2013 FINAL aus hm devil Husbandry Guidelines for... · 6years and older - Some devils then maintain...

Husbandry Guidelines for

TASMANIAN DEVIL Sarcophilus harrisii

Third Edition

© DPIPWE/ZAA Husbandry Guidelines for Tasmanian Devil 2013 2

Edited by Carolyn Hogg, ZAA and Jocelyn Hockley, DPIPWE

© DPIPWE/ZAA 2013

For enquiries please contact:

Zoo and Aquarium Association

PO Box 20

Mosman NSW 2088

Australia

[email protected]

Citation: Hogg, C.J. and Hockley, J. (eds). 2013. DPIPWE/ZAA Husbandry Guidelines

for Tasmanian Devil, Sarcophilus harrisii, 3rd

Edition. Zoo and Aquarium Association,

Australia

Cover Photo Credit: Androo Kelly, Trowunna Wildlife Park, Tasmania.

Tasmanian Husbandry Guidelines


Table of Contents

1 PREFACE ........................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 4

2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Taxonomy ................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Conservation Status ..................................................................................................... 5

3 IDENTIFICATION METHOD ............................................................................................ 6

4 NATURAL HISTORY ........................................................................................................ 7

4.1 Weights and measurements .......................................................................................... 7

4.2 Body Condition Index .................................................................................................. 8

4.3 Distribution and habitat ................................................................................................ 9

4.4 Social structure ............................................................................................................ 9

4.5 Feeding behaviour ....................................................................................................... 9

4.6 Reproduction ............................................................................................................. 10

4.7 Threats in the wild ..................................................................................................... 11

5 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY ................................................................................................. 13

5.1 Housing/Environment Guidelines............................................................................... 13

5.2 Health Care Standards ................................................................................................ 17

5.3 Behavioural Notes ..................................................................................................... 27

5.4 Feeding Standards ...................................................................................................... 29

5.5 Breeding Requirements .............................................................................................. 31

5.6 Incubation/rearing young ........................................................................................... 32

5.7 Transport Requirements ............................................................................................. 37

6 RECORD KEEPING ......................................................................................................... 39

6.1 Individual records ...................................................................................................... 39

6.2 End of breeding season reports ................................................................................... 40

7 References ......................................................................................................................... 41

8 Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 42



1 PREFACE

These guidelines are targeted to animals held in intensive and semi-intensive situations.

Separate guidelines are being developed for free range approaches. Those facilities

already built under their existing State/Territory Regulatory Authority requirements are

exempt from these guidelines. It is recognised by both the Zoo and Aquarium Association

and the Tasmanian DPIPWE that there are differences in relation to regulatory

requirements within Australia.

1.1 Acknowledgements

The first edition of these guidelines was developed in 2006 for the Tasmanian devil

insurance population by A. Kelly and C. Lees. The second edition was produced in 2011

by A. Kelly, J. Hockley and D. Schaap. This third edition was revised in April 2013 at a

Husbandry Workshop at Healesville Sanctuary attended by C. Hibbard, A. Kelly, J.

Hockley, C. Srb, K. Starr, and T. Eastley, with contribution from T. Faulkner. The

veterinary section was revised by S. Peck, D. McLelland, F. Scheelings, B. Bryant, and

A. Reiss.



2 INTRODUCTION

Tasmanian Devils were once widespread over Australia, but are now found wild only in

Tasmania. They are the largest living marsupial carnivore, about as large as a

small/medium-sized, robustly built dog. They are black all over with white marks,

usually on the chest but sometimes on the rump as well. The males grow to an average of

8kg, and the females to an average of 6kg (Guiler, 1983). The head and body length is

approximately 63cm for a male, and 57cm for a female.

The name Sarcophilus harrisii means “Harris’ Flesh-lover”, as their diet consists of

opportunistically predated fresh meat and carrion. They were one of the first mammals

observed by the earliest settlers in Van Dieman’s Land and were described by Lieutenant

George Harris, the first general surveyor for the Van Dieman’s colony. Their forbidding

expression and black colour earned for them the rather severe popular name of “Devil” or

“Native Devil” (Troughton 1973). Despite the name, appearance and reputation, the

Tasmanian devil is a rather shy creature, which is more skilled at finding animal

carcasses than killing for itself.

The Save the Tasmanian Devil Program (STDP) is operated under auspices of

Tasmania’s Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Wildlife and Environment

(DPIPWE) with Devils being held on loan from DPIPWE. Species management is

provided by ZAA’s Australasian Species Management Program (ASMP), with Dr

Carolyn Hogg (ZAA) as Species Coordinator and Carla Srb (Healesville Sanctuary) as

Studbook Keeper. The ASMP Program provides for management of a captive population

that acts as an Insurance population, is disease-free, preserve natural behaviours and

genetic variation and may be source of individuals for release. Participation in the

program is subject to various agreements. These Husbandry Guidelines should be read in

conjunction with the MoU, and for those zoos not in Australia, the Australian Department

of the Environment Ambassador Agreement. Further information on the Save the Devil

Project may be found at Save the Tasmanian Devil.

