2015 Reconnaissance Report for Evans Creek Tributary 0107 · 2015 Reconnaissance Report for Evans...

2015 Reconnaissance Report for Evans Creek Tributary 0107

November 2016

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2015 Reconnaissance Report for Evans Creek Tributary 0107 Submitted by: Daniel W. Lantz. Environmental Scientist Science and Technical Support Section King County Water and Land Resources Division Department of Natural Resources and Parks Prepared for: Claire Jonson. P.E. Senior Engineer Stormwater Services Section King County Water and Land Resources Division Department of Natural Resources and Parks


King County Science and Technical Support Section i November 2016

Citation King County. 2016. 2015 Reconnaissance Report for Evans Creek Tributary 0107.

Prepared by Daniel Lantz, Water and Land Resources Division. Seattle, Washington.


King County Science and Technical Support Section ii November 2016

Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1

2.0 Study Area ................................................................................................................................................. 2

3.0 Methods ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

4.0 Results ......................................................................................................................................................... 7

5.0 Discussion ................................................................................................................................................18

6.0 References ...............................................................................................................................................21

Figures Figure 1. Map of Evans Creek Tributary 0107. .................................................................................... 2

Figure 2. Map of Trib 0107 indicating the three distinct reach types, valley floor, canyon and plateau. .................................................................................................................... 3

Figure 3. Bankfull width to depth ration diagram, taken from Fluvial Geomorphology Module.............................................................................................................................................. 5

Figure 4. Bankful width to depth ratio for cross sections in Evans Creek Trib 0107........... 7

Figure 5. Substrate composition at cross sections in Evans Creek Trib 0107. ....................... 8

Figure 6. Average embeddedness percent for each transect. ........................................................ 9

Figure 7. Percent of riparian forest along Evans Creek Trib 0107. ...........................................10

Figure 8. Number of in-channel LWD and spanning LWD per river kilometer (Rkm) in Evans Creek Trib 0107. ......................................................................................................12

Figure 9. Number of pools/rkm in Evans Creek Trib 0107. .........................................................13

Tables Table 1. Substrate types and size range used in this report. ........................................................ 4

Table 2. Locations and dimensions of erosional areas in Trib 0107. ......................................13

Table 3. B-IBI scores from 2012 - 2015 for 2 separate locations on Evans Creek Trib 0107. ...............................................................................................................................................17


King County Science and Technical Support Section iii November 2016

Photos Photo 1. Collecting benthic insects from Trib 0107 in 2014 using a Surber sampler

with a 500-µm net. ...................................................................................................................... 6

Photo 2. Photo taken from the mainstem Evans Creek Trib 0107 highlighting a piece of spanning LWD. .......................................................................................................................11

Photo 3. Erosion along the left bank of Trib 0107, 3 meters upstream of xc-4 ...................14

Photo 4. Erosional area upstream of xc-4 on Trib 0107. ..............................................................15

Photo 5. Driveway culvert on the south fork Trib 0107. ..............................................................16


King County Science and Technical Support Section iv November 2016

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King County Science and Technical Support Section 1 November 2016

1.0 INTRODUCTION In January 2015, a rapid reconnaissance level survey was conducted on Evans Creek Tributary WRIA #08-0107 (hereafter referred to as Trib 0107) to collect data on general ecological conditions, channel shape and form, and to measure existing hydro-modifications (culverts, bridges, etc.). This report describes the results of that survey. For context, the data collected are compared to NOAA Fisheries’ Properly Functioning Condition (PFC) for salmonid-bearing streams (NMFS 1996). PFC is a useful benchmark to understand how habitat conditions may or may not limit productivity for salmonids in streams of the Pacific Northwest. For the purposes of this summary, PFC conditions are reported for width to depth ratios, pool frequency, riparian composition, and frequency of large woody debris. In addition, frequency of large woody debris was compared to a second standard commonly used in the region (Fox and Bolton 2007). The overall goal of this survey was to help stormwater managers better understand the current habitat conditions in Trib 0107 so they can evaluate opportunities to triage stormwater retrofits to mitigate negative impacts within the creek.



