang peoples.part of the Qiang peoples. The Tanguts The Tanguts 黨項黨項 , who ruled part of China (Xi Xia , who ruled part of China (Xi Xia

西夏西夏 ) during the 1100s were also of Qiang origin.) during the 1100s were also of Qiang origin. The Qiang are now one of the 55 officially recognized The Qiang are now one of the 55 officially recognized

ethnic minorities in China with a population of about ethnic minorities in China with a population of about 85,000.85,000.

Their descendants can be found among the Chinese, Their descendants can be found among the Chinese, the Tibetans and many other minorities in the Tibetans and many other minorities in southwestern China.southwestern China.

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The Qiang: BaThe Qiang: Ba The Ba The Ba 巴巴 was probably made was probably made

up of a number of subgroups up of a number of subgroups and may have been related to and may have been related to the Qiang and Di the Qiang and Di 氐氐 . .

The eastern part of Sichuan The eastern part of Sichuan was called the Ba and the was called the Ba and the word was also used to refer to word was also used to refer to the the ethnic peoplesethnic peoples living living there. there.

The Ba occupied the Yangzi The Ba occupied the Yangzi River area west of the gorges River area west of the gorges 峡峡 from at least 8from at least 8thth century century BCE.BCE.

The earliest mention of the Ba The earliest mention of the Ba was in the was in the ZhuozhuanZhuozhuan 左传左传 , , during the late Zhou.during the late Zhou.

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The Qiang: Ba (2)The Qiang: Ba (2) Ba men were prized as mercenaries; they had been Ba men were prized as mercenaries; they had been

used by the state of Chu used by the state of Chu 楚楚 during the Spring and during the Spring and Autumn Period.Autumn Period.

Some had developed at least two kinds of writings Some had developed at least two kinds of writings but other sub-groups were still primitive and lived but other sub-groups were still primitive and lived on a hunting gathering economy supplemented by on a hunting gathering economy supplemented by trading.trading.

The Ba were united by religious beliefs focused on The Ba were united by religious beliefs focused on tiger worship, by a common spoken language, and tiger worship, by a common spoken language, and by cultural features such as songs and dances.by cultural features such as songs and dances.

After the Qin dynasty’s conquest of Ba, the leaders After the Qin dynasty’s conquest of Ba, the leaders were treated as leaders of the non-Chinese peoples were treated as leaders of the non-Chinese peoples and were provided with wives .and were provided with wives .

The Qin used the Ba in its wars against other states The Qin used the Ba in its wars against other states but despised them and treated them as barbarians.but despised them and treated them as barbarians.

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The Qiang: Ba (3)The Qiang: Ba (3) After contact with the Chinese, the Ba, especially After contact with the Chinese, the Ba, especially

those living in the cities, began to identify with those living in the cities, began to identify with Chinese culture and eventually lost Ba identity.Chinese culture and eventually lost Ba identity.

Liu Bang Liu Bang 刘邦刘邦 , founder of the Han dynasty used , founder of the Han dynasty used them in putting down rebellions. them in putting down rebellions.

During the Later Han, Ba men were used against During the Later Han, Ba men were used against Qiang invasions.Qiang invasions.

During the Three Kingdoms Period During the Three Kingdoms Period 三国时代三国时代 (after (after the Han Dynasty) Zhuge Liang the Han Dynasty) Zhuge Liang 诸葛亮诸葛亮 of the State of of the State of Shu-Han Shu-Han 蜀汉蜀汉 also trained 3,000 Ba to shoot also trained 3,000 Ba to shoot crossbow and stationed them at strategic crossroads.crossbow and stationed them at strategic crossroads.

By the 5By the 5thth or 6 or 6thth centuries, a large number of the Ba centuries, a large number of the Ba were familiar with Chinese culture while still were familiar with Chinese culture while still identifying with their Ba identity and some of the Ba identifying with their Ba identity and some of the Ba religious features.religious features.

Daoism was adopted by the Ba and hastened their Daoism was adopted by the Ba and hastened their sinicization.sinicization.

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The Qiang: DiThe Qiang: Di

The Di The Di 氐氐 , a Qiang , a Qiang subgroup, settled in the Chang’an area subgroup, settled in the Chang’an area around 3-5 century BCE. around 3-5 century BCE. The Di fought on foot against the Chinese so were probably The Di fought on foot against the Chinese so were probably

not from the steppe as they were not horse riders. not from the steppe as they were not horse riders. They were frequently mentioned in the early part of the They were frequently mentioned in the early part of the

Spring and Autumn Period (Zhou dynasty) when a state in Spring and Autumn Period (Zhou dynasty) when a state in Hebei Hebei 河北河北 had a ruling house of Di origin that was annexed had a ruling house of Di origin that was annexed by the State of Zhao by the State of Zhao 赵赵 in 295 BCE.in 295 BCE.

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The Qiang: Di (2)The Qiang: Di (2) Early Early in the first century, a number of wars affected the in the first century, a number of wars affected the

area the Ba lived in and so a number of Di and Qiang area the Ba lived in and so a number of Di and Qiang were moved into Guanzhong were moved into Guanzhong 關中關中 and Hedong and Hedong 河東河東 in in Shanxi Shanxi 山西山西 ((36).36).