2.1 Taxonomy

Class: Mammalia

Order: Dasyuromorphia

Family: Dasyuridae

Genus: Sarcophilus

Species: harrisii

2.2 Conservation Status

Until recently the Tasmanian devil was considered a common and abundant species. The

recent occurrence of DFTD has lead to re-listing of the devil. In May 2009, the

Australian Government changed the listing for the Tasmanian devil from “Vulnerable” to

“Endangered” under national environmental law.



Tasmania’s Threatened Species Act 1995 has also listed the devil as “Endangered” since

May 2008. The Tasmanian devil is also listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

3 IDENTIFICATION METHOD

The most common method of identification for Tasmanian devils is the implanted

microchip. ZAA supports the global standard, which requires use of an ISO compliant

transponder system. Juvenile devils should be micro-chipped at their first veterinary

check. Inserted between the scapulae, the small implant must be inserted carefully as they

can track out along the injection site. A compatible reader/scanner is needed to ‘scan’ the

implant. Readers only work at close range, so the keeper will need to be in close

proximity to the devil for it to be effective.

Tasmanian devils can be distinguished by the white markings on the fur near their chest

and/or rump. Care should be taken not to use this method as the primary means of

identification due to the risk of mistakes being made.

NB: Ear tags must not be used as they can be easily ripped out by cage mates.

Minimum Guideline 1 - Identification

• All individuals must be individually identified no later than 3 months after

weaning or within 30 days of arrival at an institution by the implantation of

microchip/transponder (ISO compliant) inserted between the scapulae by a

trained person

• All microchip/transponder information must be provided to the studbook

keeper as soon as possible after implantation

• Ear tags, ear notching and tattoos must not be used.

Note: this guideline must be read in conjunction with Minimum Guideline 11 -

Record Keeping.



4 NATURAL HISTORY

The Tasmanian devil was widespread over the whole of Australia, but it is generally

accepted that the introduction of the Dingo around 3,500 years ago quickly resulted in its

extinction on the mainland through competition. It is now only found in the island State

of Tasmania. Tasmania was isolated from the mainland at the end of the last ice age,

around 12,000 years ago, which has meant that dingoes have never pressured its fauna

(Strahan 1995).

The wild population of Tasmanian devils is currently threatened by Devil Facial Tumour

Disease (DFTD), which is understood to be contributing to large declines in adult devil

numbers in areas of high density (Jones, 2008). DFTD was first observed in the State’s

north-east in 1996. It is a contagious cancer that is believed to be spread between

individuals through biting. The foreign cells of the tumour are not rejected by the

individual’s immune system; it is thought this may be as a result of a lack of genetic

diversity among Tasmanian devils. As at February 2010, the Tasmanian devil population

has decreased by approximately 80%. DFTD has been recorded across more than 60% of

the state, spreading between seven to 20km westerly per year (depending on the habitat).

To date, there has not been any evidence of DFTD found in the far north-west of

Tasmania although the disease front is known to be moving in that direction.

4.1 Weights and measurements

Please note that all these measurements are based on adult animals - 3 years plus.

Mass and basic body measurements (Guiler, 1983)

Female Head to Body Length: 57cm

Female Tail Length: 24cm

Male Head to Body Length: 63-65cm

Male Tail Length: 26cm

Height to Shoulders: around 30cm

Male Weight: 8 kg

Female Weight: 6 kg

A devil takes 3-4 years to reach full adult maturity and the following age table can be

used as a guide to healthy weights in captive devils (A. Kelly, pers. comm.):

Age Females Males

1 3.5 - 4.5kg 4.5 – 6.5kg

2 5 – 6 kg 6 – 8.5 kg

3 5 – 7kg 8 – 9.5 kg

4 6 – 8 kg 8.5 - 11.5 kg

5 6 - 8 kg 8.5 - 11.5 kg



6years and older - Some devils then maintain or lose weight herein or gain some weight

depending on their somatotype/body type from 6 years of age through until death

These age/weight range give a good general health norm. Of course the odd 12plus kg

male or a 9kg female, overweight, may turn up.

4.2 Body Condition Index

A system of scoring has been designed to assess and document a Devil’s Body Condition.

Body condition may be interpreted as the distribution and amount of subcutaneous fat

and muscle tone. The age, disease presentation or breeding status of the animal is not

considered – this is simply an evaluation of body condition. In this way all animals in a

population are graded according to an uncomplicated system of observation and

palpation.

A Devil’s condition can be scored by assigning a number from 1 (emaciated) to 5

(obese).

Condition

Score

Neck Shoulder,

forearms

Rib, back Pelvis,

hindlimbs

1

emaciated

Negligible fat

and muscle

present.