2.0 STUDY AREA Trib 0107 is located in the Township 25, Range 06, and Sections 05 in King County. Trib 0107 flows west approximately 1.7 kilometers (km) where it enters the right bank of Evans Creek at river kilometer (rkm) 1.0. Since over 95% of Trib 0107 flows through private property we needed permission from landowners to access the stream to conduct our survey. However, several property owners either refused to allow us access or did not respond to our request for access, which resulted in large portions in the upstream reach of Trib 0107 that was not surveyed (Figure 1). Also the portion of Trib 0107 from the confluence with Evans Creek upstream to 196th AVE NE was not included in our survey. Trib 0107 basin can be segmented into three distinct reaches which encompass about 106 acres (43 ha) (Figure 2). A long (0.8 km), low gradient segment that flows on top of a plateau through a mix of pasture lands and manicured lawns; a short 0.4 km segment that flows through a steep sided, high gradient, and forested canyon area; and a 0.5 km segment that emanates from the canyon and flows over the valley floor to its confluence with Evans Creek.

Figure 1. Map of Evans Creek Tributary 0107. Locations of survey reaches, cross section

locations, erosional areas and macroinvertebrate sampling locations.



During our survey we discovered that about 40% (estimate) of the flow in the mainstem was provided by a tributary that branched off to the south in the canyon area that was not shown on our map. Given the significant amount of water flow coming from this tributary we ended up surveying the channel from the confluence upstream to a driveway culvert on private property. Since we didn’t have permission to proceed past this point we ended the survey at this culvert. Washington State recognizes Trib 0107 as a fish bearing stream (F) from the confluence with Evans Creek upstream to about Rkm 0.5 where its designation changes to a non-fish bearing stream (Np) (WAC 222-16-030, 2001), (http://www.dnr.wa.gov/forest-practices-water-typing).

Figure 2. Map of Trib 0107 indicating the three distinct reach types, valley floor, canyon and

plateau.

http://www.dnr.wa.gov/forest-practices-water-typing

http://www.dnr.wa.gov/forest-practices-water-typing



3.0 METHODS Evans Creek Trib 0107 was divided into two reaches, a mainstem reach (Reach 1), and a south fork reach (Reach 2). Four transects were measured in Reach 1, and four in Reach 2. Surveys began in reach one upstream of where Trib 0107 enters a culvert under 196th Ave NE. Transect locations were then determined by surveyors as they moved upstream and were established at locations where gradient and habitat characteristics changed to encompass the overall characteristics of each stream reach. The physical habitat characteristics listed below were collected at each transect using the protocols outlined in the 2009 “Status and Trends Monitoring for Watershed Health & Salmon Recovery: Field Data Collection Protocol,” issued by the Washington State Department of Ecology, and can be found at: (http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/stsmf/docs/01SnTWadeableManA-Vv3bhfl.pdf) All data were then tabulated and a general percent score or ratio was calculated.

• • Bankfull Width (m) • • Bankfull Height (m) • • Bankfull Depth (m) • • Wetted Width (m) • • Wetted Depth (m) • • Substrate Type • • Embeddedness • • Left and Right Bank Riparian Composition and % Cover

Table 1. Substrate types and size range used in this report.