Fights between Qiang and Di peoples began in 107 and Fights between Qiang and Di peoples began in 107 and lasted for 10 years and destroyed Guanzhong.lasted for 10 years and destroyed Guanzhong.

At the beginning of the 2At the beginning of the 2ndnd century, the area occupied by century, the area occupied by the Di and Qiang peoples had beenthe Di and Qiang peoples had been affected by a decade affected by a decade of rebellions against the Late Han; in 119, there was a of rebellions against the Late Han; in 119, there was a second round of rebellions that lasted into the later part second round of rebellions that lasted into the later part of the century.of the century.

The Di had served the Chinese as mercenaries and by the The Di had served the Chinese as mercenaries and by the 44thth century were becoming sinicized; that is, they had century were becoming sinicized; that is, they had Chinese names, spoke, read, and wrote Chinese, adopted Chinese names, spoke, read, and wrote Chinese, adopted Chinese governmental institutions and served in official Chinese governmental institutions and served in official positions.positions.

However, they were still considered by the local elite as However, they were still considered by the local elite as non-Chinese.non-Chinese.

The Qiang: Kingdoms The Qiang: Kingdoms Under the Qiang (Ba & Under the Qiang (Ba &

Di)Di) There were four kingdoms under the Qiang There were four kingdoms under the Qiang

peoples during this period:peoples during this period: The Cheng-Han (43 years)The Cheng-Han (43 years) The Former Qin (44 years) The Former Qin (44 years) The Later Qin (33 years)The Later Qin (33 years) The Later Liang (17 years)The Later Liang (17 years)

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The Qiang: Kingdoms The Qiang: Kingdoms Under the Qiang (2)Under the Qiang (2)

StateState FounderFounder YearYear EthniciEthnicityty

LocationLocation ConquerConquered byed by

Set up Set up at the at the end of end of W. JinW. Jin

Cheng Cheng HanHan

Li XiongLi Xiong 304-304-347347

Di (Ba)Di (Ba) SichuanSichuan E. JinE. Jin

Set up Set up at the at the

beginnibeginning of E. ng of E.

JinJin

Former Former QinQin

Fu JianFu Jian 350-350-394394

DiDi N of Wei N of Wei RiverRiver

Split into Split into the Later the Later Yan, the Yan, the

Later Qin Later Qin and the W. and the W.

QinQin

Set up Set up after after the the

Battle Battle of The of The River River FeiFei

Later Later QinQin

Later Later LiangLiang

Yao Yao ChangChang

Lü Lü GuangGuang

384-384-417417

386-386-403403

QiangQiang

DiDi

Wei River Wei River ValleyValley

Central Central GansuGansu

E. JinE. Jin

L. QinL. Qin

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The Cheng-Han KingdomThe Cheng-Han Kingdom The earliest independent state during the Sixteen

Kingdoms Period was Cheng-Han 成汉 which represented two states: The Cheng state 成 , proclaimed in 304 by Li Xiong

李雄 (r.303-334).(r.303-334). The Han state 汉 in 338 by Li Shou 李壽 (r.338-343).

When the Sima 司马 family united north China under the Jin 晋 dynasty (280) they executed Qiang chiefs for failing to defend the Jin against the Xiongnu attacks – and the Qiang rebelled.

They had moved to the far northwest of China but They had moved to the far northwest of China but when warfare came, they led their families back east to when warfare came, they led their families back east to the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan.the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan.

The elites of Sichuan did not want them and so the The elites of Sichuan did not want them and so the Central government ordered the refugees to return to Central government ordered the refugees to return to the Northwest but they did not go.the Northwest but they did not go.

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The Cheng-Han Kingdom The Cheng-Han Kingdom (2)(2)

In 301, the Government again ordered the Li family In 301, the Government again ordered the Li family and their followers to return to the Northwest and and their followers to return to the Northwest and their leader, Li Te their leader, Li Te 李特李特 , (d.303) , (d.303) from a branch of the from a branch of the Ba (Bandun Ba (Bandun 板楯板楯 ), ), decided to declare independence decided to declare independence but did not claim any imperial title. but did not claim any imperial title.

The Jin The Jin 晋晋 government sent troops to put down Li’s government sent troops to put down Li’s rebellion but was unsuccessful and Li Te ’s son, Li rebellion but was unsuccessful and Li Te ’s son, Li Xiong Xiong 李雄李雄 (274-334), declared himself King of (274-334), declared himself King of Chengdu in Sichuan.Chengdu in Sichuan.

Later, he took the imperial title of emperor and Later, he took the imperial title of emperor and established the earliest of the Sixteen Kingdoms and established the earliest of the Sixteen Kingdoms and called it Da Cheng called it Da Cheng 大成大成 ..

He named his mother Empress Dowager and He named his mother Empress Dowager and posthumously named his father, Li Te, emperor.posthumously named his father, Li Te, emperor.

