2014 COOK Boko Haram: How a Militant Islamist Group Emerged in Nigeria
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Boko Haram: How a Militant Islamist Group Emerged in Nigeria by Femi Owolade March 27, 2014 at 5:00 am http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4232/boko-haram-nigeria The Western influence of British colonialists caused a division among the people of Norther n Nigeria, who were once unit ed by Islam. This divisi on saw, on one side, the so- called "civilized" -- by Western standards -- elite who were used by the British as agents of colonization; and on the other side, the commoners, who vehemently resisted Western influence in the region. Dissatisfaction with Western influence also led to an emergence of Islamist fundamentalists among people of the Northeastern region of Nigeria. The reason Mohammed Yusuf founded Boko Haram appears t o be that he saw an opportunity to exploit public outrage at government corruption by linking it to Western influence in governance. What developments might have triggered the emergence of violent Islamist group Boko Haram during the last decade in Nigeria? According to Umar Mamodu[1] -- a scholar and key Boko Hara m historian -- its inception in 2002 resulted from a clash between the moderate Islamic teachings of the prominent Sheikh Jafaar Adam at the Mahammadu Ndimi Mosque in Maiduguri-Borno State in t he Northeas ter n part of Nigeri a, and the more mi li tant int erpr etat ion of the Qur'an by his disc ipl e, Moham med Yusuf. [2] According to Mamodu[3] , Yusuf believed in the creation of a new order in which the wretched should inherit the earth, and for his extremist views, was expelled in 2002 from the Ndimi Mosque Committee. [4] Later that year Yusuf built a mosque in the northeast Nigeria to serve as a magnet for primary and secondary school pupils who, in response to his teachings, would abandon Westernized schools in the beli ef that Western educati on [ Boko] is a sin [ Haram]; hence the name Boko Haram. [5] The group's official name, according to its manifesto, is Jamaiat u Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awata Wal- Jihad ,[6] which translates as "Association of Sunnis for the Propagation of Islam and Jihad." [7] Abul Qaqa, the official spokesman of the group, stated categorically, in an interview reported by Reporters Without Borders, that Boko Haram's objective is the "application of Sharia law throughout Nigeria … [t]hrough kidnappings, bombings and suicide attacks aimed at the United Nations, churches and symbols of the federal government such as police stations." [8] Ideologically, Boko Haram opposes not only Western education but also Western culture and science -- a posit ion Mohamm ed Y usuf reveal ed in an int ervi ew conducte d by the BBC, when he stated that the belief that the earth is spherical in shape is a sharp contradiction to Islamic thought and therefore should be rejected along with Darwinism and the theory that rain comes from water evaporated by the sun. [9] Ironically, Nigerian academic Hussain Zakaria told BBC News that Yusuf "is graduate educated and very prof ici ent in E ngli sh".[10] Violence linked to Boko Haram's activities is reported to have resulted in an estimated 10,000 deaths between 2001 and 2013. [11] Since 2012 alone, according to an Amnesty International report that details Boko Haram's activities in Nigeria, "at least 70 teachers and over 100 schoolchildren and students have been killed or wounded. At least 50 school s have eit her been burned or seriousl y damage d and more than 60 others have been forced to close. Thousands of children have been forced out of schools across
description
Essay by David Cook, professor of religion at Rice University and author of Understanding Jihad, on the rise of Boko Haram in Nigeria.
Transcript of 2014 COOK Boko Haram: How a Militant Islamist Group Emerged in Nigeria
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BokoHaram:HowaMilitantIslamistGroupEmergedinNigeriabyFemiOwoladeMarch27,2014at5:00amhttp://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4232/bokoharamnigeria
TheWesterninfluenceofBritishcolonialistscausedadivisionamongthepeopleofNorthernNigeria,whowereonceunitedbyIslam.Thisdivisionsaw,ononeside,thesocalled"civilized"byWesternstandardselitewhowereusedbytheBritishasagentsofcolonizationandontheotherside,thecommoners,whovehementlyresistedWesterninfluenceintheregion.