TYPE SIZE RANGE SIZE GAUGE RS Bedrock (smooth) > 4 m larger than a car RR Bedrock (rough) > 4 m larger than a car RC Concrete/Asphalt > 4 m larger than a car XB Large Boulder 1- 1-4 m meter stick to car SB Small boulder >2 250 mm - 1m basketball to meter stick CB Cobble >64 mm - 250 mm tennis ball to basketball GC Gravel, coarse >16 mm - 64 mm marble to tennis ball GF Gravel, fine >2mm - 16 mm ladybug to marble

SA Sand (2-16 mm) > 0.06 mm to 2 mm gritty to ladybug

FN Fines (silt/clay/muck) < 0.06 mm non gritty HP Hardpan - hardened fines any size WD Wood any size OT Other (doesn’t fit choices above) any size

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/stsmf/docs/01SnTWadeableManA-Vv3bhfl.pdf



Bankfull width, height, and depth data were combined to obtain a width to depth ratio, which is a measurement between the bankfull mark on the left and right banks and the average depth between the bankfull width and surface of the active channel (wetted and not wetted) at that cross section (Figure 3). The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS, 1996) identified a width to depth ratio less than 10.1 to be considered a properly functioning condition for salmonids.

Figure 3. Bankfull width to depth ration diagram, taken from Fluvial Geomorphology Module (http://www.fgmorph.com/fg_3_19.php). Longitudinal stream habitat data listed below was also collected between transects as surveyors moved upstream from one transect to the next. Definitions of pools, LWD, and LWD spanners are also found within the above 2009, Status & Trends Field Protocol.

• Number of pools • Number of LWD within bankfull • Number of LWD spanning the channel • Areas of bank erosion • Number, type and dimensions of in-water structures (culverts, irrigation pumps,

water control structures) Physical measurements of culverts were collected using the protocols outlined in the 2009, Fish Passage and Surface Water Diversion Screening Assessment and Prioritization Manual, Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife which can also be found at this site http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00061/wdfw00061.pdf. Macroinvertebrates were also collected during low-flow conditions following the protocols of Karr and Chu (1999). A single composited, 8 ft2 sample was collected using a Surber sampler with a 500 µm net. (Photo 1). Taxonomic analyses were performed according to standard laboratory protocols with a targeted minimum subsample of 600 organisms. All

http://www.fgmorph.com/fg_3_19.php

http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00061/wdfw00061.pdf



data were uploaded to the Puget Sound Stream Benthos (PSSB) data management system (http://www.pugetsoundstreambenthos.org), which enables downloads of B-IBI scores and metrics or raw taxonomic composition.

Photo 1. Collecting benthic insects from Trib 0107 in 2014 using a Surber sampler with a 500-µm

net.

http://www.pugetsoundstreambenthos.org/



4.0 RESULTS Bankfull width to depth ratios for six of the eight transects fell below 10.1, which is considered to be properly functioning for salmonid-bearing streams (NMFS 1996) (Figure 3).

Evans Creek Tributary 0107

Cross Sections

1 2 3 4 SFT 1 SFT 2 SFT 3 SFT 4

Ban

kful

l Wid

th to

Dep

th R

atio

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Figure 4. Bankful width to depth ratio for cross sections in Evans Creek Trib 0107. Properly

functioning conditions for width:depth ratios in salmonid-bearing streams are <10 (redline), (NMFS 1996).



Throughout the mainstem and south fork of Trib 0107, sand was the dominant substrate at 34%, followed by cobble at 20%, coarse gravel at 18%, fine gravel at 17%, clay at 7%, and boulders at 3%. Average substrate percentages collected from the four transects in the mainstem were 0% clay, 32% sand, 9% fine gravel, 21% coarse gravel, 32% cobble and 7% boulders (Figure 5). Average substrate percentages collected from the four transects in the south fork were 14% clay, 36% sand, 25% fine gravel, 16% coarse gravel, 9% cobble and 0% boulders (Figure 5).

Cross Section 1 Cross Section 2 Cross Section 3

SF Trib Cross Section 1 SF Trib Cross Section 2

SF Cross Section 3 SF Trib Cross Section 4

Cross Section 4

CLAYSANDFINE GRAVELCOARSE GRAVELCOBBLESMALL BOULDER

Figure 5. Substrate composition at cross sections in Evans Creek Trib 0107.