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The Cheng-Han Kingdom The Cheng-Han Kingdom (3)(3)

Li Xiong was succeeded by his nephew and an uncle, Li Xiong was succeeded by his nephew and an uncle, Li Xiong’s cousin, Li Xiong’s cousin, 李壽李壽 (300-343), was named regent.(300-343), was named regent.

Because of the power struggles the regent feared that Because of the power struggles the regent feared that he would be assassinated, deposed the emperor, he would be assassinated, deposed the emperor, changed the name of the state to changed the name of the state to Han and proclaimed Han and proclaimed himself emperor.himself emperor.

Cheng-Han was conquered by the Eastern Jin Cheng-Han was conquered by the Eastern Jin 晋晋 in in 347.347. By the end of the dynasty little was left of the By the end of the dynasty little was left of the

extended Li family – many had died in warfare – extended Li family – many had died in warfare – having led charges in battle.having led charges in battle.

Others were the victims of power struggles after Others were the victims of power struggles after the death of Li Xiong.the death of Li Xiong.

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The Former Qin The Former Qin KingdomKingdom

Former Qin Former Qin 前秦前秦 was established by was established by Fu JFu Jiàn iàn 苻健苻健 (1) (1) (r.351-355),(r.351-355), of Di ancestry. of Di ancestry. Fu Jiān (Fu Jiān ( 苻堅苻堅 ) (2)) (2) (r.357-385), nephew of Fu (r.357-385), nephew of Fu

Jian (1), Jian (1), unified North China in 376.unified North China in 376. Fu Jian (1) and Fu Jian (2) were brothers.Fu Jian (1) and Fu Jian (2) were brothers.

The father of the founder, Pu Hong The father of the founder, Pu Hong 蒲洪蒲洪 (285-350), (285-350), had become tribal leader at the age of 12 but did had become tribal leader at the age of 12 but did not participate in the Xiongnu conquest of north not participate in the Xiongnu conquest of north China under Liu Yuan (who founded the first China under Liu Yuan (who founded the first Xiongnu kingdom in China.Xiongnu kingdom in China. In 310, Pu Hong was offered a generalship by Liu In 310, Pu Hong was offered a generalship by Liu

Cong who had captured Luoyang in 311.Cong who had captured Luoyang in 311. Pu Hong did not accept it but instead chose to Pu Hong did not accept it but instead chose to

affiliate himself with the Eastern Jin and became affiliate himself with the Eastern Jin and became the Governor of Qin Province.the Governor of Qin Province.

He pledged allegiance to Liu Yao of Han-Zhao He pledged allegiance to Liu Yao of Han-Zhao (304-329) and was recognized as King of the Di.(304-329) and was recognized as King of the Di.

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The Former Qin Kingdom The Former Qin Kingdom (2)(2)

Pu Hong kept away from the struggles between Pu Hong kept away from the struggles between the Liu and Shi clans for control of North China.the Liu and Shi clans for control of North China.

After Shi Le was victorious, Pu Hong surrendered After Shi Le was victorious, Pu Hong surrendered to the Later Zhao (to the Later Zhao (319-351) 319-351) but when rebellions but when rebellions arose when Shi Hu arose when Shi Hu 石虎石虎 was usurping the throne, was usurping the throne, Pu Hong changed his allegiance to the Eastern Jin.Pu Hong changed his allegiance to the Eastern Jin.

When Shi Hu was victorious, Hong acknowledged When Shi Hu was victorious, Hong acknowledged his allegiance to the Later Zhao.his allegiance to the Later Zhao.

Shi Hu appeared to be appreciative of Pu Hong’s Shi Hu appeared to be appreciative of Pu Hong’s service but was very suspicious of him and so service but was very suspicious of him and so secretly killed Pu Hong’s two oldest sons who secretly killed Pu Hong’s two oldest sons who were hostages.were hostages.

When Ran Min, an adopted son of Shi Le usurped When Ran Min, an adopted son of Shi Le usurped the throne, Pu Hong joined other tribal leaders the throne, Pu Hong joined other tribal leaders against Ran Min.against Ran Min.

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In 349, there were three unsuccessful In 349, there were three unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Ran Min who attempts to assassinate Ran Min who became angry and ordered the massacre of became angry and ordered the massacre of non-Chinese up to 100 li non-Chinese up to 100 li (li = 1/2 kilometer)(li = 1/2 kilometer) around Ye; about 200,000 were killed.around Ye; about 200,000 were killed.

Seeing the weakening of the Later Zhao the Seeing the weakening of the Later Zhao the Eastern Jin court wanted to win Pu Hong over Eastern Jin court wanted to win Pu Hong over to their side and so gave both him and his son to their side and so gave both him and his son appointments.appointments.

Pu Hong accepted the titles but soon declared Pu Hong accepted the titles but soon declared himself the Prince of Sanqin himself the Prince of Sanqin 三秦三秦 (i.e., the (i.e., the prince of the Three Qins – present day Shaanxi prince of the Three Qins – present day Shaanxi Province).Province).

He changed his name from Pu to Fu in 350 in He changed his name from Pu to Fu in 350 in response to a prophesy.response to a prophesy.