DissatisfactionwithWesterninfluencealsoledtoanemergenceofIslamistfundamentalistsamongpeopleoftheNortheasternregionofNigeria.
ThereasonMohammedYusuffoundedBokoHaramappearstobethathesawanopportunitytoexploitpublicoutrageatgovernmentcorruptionbylinkingittoWesterninfluenceingovernance.
WhatdevelopmentsmighthavetriggeredtheemergenceofviolentIslamistgroupBokoHaramduringthelastdecadeinNigeria?AccordingtoUmarMamodu[1]ascholarandkeyBokoHaramhistorianitsinceptionin2002resultedfromaclashbetweenthemoderateIslamicteachingsoftheprominentSheikhJafaarAdamattheMahammaduNdimiMosqueinMaiduguriBornoStateintheNortheasternpartofNigeria,andthemoremilitantinterpretationoftheQur'anbyhisdisciple,MohammedYusuf.[2]
AccordingtoMamodu[3],Yusufbelievedinthecreationofaneworderinwhichthewretchedshouldinherittheearth,andforhisextremistviews,wasexpelledin2002fromtheNdimiMosqueCommittee.[4]LaterthatyearYusufbuiltamosqueinthenortheastNigeriatoserveasamagnetforprimaryandsecondaryschoolpupilswho,inresponsetohisteachings,wouldabandonWesternizedschoolsinthebeliefthatWesterneducation[Boko]isasin[Haram]hencethenameBokoHaram.[5]
Thegroup'sofficialname,accordingtoitsmanifesto,isJamaiatuAhlisSunnaLidda'awataWalJihad,[6]whichtranslatesas"AssociationofSunnisforthePropagationofIslamandJihad."[7]AbulQaqa,theofficialspokesmanofthegroup,statedcategorically,inaninterviewreportedbyReportersWithoutBorders,thatBokoHaram'sobjectiveisthe"applicationofSharialawthroughoutNigeria[t]hroughkidnappings,bombingsandsuicideattacksaimedattheUnitedNations,churchesandsymbolsofthefederalgovernmentsuchaspolicestations."[8]
Ideologically,BokoHaramopposesnotonlyWesterneducationbutalsoWesterncultureandscienceapositionMohammedYusufrevealedinaninterviewconductedbytheBBC,whenhestatedthatthebeliefthattheearthissphericalinshapeisasharpcontradictiontoIslamicthoughtandthereforeshouldberejectedalongwithDarwinismandthetheorythatraincomesfromwaterevaporatedbythesun.[9]Ironically,NigerianacademicHussainZakariatoldBBCNewsthatYusuf"isgraduateeducatedandveryproficientinEnglish".[10]
ViolencelinkedtoBokoHaram'sactivitiesisreportedtohaveresultedinanestimated10,000deathsbetween2001and2013.[11]Since2012alone,accordingtoanAmnestyInternationalreportthatdetailsBokoHaram'sactivitiesinNigeria,"atleast70teachersandover100schoolchildrenandstudentshavebeenkilledorwounded.Atleast50schoolshaveeitherbeenburnedorseriouslydamagedandmorethan60othershavebeenforcedtoclose.Thousandsofchildrenhavebeenforcedoutofschoolsacross
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communitiesinYobe,Kaduna,AdamawaandBornostates."[12]
AbubakarShekau,leaderoftheNigerianIslamistterroristgroupBokoHaram,appearsinavideocommuniquclaimingresponsibilityforanOctober24,2013attackthatkilled35people.
BokoHaramisconsideredathreattonotonlyNigeriabutalsotheentireworld.In2012,thenCommanderoftheU.S.AfricaCommand(AFRICOM),GeneralCarterHam,voicedconcernsabouttheintentofterroristgroupssuchasSomalia'sAlShabaab,AlQaedaintheIslamicMaghreb[AQIM]andBokoHaramtocollaborateandsynchronizetheirefforts.Afterthe2011ChristmasDaybombingsofchurchesinNigeria,GeneralHamsaidthatheremainedgreatlyconcernedaboutBokoHaram'sstatedintenttoconnectwithAlQaeda'sseniorleadership.[13]
SociopoliticalstateofNorthernNigeria:Maitatsine
Nigeriawascreatedin1914fromanamalgamationofthenorthandsouthregionbyBritishcolonialauthorities.NorthernNigeriaconsistsmainlyoftheHausaandFulaniethnicgroups,whoarepredominantlyMuslim,whileSouthernNigeriaconsistsoftheYorubaandIgboethnicgroups,whoareChristiansandanimistworshippers.