Cross Section

1 2 3 4 SFT 1 SFT 2 SFT 3 SFT 4

Perc

ent E

mbe

dded

ness

0

20

40

60

80

100

Figure 6. Average embeddedness percent for each transect. The percent embeddedness of the substrate at each transect was also collected and embeddedness scores were then averaged and compared to the National Marine Fisheries Service, Matrix of Pathways (NMFS 1996) (Figure 6). Properly functioning condition for embeddedness, which was determined from coastal streams, is an embeddedness percentage < 20% (NMFS 1996). The average score for all transects was 63%, with the lowest embeddedness score of 23% (SFT 2) and the highest of 92% (SFT 3). None of the transects met the criteria for properly functioning conditions for embeddedness due to the large amounts of sand.



Riparian data was also collected at each transect. All sample reaches in Trib 0107 had riparian cover at each transect (Figure 7). The overall percentage of riparian forest cover for all transects combined was 56% coniferous and 46% deciduous. Adding the results of percent deciduous and coniferous together, none of the cross sections met the criteria for properly functioning conditions (>80% forest) from NMFS (1996).


Cross Sections

1 2 3 4 SFT 1 SFT 2 SFT 3 SFT 4

Perc

ent

0

20

40

60

80

DeciduousConiferous

Figure 7. Percent of riparian forest along Evans Creek Trib 0107.



Large woody debris (LWD) is an important component of streams in the Pacific Northwest. Our surveys indicate that Trib 0107 did not meet the requirements for properly functioning conditions of 35 pieces of LWD per kilometer (Figure 8), as identified by NMFS (1996). Surveyors also counted spanning LWD (Photo 2), as a future source of in-channel LWD and despite adding those pieces, Trib 0107 LWD totals would still not be enough to meet the requirement for properly functioning conditions.

Photo 2. Photo taken from the mainstem Evans Creek Trib 0107 highlighting a piece of spanning

LWD.




Reach

Mainstem SF TribNum

ber o

f Spa

nnin

g LW

D &

In-C

hann

el L

WD

/RK

M

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

In-Channel LWDSpanners

Figure 8. Number of in-channel LWD and spanning LWD per river kilometer (Rkm) in Evans Creek

Trib 0107. Pools are also important habitats for vertebrates and invertebrates alike. Pools are often formed by pieces of LWD. Since the amount of LWD in Trib 0107 is much less than what is considered to be appropriate, it is not surprising that pool frequency is significantly less than properly functioning conditions, which is 115 pools per kilometer for a two-meter-wide (bankfull width) stream (Figure 9).




Reach

Mainstem SF Trib

Num

ber o

f Poo

ls/R

KM

0

5

10

15

20

25

Figure 9. Number of pools/rkm in Evans Creek Trib 0107. Three erosional areas were observed in the mainstem and one in the south fork. The total erosional area for the mainstem was 86.5 m2, and 15 m2 for the south fork (Table 2). The largest section of erosion was found in the mainstem 3 meters upstream from xc-4 (Photos 3 and 4). Table 2. Locations and dimensions of erosional areas in Trib 0107.

Location Erosion Length (m) Erosion Height (m) Erosional Area (m2)Mainstem 4 1.5 6Mainstem 7 1.5 10.5South Fork 2.5 6 15Mainstem 28 2.5 70



Photo 3. Erosion along the left bank of Trib 0107, 3 meters upstream of xc-4 This was the

largest section of erosion observed with a total area of 70m2.



Photo 4. Erosional area upstream of xc-4 on Trib 0107.



Only one culvert was documented on the south fork of Trib 0107 (Photo 5). This culvert was constructed of corrugated steel, was 6 m long with a diameter of 0.6 m and was located under a private driveway. No other culverts were observed during our surveys; however, there were large portions of Trib 0107 that were on private property that we did not have access to, and it’s likely there are more than the one we observed.

Photo 5. Driveway culvert on the south fork Trib 0107.