After his death, his son, changed his name from After his death, his son, changed his name from Pu to Fu Pu to Fu Fu Jiàn Fu Jiàn (1)(1) 苻健苻健 ,, took over his troops took over his troops and again claimed the Jin titles. and again claimed the Jin titles.

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The Former Qin Kingdom (4)The Former Qin Kingdom (4)

In 350, In 350, Fu Jiàn Fu Jiàn 苻健苻健 (1)(1) and his younger brother led and his younger brother led a group of 5,000 horse and foot soldiers, crossed the a group of 5,000 horse and foot soldiers, crossed the River on a pontoon bridge, and captured Chang’an in River on a pontoon bridge, and captured Chang’an in the name of Eastern Jin.the name of Eastern Jin. A year late, heA year late, he declared himself the “Heavenly declared himself the “Heavenly

Prince” Prince” 天王天王 , formally broke from Jin (and Later , formally broke from Jin (and Later Zhao), and established the Former Qin Zhao), and established the Former Qin 前秦前秦 (351-(351-394)394)..

The dynastic name of Qin was picked to recall the The dynastic name of Qin was picked to recall the glory of the Qin dynasty and both Qin states had glory of the Qin dynasty and both Qin states had their capitals in Chang’an.their capitals in Chang’an.

As the ruler of Former Qin, As the ruler of Former Qin, Fu JiànFu Jiàn (1) appeared to (1) appeared to be a diligent and thrifty ruler, and abolished many of be a diligent and thrifty ruler, and abolished many of the harsh Later Zhao laws and invited able people to the harsh Later Zhao laws and invited able people to join his administration. join his administration.

In 352, In 352, Fu Jiàn Fu Jiàn 苻健苻健 (1) (1) claimed the title of emperor claimed the title of emperor but continued to fight against former Later Zhao but continued to fight against former Later Zhao generals who controlled small fiefdoms.generals who controlled small fiefdoms.

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Former Qin Kingdom (5)Former Qin Kingdom (5) HeHe was succeeded by Fu Sheng was succeeded by Fu Sheng 苻生苻生 (r.355-357), the (r.355-357), the

third son of his empress (the eldest son had been third son of his empress (the eldest son had been killed during a battle against the Eastern Jin).killed during a battle against the Eastern Jin).

Fu Sheng was born blind in one eye and was known Fu Sheng was born blind in one eye and was known for his bad temper as well as for his strength and for his bad temper as well as for his strength and ferocity in battle.ferocity in battle.

Soon after he succeeded to the throne all but one of Soon after he succeeded to the throne all but one of his father’s advisors were killed.his father’s advisors were killed. In 357, Fu Sheng became suspicious of his cousins, In 357, Fu Sheng became suspicious of his cousins,

Fu Jiān (2) Fu Jiān (2) 苻堅苻堅 (r.357-385) and Fu Fa (r.357-385) and Fu Fa 苻法苻法 , and , and considered killing them. considered killing them.

His palace women leaked the news to His palace women leaked the news to Fu Jiān (2)Fu Jiān (2), , who immediately led his private army to attack the who immediately led his private army to attack the palace. palace.

The imperial guards, resented Fu Sheng and so The imperial guards, resented Fu Sheng and so surrendered without resisting. surrendered without resisting.

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The Former Qin Kingdom (6)The Former Qin Kingdom (6)

Fu Jiān (2) Fu Jiān (2) 苻堅苻堅 captured Fu Sheng, who was in captured Fu Sheng, who was in a drunken stupor, and had him deposed and a drunken stupor, and had him deposed and executed. executed. Fu JiānFu Jiān then took the throne. then took the throne. As emperor, he posthumously honored his As emperor, he posthumously honored his

father and gave his mother, Lady Gou father and gave his mother, Lady Gou 苟苟 , the , the title Illustrious Grand Empress and his wife, title Illustrious Grand Empress and his wife, the Lady Gou, Illustrious Empress and named the Lady Gou, Illustrious Empress and named their son, Fu Hong their son, Fu Hong 宏宏 , his heir., his heir.

His mother had his brother, Fu Fa (not His mother had his brother, Fu Fa (not same mother), killed so that he would not same mother), killed so that he would not be able to plot against him and be able to plot against him and Fu Fu JiānJiān (2) (2) was said to have been very upset and to was said to have been very upset and to have enfeoofed Fu Fa’s sons.have enfeoofed Fu Fa’s sons.


During this time, Murong Chui During this time, Murong Chui 慕容垂慕容垂 of the of the Former Yan had defected to the Former Qin and Former Yan had defected to the Former Qin and helped to conquer Former Yan in 370.helped to conquer Former Yan in 370.

After six years of campaigns, Fu Jiān After six years of campaigns, Fu Jiān 苻堅苻堅 (2) (2) united all of Northern China in 376 (by united all of Northern China in 376 (by conquering Former Liang and Dai*).conquering Former Liang and Dai*).