Cervical

vertebrae

palpable.

Jugular furrow

visible on

extension of

neck.

Scapular

prominent.

Muscle wastage

from scapular >

scapular spine

visible or

palpable as a

sharp edge.

Forearms –

muscle wastage

and thin.

Individual ribs

easily visible.

Skin furrows

between ribs.

Lumbar spinous

processes easily

visible.

Ischial

tuberosity (pin

bone) and peri-

pubic bone very

prominent –

jutting out.

Advanced

muscle wastage

from thigh.

Knee prominent.

2

moderately

thin

Muscle and fat

present.

Discernible

indentation

from shoulder

to neck

Muscle palpable

on scapular >

scapular spine

just palpable

Ribs easily

palpated, last 3

may just visible

if coat thinning.

Hollowing of

abdomen after

final rib.

Peri-pubic bone

prominent but

with fleshy

covering.

Adequate thigh

musculature.

3

average

Neck well

covered,

contour

tapering from

shoulders

Difficult to

palpate scapular

spine.

Ribs covered

with tissue, final

3 easily palpated.

Minimal ‘step

down’ from ribs

to abdomen.

Peri-pubic bone

well covered

and obvious.



4

good

Neck thick and

well muscled,

blends into

head and

shoulder

region

Forearms and

shoulders well

muscled.

Cranial ribs

challenging to

palpate. Caudal

ribs palpable

through thick

layer of tissue.

Barely

discernible step

down from ribs

to abdomen.

Peri-pubic bone

visible as two

peaks in the

pubic area

5

obese

As above.

Roll of flesh at

base of neck

sitting against

shoulder.

As above Difficult to

palpate all ribs.

Loose abdominal

tissue > gives

‘pan-cake’

appearance if laid

on back.

Roll of fat above

base of tail.

4.3 Distribution and habitat

Wild Tasmanian devils are found only on the island of Tasmania. Devils are adaptable

animals and can live from coastal habitats into sub-alpine and alpine environments.

Preferred habitat includes open woodland and dry sclerophyll forest (Holzapfel et al.,

2008).

4.4 Social structure

In the wild, the Tasmanian devil is normally solitary but not territorial. Each individual

occupies a home range of 8 – 20 km² that may overlap extensively with others (Strahan

1995). Wide arrays of vocalisations from snorts, barks and chuffs, to monotone growlings

that develop into blood-curdling screeches are common during these interactions, which

generally result in the establishment of a stable dominance and then a progressive decline

in the frequency of aggressive interactions due to the lower-ranking animal’s reluctance

to challenge the superior animal. Gaping and superficial biting around the face and nape,

also help to assert dominance and establish hierarchy. Communication by scent and smell

is also important (Strahan 1995) and both wild and captive devils are often seen dragging

their cloaca on the ground or using faeces as ‘noticeboards’ of information on individual

movements, diets and reproductive status (Strahan 1995).

4.5 Feeding behaviour

They are intra-specific kelepto-parasites (regularly steal from their own species) and will

often approach another devil within their overlapping home ranges to interact and

dismember carcasses. This interaction allows devils not only to eat small prey but

effectively dismember large mammalian prey. Group feeding frenzies are common with

the discovery of large carcasses. Tolerance of others during feeding time is customary,

although this gives rise to much squabbling, jaw champing, shouldering, chasing and

teeth displaying, also known as gaping. Physical contact is usually avoided, however

substantial bites may be sustained during these times and it is not uncommon for older



animals to be quite scarred. There have been anecdotal reports of tolerance towards inter-

specific feeding habits, sharing carcasses with Dasyurus viverrinus and Dasyurus

maculatus. (pers. comm. A. Kelly 2013).

4.6 Reproduction

4.6.1 Females

The onset of oestrus in females is usually indicated by the development of a retained fluid

roll on the nape of the neck. Behaviours include increasing lethargy and disinterest in

food and a promotion of nesting behaviour. Avoidance behaviour, hiding or running

away from keepers and enclosure mates is also apparent.

4.6.2 Males

Males may have increased aggression at this time of year. Some increased activity levels

in both sexes has been noted (D.Schaap pers comm.) as the female approaches oestrous.

Presumably this would be as a result of wild behaviour i.e. females approaching oestrous

would spread scent over a broad area and males would respond.

4.6.3 Mating system

The mating system of Tasmanian Devils is complex. Devils are polyoestrus as well as

super foetal thus differing greatly from other marsupials. During peak oestrus a female

may mate with several males who may all father some of the offspring in a litter. It is the

female who solicits her mate and the success of copulation depends on the reproductive

experience of the male.

4.6.4 Age at first and last breeding

Tasmanian Devils do not usually breed till their second year; however successful

breeding of one year-old females has been recorded. Most females breed two out of three

years and up to 5 years of age.