ThehistoryofNorthernNigeriahasbeenprofoundlyinfluencedbyreligionandpolitics.SincetheBornoSultanateandtheSokotoCaliphatewhichruledpartsofwhatisnowNorthernNigeria,theRepublicofNigerandsouthernCameroonfellunderBritishcontrolin1903,therehasbeenstrongresistancetoWesterneducationamongtheMuslimsofthearea.[14]
IntheNorthernpartofNigeria,religionhaslongbeenusedasaunitingtool.TheFulaniJihadsof18041808,throughconquestandconversion,superimposedIslamontheHausaidentity,creatingacentralpoliticalandreligiousauthorityonthefragmentedHausastatesofpresentdayNorthwesternNigeria,andfusingthemintoonepoliticalandlinguisticunit.[15]AshistorianJohnPhillipsstated,tobeHausagraduallycametomeanthatonewasaMuslim,eventhoughnotallMuslimsintheregionwereHausaandnotallHausawereMuslims.[16]
TheunityseenamongNorthernersstronglycontraststotheSouthernregionofNigeria,whichismadeupofvariousscatteredethnicgroups,languages,politicalorganizationsandreligions.
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Britishcontrolandthesubsequentcolonizationoftheregion,however,evidentlydidnotsitwellwiththeindigenouspeopleofNorthernNigeria.[17]OppositiontoWesterninfluencefollowed,largelyduetothecircumstancethattheHausaelitethetraders,scribesandclerksusedbytheBritishasagentstocolonizetheregionledlivesthatwerephysically,attitudinallyandmateriallyremovedfromtheirhosts'.[18]AnaccountoftheindirectruleadoptedbyBritishcolonialauthoritiesstates:"Likethewhitecolonialist,theseblackimperialistswouldnotliveamongstandmixwiththepeople.Theystayedontheirown.TheyhadtheirownquartersjustastheWhitemanhadhisownGovernmentReservationArea..."[19]AlthoughthisaccountreferstotheIgedeareaofcentralNigeria,inhisexaminationoftheaccount,MosesOchonu,AssociateProfessorofAfricanHistoryatVanderbiltUniversity,observedthat,"inmanyways,theHausaauxiliariestoowerevictimsofacolonialadministrativepolicyshapedbytheracistnotionofthemorecivilizednativeshelpingtocivilizethelesscivilizedones."[20]
AddedtotheWesterninfluenceingovernmentandadministration,wasthesuspicionofthespreadofChristianityinaNorthernNigeriadominatedbyIslam.AsFaroukChothiacommentedinaBBCreport,"[O]wingtoactivitiesofearlyChristianmissionarieswhousedWesterneducationasatoolforevangelism,itisviewedwithsuspicionbythelocalNorthernpopulation."[21]
TheWesterninfluenceofBritishcolonialistscausedadivisionamongthepeopleofNorthernNigeria,whowereonceunitedbyIslam.Thisdivisionsaw,ononeside,thesocalled"civilized"byWesternstandardselitewhowereusedbytheBritishasagentsofcolonizationandontheotherside,thecommoners,whovehementlyresistedWesterninfluenceintheregion.WrittenaccountsshowthatnotonlydidthesystemofgovernancecauseanimosityamongthepeoplelivinginNorthernNigeriathesystemwasalsoseenasacheapandanineffectivecolonizationproject.[22]