*Dai was outside of the Sixteen Kingdoms *Dai was outside of the Sixteen Kingdoms and its Xianbei rulers later changed the and its Xianbei rulers later changed the name of their state to Wei and went on to name of their state to Wei and went on to become the Northern Wei.become the Northern Wei.

Jiān Jiān 苻堅苻堅 (2) was able to reduce his tribal (2) was able to reduce his tribal leaders to a subordinate status as the Di not have leaders to a subordinate status as the Di not have a strong tribal organization.a strong tribal organization.

He also executed many imperial clan members. He also executed many imperial clan members.

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As emperor, As emperor, Fu Fu JiānJiān (2) completely adopted Chinese (2) completely adopted Chinese culture -- employing Chinese as officials and as army culture -- employing Chinese as officials and as army commanders.commanders.

The government was in the hands of Wang Meng The government was in the hands of Wang Meng 王猛王猛 (c.325-375), a Chinese prime minister, who wanted to (c.325-375), a Chinese prime minister, who wanted to reduce Di power and tribal influence in court.reduce Di power and tribal influence in court.

In 383, In 383, Fu JiānFu Jiān (2) (2) tried to invade the Eastern Jin tried to invade the Eastern Jin 晋晋 but was defeated and but was defeated and many of the formerly many of the formerly conquered states then rebelled against the him. conquered states then rebelled against the him.

Seeing Former Qin weakened, Murong Chui – who Seeing Former Qin weakened, Murong Chui – who had earlier defected to him – rebelled and many had earlier defected to him – rebelled and many leading aristocrats were killed, including consort leading aristocrats were killed, including consort families of families of Fu JiānFu Jiān and other imperial family and other imperial family members.members.

Fu Jiān Fu Jiān 苻堅苻堅 (2) was captured (385) by Yao Chang (2) was captured (385) by Yao Chang 姚姚萇萇 (r.384-393).(r.384-393).

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Yao Chang was the leader of a rival Di clan whose life Fu Yao Chang was the leader of a rival Di clan whose life Fu Jiān had spared in 357.Jiān had spared in 357.

Yao Chang tried to persuade Fu Jiān to pass the throne Yao Chang tried to persuade Fu Jiān to pass the throne to him, but, angry at Yao's betrayal, to him, but, angry at Yao's betrayal, Fu JiānFu Jiān refused and refused and was strangled.was strangled.

After his death, the court was split into two parts:After his death, the court was split into two parts: One part was located in present day Taiyuan and was One part was located in present day Taiyuan and was

soon overwhelmed (386) by the Dingling and the Later soon overwhelmed (386) by the Dingling and the Later Yan (founded by Murong Chui of the Former Yan). Yan (founded by Murong Chui of the Former Yan).

In the west (Western Qin), the successors of Fu Jian In the west (Western Qin), the successors of Fu Jian struggled around the border of present day Shaanxi struggled around the border of present day Shaanxi and Gansu and was finally destroyed after years of and Gansu and was finally destroyed after years of invasions by the Western Qin (Xianbei) and the Later invasions by the Western Qin (Xianbei) and the Later Qin. Qin.

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The LThe Later Qin Kingdomater Qin Kingdom

Yao Chang Yao Chang 姚萇姚萇 (r.384-393), the founder of the (r.384-393), the founder of the Later Qin (384-417) was the son of a powerful Later Qin (384-417) was the son of a powerful general and Qiang chieftain under Shi Hu of the general and Qiang chieftain under Shi Hu of the Later Zhao.Later Zhao. After the collapse of the Later Zhao, Yao After the collapse of the Later Zhao, Yao

Chang's older brother tried to start an Chang's older brother tried to start an independent state but was defeated and killed independent state but was defeated and killed by Former Qin forces.by Former Qin forces.

Yao Chang surrendered and Yao Chang surrendered and Fu Jiān Fu Jiān 苻堅苻堅 decided to let him live.decided to let him live.

Yao then became a general of the Former Qin Yao then became a general of the Former Qin but after but after Fu JiānFu Jiān was defeated by the Eastern was defeated by the Eastern Jin, Yao Chang rebelled and established his Jin, Yao Chang rebelled and established his own kingdom of the Laterown kingdom of the Later Qin Qin 後後秦秦 (384-417).(384-417).

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The LThe Later Qin Kingdom ater Qin Kingdom (2)(2)

After losing several battles against the successor of After losing several battles against the successor of Fu Fu Jiān Jiān 苻堅苻堅 , , Yao Chang became superstitious and thought Yao Chang became superstitious and thought that the spirit of that the spirit of Fu JiānFu Jiān was helping the fight against was helping the fight against him.him.

He made an image of He made an image of Fu JiānFu Jiān and worshipped it but this and worshipped it but this did not help so he cut off its head and sent it to Fu Teng.did not help so he cut off its head and sent it to Fu Teng.

Yao Chang died in 394 and was succeeded by his son, Yao Chang died in 394 and was succeeded by his son, Yao Xing Yao Xing 姚興姚興 (366-416) who (366-416) who destroyed the last loyalists destroyed the last loyalists of the Former Qin and began to expand his control over of the Former Qin and began to expand his control over western China.western China.