B-IBI results from two separate samples collected in 2015 indicate that Trib 0107’s overall taxa diversity is fair (Table 3). The results are based on the Wisseman 1998, 10-50 scoring scale. Looking back to 2009, the average B-IBI score on Trib 0107 was 31-Fair. Table 3. B-IBI scores from 2012 - 2015 for 2 separate locations on Evans Creek Trib 0107.

BIBI Results Score Result YearAmbient Sample 34 Fair 2009Ambient Sample 32 Fair 2010Ambient Sample 30 Fair 2011Ambient Sample 32 Fair 2012Ambient Sample 40 Good 2013Stormwater Sample 22 Poor 2014Ambient Sample 30 Fair 2014Stormwater Sample 28 Fair 2015Ambient Sample 34 Fair 2015



5.0 DISCUSSION For the purpose of this survey we ended up separating Trib 0107 into two reaches, a mainstem reach (Reach 1) and a south fork reach (Reach 2). Our surveys have shown that both reaches have been impacted by past and ongoing development in this basin and like other streams in this area, Trib 0107 rarely met or approached meeting properly functioning conditions for salmonid-bearing streams. Trib 0107 is similar to other urbanized streams in the Puget Sound lowlands in that it is lacking in riparian corridor, large woody debris, pools, natural hydrological regime, and riparian vegetation (Booth et al. 2004). To determine of a stream is meeting properly functioning conditions, specific types of data must be collected. Bankfull widths are highly correlated to basin size and often reflect of the nature of precipitation patterns. In streams that have been altered due to timber harvest and clearing or urbanization, bankfull width and depth are heavily influenced by erosion and channel incision. Bankfull widths-to-depth ratios are a common metric to describe the relationship between peak flow discharge and the response of the channel to high flow events. The bankfull width to depth ratio results for Trib 0107 indicate that the sections of stream that were surveyed can be classified as meeting properly functioning conditions by this metric. This is probably largely due to the small amount of impervious surfaces on the upper plateau, where rain water or snow melt can naturally be absorbed into the soil and not delivered directly to the stream by impervious surfaces. Also from aerial photos, there seems to be a water control structure causing the stream to back up and form a pond on a private residence upstream from where we ended our survey. We were not given permission to survey the stream in this location and do not have any information on this structure. However, it is possible that the structure could also retain increased stream flow into the pond from heavy rain events and lessen the effects of high flows downstream. If this structure in fact functions this way, it could account for the lower bankfull width to depth ratios; however, a full survey would need to be completed on this reach to determine this. Substrate composition is a useful indicator to describe how a channel stores and transports sediment. All measures of substrate were taken at locations deemed to be representative of the reach by surveyors. Heterogeneity of substrate types should include all sizes of benthic substrate, but not more than 25 percent should be composed of anything less than 1 mm diameter, such as silt, clay, and sand (Jensen et al. 2009). Substrate results in Reach 1 as well as Reach 2 also indicate that Trib 0107 is not properly functioning as sand was the dominant substrate type which is considered 100% embedded. The National Marine Fisheries Service developed a Matrix of Pathways and Indicators that was designed to summarize important salmonid habitat parameters and corresponding levels of condition. According to the matrix, the properly functioning condition for embeddedness is < 20% which was derived from Washington State coastal streams (NMFS