The statistics show that if a female is not bred in the first 2 years (i.e. at 2 and 3 years of

age) then the success rate for her breeding in subsequent years is greatly reduced.

4.6.5 Timing of breeding

A female usually starts her oestrus cycle during the second to third week of February

(although this may vary from state to state) and the cycle is 21 days in duration. Mating

occurs 4 days either side of peak oestrus, which in the wild may result in a female mating

with up to four males. The males will guard the female for as long as he can within the 9

days she is in oestrus in order to increase the probability of their paternity of the

offspring. During this guarding stage the males may suffer injuries/wounds on their

rumps as the result of either warding off other males or barricading the female in the den.



4.6.6 Gestation period

Gestation is approximately 21 days and is usually estimated in captivity from the middle

of the mating period. If necessary, a female may be pouch checked at 50 days after the

mid-point of the first oestrous (young would be one month old) to determine if she has

young. If she is positive, the female should be left as quietly as possible. If she is

negative, her second oestrus cycle will occur between 50 and 80 days from the mid-point

of her first oestrus and she can be mated again (the variation here is dependent on why

the pouch check was negative i.e. if she failed to conceive or conceived but then lost

young). If a female fails to conceive then she will go back into oestrus and will continue

to cycle until conception has occurred. Up to 3 oestrus’ may occur in one season although

the third oestrus will occur between 50 - 80days after the beginning of the second oestrus.

4.6.7 Litter size

The birthing usually last several hours and is easily identified by a series of behaviours

culminating in the balling of the body whilst still standing Tripod position, and visual

contractions of the abdomen. On average, 18 foetuses are produced but 30 and even 50

have been observed. In her first year of breeding usually only two young develop in the

pouch while three to four develop in subsequent years. There are only 4 nipples in the

pouch which limits the total number of young that can be raised. Young develop in the

pouch for approximately 16 weeks and then develop alongside their mother for a further

20 weeks. Siblings stay together until around 45 weeks.

4.6.8 Age at Weaning Weaning (or separation) can take place anywhere between 150 – 280 days (or commonly

around 40 weeks), usually around November or December. Monitoring the young while they are housed with their mother is recommended. The

newly weaned offspring will need to be weighed regularly to ensure they are maintaining

and/or increasing in weight. Adequate food of varying types as close to a natural diet as

possible will need to be provided to each individual. Weighing the food before and after

feeding is beneficial, to determine consumption rate. The development of dominance

relationships in young individuals generally parallels corresponding changes in adults. A

litter of young devils will establish a rank order of dominance within three weeks of full

weaning. With this in mind, food should be widely distributed throughout the enclosure

to ensure lower-ranking animals can feed with minimum disturbance.

4.6.9 Age of separation The female is removed from her litter when she has ceased lactating, at around 10

months. Handling of the mother is required to observe the pouch becoming less flaccid

and observation of the teats shrinking. An offspring may have to be returned to her

several times during this stage until confirmation has been gained that lactation has

ceased.

4.7 Threats in the wild

The wild population of Tasmanian devils is currently threatened by Devil Facial Tumour

Disease (DFTD), which is understood to be contributing to large declines in adult devil

numbers in areas of high density.



DFTD was first observed in the State’s northeast in 1996. It is a contagious cancer that is

believed to be spread between individuals through biting. The foreign cells of the tumour

aren’t rejected by the individual’s immune system because of a lack of genetic diversity

among Tasmanian devils. As at February 2010, the Tasmanian devil population has

decreased by approximately 80%.

Other threats to Tasmanian devils include deforestation; roadkill toll (particularly devils

being attracted to other roadkill as food items on roads, then endangering the devils

themselves by exploiting a natural attraction to carrion); other disease; and

hunting/persecution by farmers.



5 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY

5.1 Housing/Environment Guidelines

The enclosure design should encourage natural behaviours but at the same time limit

animal escape and public interference. Every effort should be made to minimise keeper

interaction with the animals and enclosures designed to avoid keepers unnecessarily

entering the enclosure.

General guidelines and recommendations:

• Enclosures can be open, semi-open or fully enclosed

• If the enclosure is open then it requires a minimum fence height of 1.2 m,

constructed from non-climbable materials

• Misters or sprinklers may also be provided in hotter climates. (Watch for

increased humidity and moistened substrate however, as the humid environment

created when sprinklers are used to provide relief from hot conditions by

evaporative cooling may benefit mosquitoes more than it does Tasmanian devils.