Yao Xing temporarily seized all of Western Qin’s Yao Xing temporarily seized all of Western Qin’s territory and forced several other states -- Southern territory and forced several other states -- Southern Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liang, to submit to him.Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liang, to submit to him.

Late in his reign, there were political struggles among Late in his reign, there were political struggles among Yao Chang’s sons and nephews.Yao Chang’s sons and nephews.

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The LThe Later Qin Kingdom ater Qin Kingdom (3)(3)

Yao Xing was succeeded by his eldest son, Yao Hong who Yao Xing was succeeded by his eldest son, Yao Hong who was faced with:was faced with: Challenges from two of his brothers who had to be Challenges from two of his brothers who had to be

killed.killed. Fight to defeat 3,000 Qiang families who had been Fight to defeat 3,000 Qiang families who had been

relocated by Yao Xing but wanted to return to their relocated by Yao Xing but wanted to return to their homeland.homeland.

Attempted seizure of military control by an official.Attempted seizure of military control by an official. The Later Qin was attacked by the Eastern Jin. The Later Qin was attacked by the Eastern Jin.

Western Qin and Da Xie also took the opportunity to Western Qin and Da Xie also took the opportunity to attack.attack.

By 416, Eastern Jin By 416, Eastern Jin 晋晋 troops had attacked and conquered troops had attacked and conquered Luoyang and were advancing on the capital (Chang’an). Luoyang and were advancing on the capital (Chang’an). The non-Han rulers in the north sent forces to help the The non-Han rulers in the north sent forces to help the

Later Qin but the Eastern Jin defeated them. Later Qin but the Eastern Jin defeated them. Later Qin was Later Qin was conquered by the Eastern Jin in 417.conquered by the Eastern Jin in 417.

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The Later LiangThe Later Liang The Later Liang The Later Liang 後後凉凉 (386-403) was founded by (386-403) was founded by

Lü Guang Lü Guang 呂光呂光 of Di ethnicity.of Di ethnicity. It occupied Central Gansu.It occupied Central Gansu. By the time of By the time of LüLü Guang’s death, the Later Liang Guang’s death, the Later Liang

had collapsed into three states: Northern Liang had collapsed into three states: Northern Liang (397-439), Southern Liang (397-414) and Western (397-439), Southern Liang (397-414) and Western Liang (400-421).Liang (400-421). There were five Kingdoms named Liang:There were five Kingdoms named Liang:

The Former Liang The Former Liang 前涼前涼 (320-376) – Han (320-376) – Han The Later Liang The Later Liang 後凉後凉 ; (386-403) – Di; (386-403) – Di The Northern Liang The Northern Liang 北涼北涼 (397-439) - Xiongnu(397-439) - Xiongnu Southern Liang (397-414) XianbeiSouthern Liang (397-414) Xianbei The Western Liang The Western Liang 西凉西凉 (400-421-421) – Han(400-421-421) – Han

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The Later Liang (2)The Later Liang (2) Lü Guang was a general of the Former Qin who tried to Lü Guang was a general of the Former Qin who tried to

connect his family to the Empress Lü, who ruled as connect his family to the Empress Lü, who ruled as regent between 195-180 BCE during the Han dynasty.regent between 195-180 BCE during the Han dynasty.

After the collapse of the Former Qin, Lü Guang used After the collapse of the Former Qin, Lü Guang used his troops to establish a Later Liang state (386-403).his troops to establish a Later Liang state (386-403).

LüLü Guang was brilliant in military strategy but was not Guang was brilliant in military strategy but was not a good administrator -- placing untrustworthy persons a good administrator -- placing untrustworthy persons in high positions and executing enemies.in high positions and executing enemies. These actions reduced public confidence in him and These actions reduced public confidence in him and

some began to gather around the heir of the Former some began to gather around the heir of the Former Liang (of Han ancestry) who was executed a year Liang (of Han ancestry) who was executed a year later.later.

In two years, In two years, Lü Guang Lü Guang had to face two rebellions; had to face two rebellions; famine had also begun in the province.famine had also begun in the province.

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The Later Liang (3)The Later Liang (3) Looking for a scapegoat for the defeat, Looking for a scapegoat for the defeat, Lü Guang Lü Guang

executed two of his generals of Xiongnu descent executed two of his generals of Xiongnu descent and the Xiongnu rebelled.and the Xiongnu rebelled.

In 387, he led a massive assault against the Western In 387, he led a massive assault against the Western Qin (Xianbei) but was defeated.Qin (Xianbei) but was defeated.

Border skirmishes between Later Liang and Border skirmishes between Later Liang and Western Qin (385-400, 409-412) continued Western Qin (385-400, 409-412) continued throughout 391-396.throughout 391-396.

In 397, In 397, Lü GuangLü Guang was 60 years old and only had the was 60 years old and only had the palace under his control.palace under his control.

Shortly before his death, Lü Guang took the title of Shortly before his death, Lü Guang took the title of “Retired Emperor” and named the son of his “Retired Emperor” and named the son of his principal wife, Lü Shao principal wife, Lü Shao 呂紹呂紹 , emperor., emperor.