1996). The combined average results for each transect show that Trib 0107 is 63% embedded, which is greater than what is considered properly functioning. This score is largely due to the amount of sand in both reaches. Areas of erosion were also measured by surveyors during this survey. Three sections were located and measured in the mainstem and one on the south fork. All areas were located within the higher gradient canyon reach and had steep banks on each side of the creek. Given that this is an initial reconnaissance survey it’s difficult to determine the extent, frequency, and severity of any of the erosional areas observed. However, given that this is a section of Trib 0107 with the highest gradient, one would expect a certain level of erosion in this area. B-IBI samples were collected on two locations in 2015. Scores suggest that Trib 0107’s benthic taxa is somewhat depressed, which indicates that in-stream conditions are not entirely properly functioning. This could be due to several factors, such as poor stream production due to low nutrient availability, high scouring events from increased and sudden stream flow events, lack of preferred substrate, lack of instream LWD, and poor water quality. Scoring criteria and maps of all sites can be found on the Puget Sound Stream Benthos (PSSB) web page, (http://pugetsoundstreambenthos.org/Default.aspx). Evans Creek Trib 0107, like most of the basins in Puget Sound, was affected by development that did not consider ecological impacts of urbanization on streams (Morley and Karr 2002; Fevold et al. 2001; Hogg and Norris 1991). Urbanization in general has been shown to be a major determinant of biological integrity in Puget Sound streams. For example, Morley and Karr (2002) found that as urbanization increased, biotic integrity (B-IBI scores) decreased significantly. Although the specific mechanisms for this degradation are not explained, it is probably a combination of changes in hydrology (DeGasperi et al. 2009; Booth et al. 2004), riparian community (Lorion and Kennedy 2009), water quality (Nelson and Roline), large woody debris (Hilderbrand et al. 1997), and fine sediment inputs (Angradi 1999). Additionally, runoff from stormwater and roads can also affect salmon in the Puget Sound in many ways. Spromberg and Scholz (2011) predicted that many populations of coho salmon in urbanized watersheds will go extinct as a consequence of pre-spawning mortality due to the effects of untreated stormwater. Projects and programs that seek to mitigate the effects of stormwater through a combination of habitat restoration, infiltration, and other means are essential for the persistence of salmon across the more urban areas of Puget Sound. There has been a considerable amount of habitat loss in Trib 0107. These losses can largely be attributed to forest loss (especially in the upper plateau riparian zone) coupled with urban development resulting in altered hydrology and a reduction of channel complexity. NMFS (1996) cites a stream with greater than 80 percent forest, large woody debris frequency greater than 150 pieces per kilometer, and pool frequency greater than 35 per kilometer as properly functioning conditions for salmonid-bearing streams. A review of survey notes from the GLO (General Land Office) described conditions of extensive spruce and cedar forest in the vicinity of Trib 0107. Now there are few conifers in

http://pugetsoundstreambenthos.org/Default.aspx



the riparian zone and most of the drainage basin has been cleared. Although these streams will never be pristine, riparian vegetation can provide important functions in urban streams. McMillan et al. (2014) found that riparian vegetation in urban streams influenced nutrient transformations, bank stability, input of woody debris, and provided direct water quality benefits (reduced stream temperature). Similarly, the addition of large woody debris has been shown to improve the macroinvertebrate community and create important pool habitats (Hilderbrand et al. 1997). Restoration seeking to plant trees and place woody debris would benefit the geomorphic condition (width to depth, number of pools, sediment size distribution), water quality, and biological integrity of both of these stream. Efforts focused on rehabilitation of this stream need to focus on reestablishing natural processes that create and maintain fish habitat in the context of current development and potentially redevelopment of stormwater infrastructure. Despite urbanization and degraded riparian condition, this tributary still provides some habitat value for fish, insects, and amphibians.



6.0 REFERENCES Angradi, T.R. 1999. Fine sediment and macroinvertebrate assemblages in Appalachian

streams: a field experiment with biomonitoring applications. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 18(1): 49-66.

Booth, D.B., J.R.Karr, S. Schauman, C.P. Konrad, S.A. Morley, M.G. Larson, and S.J. Burges. 2004. Reviving urban streams: land use, hydrology, biology, and human behavior. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 40: 1351-1364.

Degasperi, C.L., H.B. Berge, K.R. Whiting, J.J. Burkey, J.L. Cassin, and R.R. Fuerstenberg. 2009. Linking hydrologic alteration to biological impairment in urbanizing streams of the Puget Lowland, Washington, USA. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 45(2): 512-533.