IntheyearsleadingtoNigeria'sindependencein1960,therewasapopularmovementamongNorthernNigeriansknownastheTalakawas[23]headedbyAminuKano,asocialistpoliticianwholedanIslamicuprisingagainstBritishcolonialistsinthe1940s.TalakawashadasitsdrivingforceadistasteforWesterninfluence,andplannedtousepoliticsandreligiontocreatea"NorthernNigerianSocietyofSocialJustice,EconomicProsperityandFairness".AstudyonthegovernmentofNorthernNigeriafrom13501950showsthatmanyTalakawas(commoners)inKanoStatesupportedthatmessagetodemonstratedisapprovalwithwhattheyperceivedasanunrepresentativegovernmentcomposedofaselectedfew.[24]
DissatisfactionwithWesterninfluencealsoledtoanemergenceofIslamistfundamentalistsamongpeopleoftheNortheasternregionofNigeria.ProminentamongthemwasMohammedMarwa,aradicalpreacheralsoknownasMaitatsine["theonewhocurses"],notoriousforhisviolentactivitiesduringthe1970sand1980s.[25]MarwadenouncedWesterninfluenceandtechnology,andalsomainstreamMuslimteachers.Theriotsandarmedclashesheinstigated,whichpittedhisfollowersagainstpoliceandthearmy,resultedinthedeathsofthousandsofpeopleinthecountry.[26]ABBCreportquotesawitnesswhosawhundredsofpeoplesummarilyexecuted,astheNigerianauthoritiestriedtocrushaweeklonguprisinginDecember1980,speakingofthehorrificnatureMaitatsine'sattacks:
"Theywereextrajudicialkillingseverywhere..Therewerehundredsofthem,innocentpeople."[27]Thereportwentontosay,"Hereticalseemstobetheonlywordtodescribehim[Maitatsine]hehadmillennialideasoftheendoftime.Therewasacertainfanaticism[byMaitatsine'srebels]whichoverwhelmedtheattempttodealwiththemIsawalotofdeadbodieseverywhere.Everywherewasfilledwithdeadbodies.Roadblocksweremountedeverybodywaslivinginabsolutelyfear.Peoplewerelivingwiththeirheartsintheirmouth".[28]Intheaftermathoftheuprising,itwasreportedthat,"Ittookthepolicethreedaystogetthebodiesoffthestreet.Anestimated4,000peoplewerekilledintheweeklonguprising."[29]
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AnalystTonyJohnsonviewsBokoHaramasaspawnoftheMaitatsineriots.[30]
ThisdisenfranchisementofcommonersintheNorthernpartofNigeriaseemstohavebeenusedasanopportunitybythecommonerstocarryoutuprisingsforsocialjustice,anIslamicmodeofgoverningandeconomicprosperityagainstthe"establishment."
ThereasonMohammedYusuffoundedBokoHaram,accordingtoaccountsofUmarMamoduanArabicscholarandBokoHaramhistorian,appearstobethathesawanopportunitytoexploitpublicoutrageatgovernmentcorruptionbylinkingittoWesterninfluenceingovernance.[31]Yusuf,accordingtoMamodu'saccount,wantedtogatheryoungimpressionablemindsthathadnevergottenafairdealfromgovernmenthewasfascinatedwiththeideaofdestroyingthesocial,politicalandreligiousordertocreateaneworderinwhichthewretchedwouldinherittheearth.[32]ThisnotionhaspromptedChrisKwaja,aNigerianresearcheronreligion,toassertthat"religiousdimensionsoftheconflicthavebeenmisconstruedastheprimarydriverofviolencewhen,infact,disenfranchisementandinequalityaretherootcauses."[33]AnotherNigerianresearcherwrote,"ApsychoanalysisoftheadherentsofthesectshowsthattheirmajorbeliefisinthefullimplementationofSharialawintheirrespectivestates.WithShariafullyimplemented,therewillbesocialjustice,economicprosperity,equalityandfairnessWesterneducationisnotreallythereproblemMaladministrationistheremotecause."[34]