The son was told to occupy the throne and delegate The son was told to occupy the throne and delegate all decisions his half-brothers, Lü Zuan all decisions his half-brothers, Lü Zuan 呂纂呂纂 (r.400-(r.400-1) and Lü Hong 1) and Lü Hong 呂弘呂弘 as they were more competent.as they were more competent.

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The Later Liang (4)The Later Liang (4) Lü Zuan (was the eldest son but not the son of the Lü Zuan (was the eldest son but not the son of the

principal wife) and Lü Hong started a coup and Lü Shao principal wife) and Lü Hong started a coup and Lü Shao committed suicide.committed suicide. Lü Zuan took the throne but Lü Hong later rebelled.Lü Zuan took the throne but Lü Hong later rebelled. Lü Zuan was killed by a cousin who offered the throne to Lü Long Lü Zuan was killed by a cousin who offered the throne to Lü Long

(r.401-403), who became the last ruler of the Later Liang.(r.401-403), who became the last ruler of the Later Liang. As emperor, Lü Long began a series of large scale purges As emperor, Lü Long began a series of large scale purges

-- the court struggles and warfare at the frontiers led to a -- the court struggles and warfare at the frontiers led to a critical economical situation for the people.critical economical situation for the people.

The elites of the asked for help from the Later Qin ruler, The elites of the asked for help from the Later Qin ruler, Yao Xing (r.394-416), who had already absorbed Western Yao Xing (r.394-416), who had already absorbed Western Qin and was eager to expand farther west.Qin and was eager to expand farther west.

Yao Xing easily took over the other states of Liang -- Yao Xing easily took over the other states of Liang -- Western (400-421), Northern (397-439), and Southern Western (400-421), Northern (397-439), and Southern (397-414). (397-414).

In 403 the Later Qin swallowed up the remaining Liang In 403 the Later Qin swallowed up the remaining Liang territory.territory.

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Reference Reference Biographies of WomenBiographies of Women

Di women:Di women: Empress RenEmpress Ren Empress Dowager QiangEmpress Dowager Qiang Empress LiangEmpress Liang Empress Dowager GouEmpress Dowager Gou Empresses She, Zhang and QiEmpresses She, Zhang and Qi Empress RenEmpress Ren

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Di WomenDi WomenEmpress Ren of the Cheng-Empress Ren of the Cheng-

HanHan Empress Ren 任皇后 was the wife of Li Xiong 李雄 (d.334),

the founding emperor of the Cheng-Han. She had no sons but acted as foster mother to the next two She had no sons but acted as foster mother to the next two

emperors -- Li Ban emperors -- Li Ban 李班李班 (288-334) and Li Qi (288-334) and Li Qi 李期李期 (314-338).(314-338). Li Xiong had 10 sons by his concubines but decided to leave Li Xiong had 10 sons by his concubines but decided to leave

the throne to his nephew, Li Ban, as Li Ban’s deceased father the throne to his nephew, Li Ban, as Li Ban’s deceased father 李蕩李蕩 (d.303) had been a co-founder of Cheng-Han state.(d.303) had been a co-founder of Cheng-Han state.

The sons of Li Xiong were not happy with the decision and so The sons of Li Xiong were not happy with the decision and so they assassinated Li Ban soon after he came to the throne.they assassinated Li Ban soon after he came to the throne.

Li Qi, who had also been fostered by Empress Ren was then Li Qi, who had also been fostered by Empress Ren was then made emperor.made emperor.

During Li Qi's reign, she continued as empress dowager.During Li Qi's reign, she continued as empress dowager. Her other foster son, Li Shou overthrew Li Qi (338) using a Her other foster son, Li Shou overthrew Li Qi (338) using a

forged edict from her to legitimize his actions.forged edict from her to legitimize his actions.

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Di WomenDi WomenEmpress Dowager Qiang of the Empress Dowager Qiang of the

Former QinFormer Qin Empress Dowager Qiang Empress Dowager Qiang 強皇后強皇后 (d.356), the wife of Fu (d.356), the wife of Fu

Jiàn, the founder of Former Qin. Jiàn, the founder of Former Qin. Her brother, Qiang Ping (Her brother, Qiang Ping ( 強平強平 ), was a key advisor to Fu Jiàn.), was a key advisor to Fu Jiàn.

She had three sons: Fu Chang (She had three sons: Fu Chang ( 苻萇苻萇 ), Fu Sheng (), Fu Sheng ( 苻生苻生 ), ), Fu Liu (Fu Liu ( 苻柳苻柳 ): Fu Chang, the oldest, was named the ): Fu Chang, the oldest, was named the heir but was killed in battle in 354.heir but was killed in battle in 354.

She then advised her husband to name the youngest She then advised her husband to name the youngest son, Fu Liu, as Fu Sheng was unbalanced.son, Fu Liu, as Fu Sheng was unbalanced. However, Fu Jiàn, believed that Fu Sheng should succeed him as However, Fu Jiàn, believed that Fu Sheng should succeed him as

he was blind in one eye and there was a prophecy that had the he was blind in one eye and there was a prophecy that had the phrase "three goats shall have five eyes”.phrase "three goats shall have five eyes”.