Also wet conditions in the substrate and on the skin can soften the skin and

contribute to poor wound healing and fungal skin infections and humid conditions

promote optimum growth for fungi

• Enclosures need to be well drained

• Several high points must be provided within the enclosure using either earth

mounds or climbing structures to offer devils a high aspect within the enclosure

• Natural substrates and vegetation should be provided, such as browse, grass

tussocks, shrubs and logs at various heights to allow natural behaviours such as

climbing

• Enclosure design must prevent direct contact with visitors

• The enclosure floor must be escape-proof but also designed to allow natural

digging and burrowing behaviours

• Nest boxes should be provided with sliding doors to facilitate containment and

isolation of animals as required. The ability to use burrows/log heaps for dens are

preferable

• Any keeper access gates should be air-locked (double door entry) and inward-

opening to minimize escapes

• Footings down to 500mm or internal skirt (500mm long) secured to the ground

and covered with appropriate substrate.



5.1.1 Size

In Australia, each State/Territory Regulatory Authority has specific minimum size

requirements for holding Tasmanian devils, Australian institutions are required to contact

their Regulatory Authority prior to commencement of building new devil facilities to

obtain these size requirements.

The housing matrix below has been provided as a guideline for institutions that are new

to the program, or institutions proposing to build new facilities. The housing matrix has

been developed to assist with understanding different devil housing scenarios. It is

recognised that different institutions will have various roles within the program. Note that

as a rule, overseas partners should aim to comply with the housing matrix over.

Minimum Guideline 2 - Enclosures

• Facility design must allow separation of all individuals for periods of time.

• If the enclsoure is open then it requires a minimum fence height of 1.2 m,

constructed from non-climbable materials

• Enclsoure design must satisfactorily prevent direct contact with visitors.

• The enclosure floor and any gaps i.e. doors or joins must be escape-proof but

also designed to allow natural digging and burrowing behaviours. Refer to

Guidelines above for examples of how to achieve this.

• A choice of dens that provide shelter from the elements and extremes of

temperature (e.g. Hollow logs, dens or artificial nest boxes) must be provided

within each enclosure.

• All enclsoures must have double door entry or a second perimeter fence to

minimize escapes.

• The enclosure must be positioned to allow access to natural light and

photoperiod, with access to an outdoor enclsoure for a majority of the year.

• Facilities must provide shade and water ponds to allow swimming/bathing

and cooling opportunities.

• Facilities that experience consistent high temperatures and humidity (e.g. in

northern Queensland) must provide climate controlled conditions for all or a

significant part of the enclosure.

• Hard surfaces such as concrete must be less than 10% of enclosure floor

space.



Role Type of Holding

Number

of

animals

(typical)

Off

Exhibit

(short

term)

(m2)

Off

Exhibit

(Long

Term)

(m2)

On Exhibit

(incl. night

access)

(m2)

Factor of

increase per

additional

animal

Small scale

holding

(Mainly

Advocacy)

Same Age / Same Sex 2 100 100 100 20% up to 8

Same Age / Different

Sex 2 100 100 100 20% up to 8

Solitary 1 50 100 100 N/A

Larger scale

holding

(breeding

and

senescents)

Mixed Age / Same Sex 4 200 200 200 20% up to 8

Mixed age / Different

Sex 4 200 200 200 20% up to 8

Cohorts (up to 12mths) 6 100 120 200 20% up to 12

Breeding Female 1 x 50* 100*

* up to weaning

Note: enclosure sizes may be achieved by having multiple enclosures next to each other

with two access points between each enclosure; or by having a multi-levelled enclosure.

5.1.2 Materials for housing and enclosure location

The enclosure must be positioned to allow access to natural light and photoperiod.

5.1.3 Security

The enclosure design must prevent direct contact with visitors, and prevent the devil from

escaping.

5.1.4 Shelter

Hollow logs, dens or artificial nest boxes must be made available within each enclosure

since they provide shelter, warmth and security for the animals and can also be used to

assist in animal restraint. Enclosures should be designed with mounds for natural burrows

and/or log piles to allow for den building.

Recommendations:

• Suggested size requirement for the nest box are120cm L x 90cm W x 70cm H

• Ideally nest boxes should have a hinged roof and also be lockable so that the

animal can be contained if necessary to allow enclosure cleaning and maintenance

• The use of a slide to shut the entrance is recommended and the box should be

constructed of sturdy timber

• A choice of den boxes should be provided within each enclosure

• Fresh straw, grass, bracken and fern or similar vegetation should be used as

bedding material and should be replaced weekly

• Nest boxes can be made from a variety of materials but in warmer climates the

use of besser brick, concrete and cold room panelling can be very useful in



ensuring den boxes stay cool. Air-conditioning may also be used in den boxes

also.

5.1.5 Water

Shade and water ponds must be provided to allow swimming/bathing and cooling

opportunities.

Ponds should have drains installed to allow complete replacement of water, while pumps

or taps to fill the pond should ideally be located outside the enclosure to avoid keepers

unnecessarily entering the enclosure.

5.1.6 Furnishings and vegetation

Use natural substrates e.g. soil, grass, sand, leaf litter and bark to cover unnatural surfaces

such as concrete. Use a dense layer of natural substrates, to prevent sore feet and

regularly replace substrates to prevent water logging and contamination with urinary

waste.