Fevold, K., C.W. May, H.B. Berge, and E. Ostergaard. 2001. Habitat inventory and assessment of three Sammamish River tributaries: North, Swamp, and Little Bear Creeks. King County Department of Natural Resources, Water and Land Resources Division. Seattle, WA.

Fox, M.J. and S. Bolton. 2007. A regional and geomorphic reference for quantities and volumes of instream wood in unmanaged forested basins of Washington State. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 27:342–359.

Hilderbrand, R., A. Lemly, C.A. Dolloff, and K. Harpster. 1997. Effects of large woody debris placement on stream channels and benthic macroinvertebrates. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54: 931-939.

Hogg, I.D., and R.H. Norris. 1991. Effects of runoff from land clearing and urban development on the distribution and abundance of macroinvertebrates in pool areas of a river. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42(5): 507-518.

Hynes, H.B.N. 1970. The ecology of running waters. University of Toronto Press.

Habitat Limiting Factors and Reconnaissance Assessment Report, Green/Duwamish and Central Puget Sound Watersheds (WRIA 9 and Vashon Island). 2000. Volume 2.

Jensen, D.W. Steel, E.A., Fullerton, A.H., and G.R. Pess. 2009. Impact of fine sediment on egg-to-fry survival of Pacific Salmon: a meta-analysis of published studies. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17(3): 348-359.



Karr, J.R., and E.W. Chu. 1999. Sampling Protocol for the Benthic Index of Biotic Integrity (B-IBI). Restoring Life in Running Waters: Better Biological Monitoring. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Kleindl, W.J. 1995. A benthic index of biotic integrity for Puget Sound lowland streams, Washington, USA. M.S. thesis, University of Washington. Seattle, WA.

Lorion, C.M., and B.P. Kennedy. 2009. Relationships between deforestation, riparian forest buffers, and benthic macroinvertebrates in lowland neotropical streams. Freshwater Biology 54: 165-180.

McCandless, T.L. 2003. Maryland stream survey: bankfull discharge and channel characteristics of streams in the Allegheny Plateau and the valley and ridge hydrologic regions. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, CBF0-S03-01.

McMillan, S.K., A.K. Tuttle, G.D. Jennings, and A. Gardner. 2014. Influence of restoration age and riparian vegetation on reach-scale nutrient retention in restored urban streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 50(3): 626-638.

Merritt, G., and C. Hartman. 2012. Status of Puget Sound tributaries 2009: biology, chemistry, and physical habitat. Washington Department of Ecology, Environmental Assessment Program. Olympia, WA.

Morley, S.A. 2000. Effects of urbanization on the biological integrity of Puget Sound Lowland Streams: restoration with a biological focus. M.S. thesis, University of Washington. Seattle, WA.

Morley, S.A., and J.R. Karr. 2002. Assessing and restoring the health of urban streams in the Puget Sound basin. Conservation Biology 16: 1498-1509.

NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 1996. Making determinations of effect for individual or grouped actions at the watershed scale. National Marine Fisheries Service. Portland, Oregon.

Nelson, S.M., and R.A. Roline. 1996. Recovery of a stream macroinvertebrate community from mine drainage disturbance. Hydrobiologia 339: 73-84.

Pastuchova, Z., M. Lehotsky, and A. Greskova. 2008. Influence of mphohydraulic habitat structure on invertebrate communities (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera). Biologia 63: 720-729.



Pleus, A.E. and D. Schuett-Hames. 1998. TFW monitoring program methods manual for the reference point survey. Washington State Department of Natural Resources. TFW-AM9-98-002. DNR #104.

Spromberg, J.A., and N.L. Scholz. 2011. Estimating the future decline of wild coho salmon populations due to early spawner die-offs in urbanizing watersheds of the Pacific Northwest. Integrated Environmental Management and Assessment 7(4): 648-656.

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