AlookatthemembershipofBokoHaramwillalsorevealtherolethatbadgovernanceanddisenfranchisementofcommonersinNorthernNigerianstateshaveplayedinthegroup'semergence.Accordingtofiguresextrapolatedfroma2001articlebyTonyJohnsonfortheCouncilofForeignRelations,thesect'shundredsoffollowers,mostlyNortherners,knownalsoasYusuffiya,consistedlargelyofimpoverishedIslamicstudentsandclerics,aswellasuniversitystudentsandprofessionals,manyofwhomwereunemployed.[35]HumanRightsWatchresearcherEricGuttschusstoldIRINNewsthatYusufsuccessfullyattractedfollowers"byspeakingoutagainstpoliceandpoliticalcorruption"onbehalfofthecountry's"vastnumbersofunemployedyouth[who]hewasabletotapintoforrecruits".[36]HealsowentontosuggestthattheemergenceofBokoHaramislargelyduetocorruptionandpoorgovernance.[37]
Nigeria:NorthSouthDivide
SincetheamalgamationofSouthernandNorthernNigeriain1914,ithasbeenarguedthatNigeriahasfavoredtheelitesoftheNorthattheexpenseofinhabitantsoftheSouthernregion.AtNigeria's100yearanniversary,constitutionallawyerFredAgbajesuggestedthattheamalgamationbytheBritishwasaselfservingalliance.Theamalgamation,hewrote,"putthepoliticaladministrationofNigeriainthehandsofsomepeopleinsteadofanequitabledistributionofpower."[38]
AfterNigeria'sIndependencein1960,theNorthSouthdivisionledtodiscriminationagainstSoutherners.Between1963and1998,NigeriasawanearunbrokenchainofrulersfromtheNorth.[39]Duringthisperiod,therewere16PoliceCommissionersinchargeofLagosState(aSouthernState).Outofthisnumber,eightwereNortherners.IntheNorthernstateofKaduna,withthesamenumberofCommissioners,onlyone,JosephAdeolawasaSouthernertheremaining15wereallNortherners.[40]Thisdisproportionatedistributionofpositionsofpowernotonlyexistedinthepolice,butalsoinmostNorthernledmilitaryjuntasinwhichgovernorsofSouthernStatesweremostlyNortherners.[41]
Inthebankingsector,SouthernerswerenotsparedthediscriminationofaNigeriadominatedbyNortherners.ThedisplayofuneventreatmentreacheditspeakduringGeneralSaniAbacha'sregime,whichwasdominatedbyNortherners.ThecentralgovernmentpassedtheFailedBanksdecree,ostensiblytocleanupcorruptioninthebankingsectorofNigeriaand"sanitize"it,however,thiswasactuallyusedto
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persecuteSoutherners[42]bydeliberatelytargetingandarrestingformerbankerswhowereGeneralSaniAbacha'spoliticalandpersonalenemies[43]andwhoweremembersofSouthernstates,allthewhileshieldingtheNortherners.AnexampleofthepreferentialtreatmentofNorthernersisthecaseofahighprofileNorthernerwhohadacompanythatwasindebtfor300millionnairatooneofthedistressedbanks.[44]HewasnotchargedbeforeanytribunalincontrasttomanySouthernbankdirectorsandcompanyownerswhowerekeptindetentionindefinitely.[45]
ThedisbursementofproceedsfromNigeria'sPetroleumTrustFund[PTF]alsoseemstodiscriminateagainstSoutherners.AlthoughtheoilproducingstatesaresituatedintheSouthernregionofthecountry,thesestateshavebenefitedtheleastfromtheoilwealth.[46]BeforeOlusegunObasanjobecamethefirstPresidentofNigeria'sthirdrepublicin1999,thePTFgeneratedmorethan70%ofitsrevenueintheSouth,whiledisbursinglessthan40%ofthemoneyintheSouth.