Devils like to hide in old stumps and logs, in burrows, nooks and caves, and amongst

dense scrub so some of these must be available at all times. Ensure enclosure furnishings

are a suitable distance (1-1.5m) from the containment fence to prevent escape.

Recommendations:

• Use tree-guards where necessary (e.g. mature trees near the boundary fence) to

prevent escape and to protect the plants

• Due to the agility of younger devils, plant selection will be crucial as

misadventure such as hangings may occur in forks/branches in some shrubs

• Provide natural logs, rocks and burrows to encourage natural behaviours of

animals e.g. climbing, foraging, digging

• Avoid the use of speared or seeded grasses as these could become imbedded in

the devils skin

• Enclosure furniture should be replaced periodically

• Furnishings must be provided that supply all devils housed within the enclosure

the opportunity to view the area from various levels



5.1.7 Humidity/temperature/thermoregulation

Excessive exposure to sunlight has resulted in sunburn, heat stress, premature loss of

vision and solar dermatitis, resulting in hair loss on the lower backs of devils (Kelly,

1993). Each individual within captivity requires at least one den. In the wild devils use

hollow logs, fallen tree root systems, wombat burrows, rock piles, very dense

undergrowth and tunnel systems dug by the devil as dens. In captivity a variety of

manmade dens imitating these natural structures is recommended. Tasmania has a cool,

temperate climate with temperatures that average 12oC in winter and 21

oC in summer.

It should be noted that the coldest place where devils are found in Tasmania (Lake Ada)

does not stay below zero for days on end. Artificial heating will be required in cold

climates such as Europe, central USA, and northern Japan.

Recommendations:

• Must provide enough shade to protect enclosures from the extreme heat in

summer (especially for warmer climates).

• Provide a pond for swimming and/or use a sprinkler system / misters to prevent

overheating of devils. Fans or air conditioning may be used where needed.

• Artificial heating is not necessary as devils are suited to cold weather.

5.2 Health Care Standards

5.2.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning

Recommendations:

• Clean enclosures daily and remove any uneaten food and faecal matter to avoid an

unhealthy accumulation that will attract vermin and disease

• Regularly change enclosure substrate and furniture

• Completely clean enclosures before new animals are introduced into facilities

which have previously housed another animal

Minimum Guideline 3 - Furnishings and vegetation.

• Look out or high aspect points which allow the devil to view outside the

confines of the enclosure must be provided

• Enclosures must be suitably complex utilising natural logs, rocks and

burrows and strata

• Natural substrates and vegetation representative of Tasmania must be

provided in order to maximise the education advocacy component of any

enclosure. Preferred furnishings large grass tussocks that they can den in e.g.

lamandra. Note they love fresh seaweed and san patches for anal dragging.

• Enclosure furnishings including trees must be 1.5m from the containment

fence or guarded to prevent escape



• Seek veterinary approval and check chemical registration and label requirements

before using insecticides and animal poisons in and around enclosures

• Offer fresh drinking water daily and regularly clean water troughs and bowls

• Completely empty and clean ponds on a regular basis and provide an additional small bowl of water placed elsewhere in the enclosure

5.2.2 Known health problems

This section provides a brief overview of relevant health information for captive

Tasmanian devils. More detailed information can be found in “Medicine of Australian

Mammals” (2008) and other scientific publications (see reference list at the end of this

section).

In order to prevent any or all of the listed conditions below, it is essential that the keeper:

• carries out routine daily checks of the animals and report any abnormalities

• routine weighing (i.e. monthly )

• is thorough in the day-to-day cleaning and maintenance of the enclosure, den

boxes and bedding

• ensures that high quality foods are being stored and fed appropriately

• yearly detailed physical examinations are performed and animals are “wormed”

regularly or as needed

Skin disease, wounds and dental trauma

A range of skin diseases can occur in Tasmanian devils. Signs of skin disease include hair

loss, pruritis (itchiness), skin thickening, excessive scale (dandruff), ulceration, crusting,

redness, papules (small lumps), pustules and nodules. A thinning of the coat over the

rump and tail base is frequently noted in mature animals and is thought to be normal.

Normal Tasmanian devils will often develop a temporary ‘blushing’ of the skin in

response to excitement (e.g. physical restraint) imparting a deep redness to the ears and

feet. Normal female devils develop similar changes in the skin around the pouch during

oestrus. Skin disease in devils may occur as a result of ectoparasites (especially fleas,

mosquitoes and mites), trauma (especially bite wounds), bacterial infection and cancer.

Minimum Guideline 4 - Husbandry Routines and Cleaning.

• Enclosures must be cleaned daily to ensure that they are free of build up of

uneaten food and faecal matter. Every effort must be made to avoid

habituation and interactions with keepers.