As emperor, Fu Sheng was violent and when his uncle, As emperor, Fu Sheng was violent and when his uncle, Qiang Ping, tried to persuade him to be less cruel, Fu Qiang Ping, tried to persuade him to be less cruel, Fu Sheng fractured his uncle’s skull and executed him; a Sheng fractured his uncle’s skull and executed him; a month later, his mother died in sadness and fear. month later, his mother died in sadness and fear.

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Di WomenDi WomenEmpress Liang of the Former QinEmpress Liang of the Former Qin

Empress Liang (Empress Liang ( 梁皇后梁皇后 ) (d.355) was the wife of Fu ) (d.355) was the wife of Fu Sheng, the second emperor of the former Qin.Sheng, the second emperor of the former Qin.

She was named empress after Fu Sheng succeeded to She was named empress after Fu Sheng succeeded to the throne.the throne.

Three months after she became empress, Fu Sheng's Three months after she became empress, Fu Sheng's astrologers warned him that the stars showed that a astrologers warned him that the stars showed that a great funeral and deaths of major officials would great funeral and deaths of major officials would come within three years, and that he should reform come within three years, and that he should reform his ways to avoid such disasters. his ways to avoid such disasters.

Fu Sheng then declared that deaths of the empress Fu Sheng then declared that deaths of the empress and her relatives should be sufficient to satisfy the and her relatives should be sufficient to satisfy the warning from the stars.warning from the stars.

So, he executed his wife, two of her uncles and So, he executed his wife, two of her uncles and another of her relatives.another of her relatives.

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Di WomenDi WomenEmpress Dowager Gou of the Empress Dowager Gou of the

Former QinFormer Qin Empress Dowager Gou Empress Dowager Gou 苟太后苟太后 was the wife of Fu Xiong was the wife of Fu Xiong

苻雄苻雄 (son of Pu Hong), and mother of Fu Jiān (son of Pu Hong), and mother of Fu Jiān 苻堅苻堅 who who seized power in a coup from his cousin, Fu Sheng.seized power in a coup from his cousin, Fu Sheng.

After Empress Dowager Gou became a widow it is said After Empress Dowager Gou became a widow it is said that she carried on an affair with her cousin, Li Wei (that she carried on an affair with her cousin, Li Wei ( 李李威威 ), whom Fu Jiān treated like a second father.), whom Fu Jiān treated like a second father.

Li Wei was a trusted advisor and it was with his Li Wei was a trusted advisor and it was with his support that Wang Meng support that Wang Meng 王猛王猛 (325-375), became the (325-375), became the prime minister.prime minister.

Around the new year 358, she saw that Fu Jiān's older Around the new year 358, she saw that Fu Jiān's older brother Fu Fa brother Fu Fa 苻法苻法 (not her son) had many visitors, (not her son) had many visitors, and she became concerned that he might be a threat to and she became concerned that he might be a threat to her son, and so, after consulting with Li Wei, she her son, and so, after consulting with Li Wei, she ordered Fu Fa to commit suicide..ordered Fu Fa to commit suicide..

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Di Women: Empress She Di Women: Empress She of the Later Qinof the Later Qin

Empress She (Empress She ( 蛇皇后蛇皇后 ) (d.397) was the wife of ) (d.397) was the wife of founding emperor, Yao Chang, of the Later Qin.founding emperor, Yao Chang, of the Later Qin.

She was said to be the mother of Yao Xing, the She was said to be the mother of Yao Xing, the second emperor of the Later Qin and was named second emperor of the Later Qin and was named Empress Dowager (394) when Yao Xing ascended to Empress Dowager (394) when Yao Xing ascended to the throne.the throne.

However, Yao Xing also honored, posthumously, Lady However, Yao Xing also honored, posthumously, Lady Sun, a concubine of his father’s and so some suspect Sun, a concubine of his father’s and so some suspect that Lady Sun might have been his birth mother but that Lady Sun might have been his birth mother but that he was raised by Empress She.that he was raised by Empress She.

Empress She died in 397, her son, Yao Xing, was said Empress She died in 397, her son, Yao Xing, was said to be so sad that he was unable to gather officials for to be so sad that he was unable to gather officials for imperial meetings and handle important matters of imperial meetings and handle important matters of state.state.

Eventually when he convene court, he met with his Eventually when he convene court, he met with his officials wearing mourning clothes. officials wearing mourning clothes.

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Di Women: Empresses Di Women: Empresses Zhang and Qi of the Later Zhang and Qi of the Later

QinQin Yao Xing had two principal wives, each following Yao Xing had two principal wives, each following

the death of the previous one:the death of the previous one: Empress Zhang Empress Zhang 張皇后張皇后 – – little is known about little is known about

her except that she was promoted from her her except that she was promoted from her previous rank within the palace (402).previous rank within the palace (402).

Empress Qi Empress Qi 齊皇后齊皇后 in (412) was also promoted in (412) was also promoted from the ranks of palace women.from the ranks of palace women.

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