TocompoundtheunfairtreatmentofSoutherners,therewasaworrisometransferoffederalpublicinstitutionstoAbuja,astatedominatedbyNorthernHausaspeakingpeople,aftertheFederalCapitalTerritoryofNigeriawasmovedtherefromLagos,astateintheSouthernregion:Inparticular,therewastheeconomicallyandlogisticallyimpracticaldecisiontohavetheNigerianPortsAuthority[NPA]andNigerianMaritimeAuthority[NMA]relocatetoAbuja,whenthemajorportsareinLagosandothercoastalstatesintheSouth.[47]
TerrorismagainsttheNigerianState
AftertheelectionofGoodluckEbeleJonathan,aChristianSoutherner,asthePresidentoftheFederalRepublicofNigeriain2010,therewasanincreaseinviolentactivitiesbytheBokoHaramsect,whobegantowagewaronthenewgovernmentledbyPresidentJonathan,whohasoftenbeencriticizedforindulginginethnicfactionalismandfavoringtheIjawethnicgroupsituatedinSouthernNigeria.[48]
BeforethebombingoftheUnitedNationsbuildinginNigeria'scapitalofAbujaonAugust16th2011,themostdaringactivityofBokoHaramhadbeenthegroup'sJune7,2011bombingofAbuja'spoliceheadquarters.ThatattackappearedtobespecificallytargetedtheInspectorGeneralofPolice,HafizRingim.[49]
OnJuly10,2011,aChristianFellowshipChurchinSuleja,NigerState,inthe"MiddleBelt"partofNigeria,wasbombed.ThenextdaytheUniversityofMaiduguri,intheNorthernpartofNigeria,closedontheorderoftheUniversityAuthority,citingsecurityconcerns.[50]
BokoHaramhasmadeitknownbywayofpublicannouncements,[51]backedbyterroristactions,thatitsstrategyistoundermineNigeriangovernmentalauthority.BokoHaram'svideoclipswhichcanbeviewedonYouTubefeaturingthegroup'sleader,AbubakarShekau,stressdisdainfortheSoutherndominatedgovernment.[52]Apartfromvideofootage,theShekau,hasunderlinedhisantigovernmentpositioninofficialstatements.[53]
Apartfromcountlessattacksoncivilians,otherattackshavebeencarriedoutthatshowdirectoppositiontotheNigeriangovernment.InSeptember7,2010attack,membersofBokoHaramsetfreeover700inmatesfromaprisoninBauchiState.[54]InBornoState,BokoHaram'sviolencehaskilledapproximately800people,includingrelativesofhighrankingstateofficials.[55]
In2013,BokoHaramtookcontrolofthelocalgovernmentsofMarte,Mobbar,Gubio,Guzamala,Abadam,Kukawa,KalaBalgeandGamboruNgala,inBornoState,chasingoutgovernmentofficials,takenovergovernmentbuildingsandimposingSharialaw.[56]
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ThoughtheinsurgencycarriedoutbyBokoHaramhasnotbeenlimitedtoanygeographicalareatodenoteaNorthSouthdispute,anexaminationoftheaforementionedattacksshowsasystematicassaultonsymbolicentitiesoftheNigerianState.
BokoHaramAGenuinelyIslamicGroup?
SincethebeginningofBokoHaram'sinsurgencyinNigeria,thereisnodoubtthatreligioustensionhasbeenontherise.ItmayhoweverbeoverstatedtoconcludethattheIslamChristianitydisputesolelyledtothegroup'semergence.
LookingbackatBokoHaram'shistory,whichismarredbyMuslimvs.Muslimconflict,itcanbeseenthattheintrareligiousdisputeadherentsofIslamplayedakeyroleinBokoHaram'screation.Notonlyaremostofthegroup'sactivitiesspecificallylocatedintheMuslimpopulatedNorthernregionofNigeria,evidencealsoshowsthatthemajorityofNigeria'sMuslimpopulationdonotsupporttheactivitiesofBokoHaram,andithasbeenreportedthatthemembersofBokoHaramdonotinteractwiththelocalMuslimpopulations.[57]Also,severalprominentMuslimfiguressuchasthegovernorofNigerState,[58]theSultanofSokoto[59]andtheCoalitionofMuslimClericsinNigeria[CMCN][60]havepubliclydenouncedthegroup.
NigerianshavebeencaughtupinanimbroglioindistinguishingthepoliticallydrivenIslamistmovementfromafaithdrivenIslam.ThishascausedareligioustensionbetweenChristiansandMuslimssincetheonsetoftheinsurgencyledbyBokoHaram.