• Fresh drinking water must be available at all times and receptacles cleaned on

a regular basis

• Chemical registration and label requirements (MSDS) must be checked

before using insecticides and animal poisons in and around enclosures

• Holder must be able to demonstrate variability in husbandry routine to

support behavioural enrichment and overall welfare



Mycobacterial infections of the skin have been reported in Tasmanian devils. Injuries to

the skin and deeper soft tissues are often inflicted by conspecifics during breeding and

other social encounters and usually heal remarkably well, often with little to no

intervention. Dental trauma is also common in Tasmanian devils.

Tumours

Older Tasmanian devils are renowned for their susceptibility to spontaneous cancers

which most commonly affect the skin, the mammary glands or the lymphoid system.

Devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) is a transmissible cancer that is thought to spread

between animals when cancer cells are implanted into fight wounds inflicted by an

affected devil. DFTD results in large soft tissue lumps that initially affect the mouth, head

and neck. The incubation period is estimated to be up to 10 months, and once present,

lesions typically grow rapidly, ulcerate and spread within the body to other organ

systems. Tumour cells can be killed by cleaning of equipment with F10 disinfectant and

desiccation. DFTD is always fatal.

Internal parasites

Although Tasmanian devils are host to a range of roundworms and tapeworms, disease

due to internal parasites is rare. Adult worms are usually found in the gastrointestinal

tract. Many of these parasites have larval stages which occur in other body tissues e.g. in

skeletal muscle. Clinically healthy wild Tasmanian devils frequently have low internal

parasite burdens. Adult tapeworms (in Tasmania most commonly Anoplotaenia dasyuri)

or segments may be seen in scats. The round worm Baylisascaris tasmanienis is another

common gastrointestinal parasite. Treatment for internal parasites may be recommended

by the consulting veterinarian (e.g. if parasites are present in high numbers or are

associated with clinical signs). See also Faecal monitoring and internal parasite treatment.

Other conditions

Salmonella spp. bacteria are commonly identified in faeces from clinically normal

Tasmanian devils and pose a potential health risk to humans.

Bacterial pneumonia is common in Tasmanian devils. Clinical signs can be non-specific

and include loss of appetite, weight loss and laboured breathing. Affected animals may

die suddenly without showing previous signs of illness.

Degenerative conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord occur commonly in older

Tasmanian devils and typically cause progressive incoordination and weakness. Similar

clinical signs are seen with intervertebral disc disease which is also common in older

devils. There is some evidence that older Tasmanian devils are prone to heart disease

leading to heart failure. Affected animals may show a range of signs including weight

loss, lethargy and collapse. Aged Tasmanian devils appear to be predisposed to

developing cardiac (heart) disease. See appendices for age-related guidelines.



Although disease has not been reported in Tasmanian devils, other dasyurids are

considered to be susceptible to infection with the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii.

Toxoplasmosis infection is acquired via exposure to oocysts in cat faeces. Clinical signs

of toxoplasmosis in marsupials include blindness and other neurological signs, lethargy,

loss of appetite and sudden death.

Tasmanian devils are susceptible to developing stereotypical pacing in captivity which is

thought to be predisposed by inadequate opportunity to express natural behaviours.

Obesity is common in captive animals (see Preventative medicine procedures).

5.2.3 Veterinary procedures and treatments

Physical restraint

Physical restraint of captive Tasmanian devils may be stressful and should only be used

for minor procedures and to induce anaesthesia. Manually restrained devils may struggle,

vocalise and attempt to bite, limiting the ability to conduct a detailed examination.

Capture and physical restraint of devils should only be performed by an experienced

handler due to the risk of injury. Devils can be captured by the base of the tail and lifted

into the air. Thereafter the devil can be lowered into a sack or transport box or, if short

term restraint is desired (e.g. for a brief clinical exam or for mask induction of

anaesthesia), the ‘tail and chest method’ can be used. For this the handler retains a grip

around the base of the tail and uses the second hand to lift the animal to the horizontal

position via support under the chest. Devils should not be suspended by the tail for long

periods. PVC pipe traps may be used to capture and then transport devils over short

distances.

Hessian (burlap) sacks are inadequate for prolonged confinement of Tasmanian devils as

there is a risk that they may be able to chew their way out. Hessian may also cause mild

skin irritations to the animal. An alternative recommendation is to use a canvas bag with

a strong rope or tie to secure the opening, however the close weave of canvas may mean

that air circulation is restricted.

Minimum Guideline 5 – Known health problems

• Signs of ill health in devils must be investigated, and if appropriate, treated

by a suitably qualified and experienced veterinarian.

• Any significant disease (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in

presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive devils must be

reported to the Tasmanian devil Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and

Aquarium Association office.



Chemical restraint

Although devils are not prone to regurgitation under general anaesthesia, a pre-

anaesthetic fasting period of 6-8 hours is recommended (Holz 2008).