BokoHaramfallsprimarilyunderthecategoryofapoliticalgroupconsistingfundamentallyofIslamistswho,byusingreligiousobscurantism,hideunderthecloakofthefaithbasedIslam.
Conclusion
EvidenceshowsthattheoriginofBokoHaramislinkedtothepovertyandlackofdevelopmentinNorthernstatesofNigeriaintheeraofcolonialism.BokoHaram,whichperceivestheWestasacorruptinginfluenceonthegovernanceofNorthernStates,emergedasanarmedrevoltagainstawideningregionaleconomicdisparity.
AlthoughtheelectionofNigeria'sPresidentGoodluckJonathanaSouthernChristianprovokedmanyNorthernersandcoincidedwithanincreaseinBokoHaram'sviolentactivities,thereisnoevidenceindicatingconclusivelythatBokoHaramemergedsolelyinresponsetoNorthSouthtensionsinNigeria.Also,alackofviolenceactivitiesbythegroupintheSouthfurtherdisprovesthenotionthatBokoHaram'semergedprimarilyduetotheNorthSouthdivide.
Lastly,inthedifferentiationofIslamandIslamism,faithbasedIslamdoesnotplaytheparamountroleininspiringBokoHaram'sactivities.Instead,politicallydrivenIslamismwasadoptedasadoctrinetowagewaronall,includingMuslimswhoadoptWesternization.ThereligiousfaceusedbyBokoHaramisadeceptivecloaktodeceiveNigeriansthatshareIslamicsentiments.ButthereisnoevidencethatMuslimsgenerallyendorseorcondoneactivitiesofBokoHaram.ThespecificattacksonIslamicStatesintheNorth,suchasthemosquebombinginBornoState,indicatefurtherthatthisviolentgroupisprimarilyanideologicallydrivenpoliticalorganizationtryingtoweakentheinfluenceofmoderateIslaminNorthernNigeria,whichtheydeemasWesternized.
FemiOwoladeisaLaw(LLB)graduateofKingstonUniversityLondon.HecurrentlylivesinNigeriaandserveasaLegalAssistanttotheDLD(DirectorofLegalDrafting)ofKwara
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State'sMinistryofJustice.
Notes
[1]UmarMamodu,"BokoHaramTheBeginning"Lagos[2011].UmarMamoduisanArabicScholarintheNorthernpartofNigeria,Kano(NorthernStateofNigeria).HehasdebatedonmattersrelatingtoIslaminNigeriaandiswellversedintheHistoryofBokoHaram.HehasalsobeenasourceforNigeriannewspapers.In2009,hehadaconversationonBokoHaramwithNiyiOwolade,aformerAttorneyGeneralandCommissionerforJusticeofOsunState(southwestNigeria)andAtireneWilson,alawyerfromSouthNigeria.[2]Ibid[3]Ibid[4]Ibid[5]Ibid[6]ReporterswithoutBorders,"InnermostthoughtsoftheIslamistGroupBokoHaram,"ReporterswithoutBordersParis[2012][7]SamuelA.Ekanem,JacobA.DadaandBasseyJ.Ejue,"BOKOHARAMANDAMNESTY:APHILOLEGALAPPRAISAL",InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScienceVol.2No.4NewYork[Feb2012][8]ReporterswithoutBorders,"InnermostthoughtsoftheIslamistGroupBokoHaram,"ReporterswithoutBordersParis[2012][9]JoeBoyle,"Nigeria'sTalibanEnigma",BBCNews,London31July2009[10]Ibid[11]JohnAllen,"TheCatholicChurch:WhatEveryoneNeedsToKnow",OxfordUniversityPressLondon{2013]P166167[12]AmnestyInternational,"KeepawayfromSchoolsorwe"llkillyou:EducationunderattackinNigeria",[13]MarkDoyle,"Africa'sIslamistMilitantsCoordinateEfforts"BBCNews,LondonJune262012[14]Ibid[15]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritishColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008][16]J.Philips,"SpuriousArabic:HausaandColonialnorthernNigeria",AfricanStudiesCenter,Madison2000[17]IraMarvinLapidus,"IslaminWestAfrica",CambridgeUniversityPressCambridge[2002]P405[18]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritishColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008][19]A.P.Anyebe,"ManofCourageandCharacter:TheOgbulukoWarinColonialIdomaland"FourthDimensionPublishers,Enugu2002[20]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritishColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008][21]FaroukChothia,"WhoareNigeria'sBokoHaramIslamists?",BBCNews,London11January2012[22]MosesOchonu,"ColonialismwithinColonialism:TheHausaCaliphateImaginaryandtheBritishColonialAdministrationoftheNigerianMiddleBelt",AfricanStudiesQuarterly"Gainsville[2008][23]M.GSmith"GovernmentinKano,13501950",WestviewPressBoulder[1997].ThetermTalakawaisusedtodenoteacommonerfromtheNorthernpartofNigeria.[24]Ibid[25]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August2011
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[26]Ibid[27]BBCWitness"Maitatsine".[28]Ibid[29]Ibid[30]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August2011[31]UmarMamodu,"BokoHaramTheBeginning"Lagos[2011].[32]Ibid[33]ChrisKwaja,"Nigeria'sPerniciousDriversofEthnoReligiousConflict",AfricaSecurityBrief(AfricaCenterforStrategicStudies)Washington,DC[2011][34]Temidayo,A."BokoHaram:TheWayOut",theNationLagos[2011]p.13.[35]TonyJohnson,"Backgrounder:BokoHaram",CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork31,August2011[36]IRINNews,"Analysis:UnderstandingNigeria'sBokoHaramradicals",IRINNews,Nairobi,18July2011[37]Ibid[38]"ProminentNigeriansreactoverAmalgamationof1914",TheDailySunLagos,1stJanuary,2014.[39]"AbrahamAdesanya"Afeniferi:YorubaNationEndangered,"Abeokuta[1998].TextofthemaidenconferencedeliveredinLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,SenatorAbrahamAdesanya.[40]Ibid[41]Ibid[42]Ibid[43]BanjiAyiloge,"Abachadefendsnonexistingintegrity"Soc.culture.nigeriaLagos[1997][44]Afenifere,"YorubaNationEndangered"Abeokuta[1998].TextofthemaidenconferencedeliveredinLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,SenatorAbrahamAdesanya.[45]Ibid[46]O.Douglasandothers,"OilandMilitancyintheNigerDelta:TerroristThreatorAnotherColumbia?"apaperpresentedduringapeacerally,InstituteofInternationalStudies,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,USA.[2004][47]"AbrahamAdesanyaAfeniferi:Strugglefordemocracy,"Abeokuta[1998].TextofthemaidenconferencedeliveredinLagosbytheNationalLeaderoftheAfenifereSocioCulturalOrganization,SenatorAbrahamAdesanya.[48]EricOsagie,"Obasanjo'sletterbomb",DailySun,Lagos,December162013,p61[49]TheNation,Lagos,June182011,pp12[50]DailySunNewspaperEditorials,Lagos,June282011,p4[51]YouTube,30December2013[52]Ibid[53]AislinnLaing,"BokoHaramLeadertauntsUSoverBounty",[54]SamuelA.Ekanem,JacobA.DadaandBasseyJ.Ejue,"BOKOHARAMANDAMNESTY:APHILOLEGALAPPRAISAL"InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScienceVol.2No.4,NewYork[Feb2012][55]TheNationNewspaperEditorial,Lagos,July3,2011,p13[56]IntegratedRegionalInformationNetworks,"NigeriansontherunasmilitarycombatBokoHaram",IrinNewsNairobi[May2013][57]"DozenskilledinNigeriaclashes"BBCNews,London,July262009[58]JimmohAbbas,"BokoHaramnotrepresentingIslamGovernorAliyu",SundayTrust,Abuja,June132011.
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[59]BayoOladejiandGeorgeAgba,"SmokeoutBokoHaramSponsors,JonathanOrdersSecurityChiefs",AllAfrica,December302011[60]"GallupPoll,NigerianMuslimsOverwhelmingOpposeBokoHaram",IslamToday,February202012
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