Inhalation anaesthesia (e.g. isoflurane delivered in oxygen) is the method of choice for

devils. Gaseous induction of anaesthesia can be achieved by using an induction chamber

or by use of an anaesthetic mask. Mask induction can be achieved with the animal

restrained by the ‘tail and chest’ method or by locating the muzzle of an animal confined

within a sack and delivering the anaesthetic gas through the material of the bag; if

masking through a bag, ensure the material allows sufficient air movement, and that the

nose is not occluded by the bag material in the mask. The use of an induction chamber

reduces the risk of injury to the handler, as devils may attempt to pull back from a mask

that is placed over their face and potentially bite the person restraining them. However,

induction chambers significantly increase induction times. Once the devil is anaesthetised

it can be removed from the induction box or bag and maintained using isoflurane and

oxygen via face mask or endotracheal tube.

For prolonged anaesthetic procedures, it is recommended to place an endotracheal tube

into the airway for safety as the long soft palate of devils may interfere with breathing

during general anaesthesia. Intubation can be difficult and a laryngoscope with a long

blade may assist. Devils have a relatively small larynx and trachea compared to their

body size.

Injectable agents can be used if gaseous anaesthesia is not available. These are generally

less predictable in devils and can result in inadequate sedation or prolonged recovery.

Drugs that have been used by intramuscular injection include diazepam,

tiletamine/zolazepam, alfaxalone, and xylazine /ketamine. Details on dose rates and

effect can be found in Holz 2008.

Clinical techniques

Physical examination

In most devils a thorough clinical examination will require general anaesthesia. A

standard physical exam is sufficient to assess the health of devils. Pertinent physiological

data to be aware of:

Body temperature: 35 – 36°C

Heart rate: 100 beats/min

Respiratory rate: 20 breaths/min

Any significant disease (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in presentation or

incidence of a known disease) in captive devils should be reported to the Tasmanian devil

Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.



Blood collection

Blood samples are useful for the laboratory investigation of health and disease. Serum

can be separated from blood and stored frozen at -20 or – 800 C. Serum archived in this

way is then available for the retrospective investigation of disease in the future. In captive

devils blood collection usually requires general anaesthesia. The most reliable sites for

blood collection are the ventral coccygeal (underside of tail) and jugular veins. Smaller

blood vessels located at various sites on the fore and hind limbs (femoral, medial

metatarsal, lateral saphenous and cephalic veins) can be used for collecting smaller

volumes of blood and for placement of intravenous catheters for delivery of fluid therapy.

Conscious devils may chew out catheters and drip lines or become entangled in them. For

details of accessing blood vessels and haematological and biochemical reference ranges

see Holz (2008).

A volume of blood no greater than 1% of body weight should be collected at one time.

Other sample collection

Other biological samples such as urine and faeces are often useful for health

investigations. Fresh faeces can be collected by keepers from devil facilities and placed in

a snap lock bag or laboratory specimen jar. Urine can be collected from a clean dry solid

floor via a syringe and transferred into a specimen jar. Specimen containers should be

labelled with the animal identification, the date and the collection method, and stored in

the refrigerator pending delivery to the veterinarian.

Therapeutics

Studies on drug activity in devils are very limited and thus domestic dog and cat

treatments and drug dosages are often used. There are no reports of adverse drug

reactions in devils but general principles of medicine should be followed when

dispensing any medication. If any new clinical signs develop following the

commencement of a treatment, the attending veterinarian should be notified. See also

Preventative Medicine Procedures below.

5.2.4 Preventative medicine procedures

Daily Observations

The amount of food offered and food remnants removed daily should be recorded for

each animal and/ or enclosure. This may provide information on changes in health or

reproductive status.

Devils should be sighted daily and details of any wounds or abnormalities recorded.

Faecal output should be monitored on a daily basis. Changes to faecal consistency,

volumes and appearance as well as presence of parasites visible in scats should be

reported.



Regular weighing and measurements

Tasmanian devils in captivity are prone to weight gain. In temperate climates this may be

more evident in spring and summer. Ideally all devils should be weighed monthly as well

as whenever they are handled. Weights should be recorded in the animal’s individual

record.

A Tasmanian devil can be conveniently weighed while suspended in a sack. A body

condition score should be recorded each time devils are weighed (see Section 4.2). Head

widths and tail widths can be measured when devils are examined under anaesthesia.

Faecal monitoring and internal parasite treatment

Routine faecal microscopy of captive Tasmanian devil scats can be undertaken to identify

common gastrointestinal parasite eggs. This can be undertaken as part of an annual health

assessment, or more frequently if problems are suspected. Disease due to internal

parasites is rare, however treatment for endoparasites may be prescribed at the discretion

of the veterinarian.

Commonly used treatments for internal parasites include:

• Injectable praziquantel(available in Australia through compounding pharmacies)

• Oral praziquantel

• Injectable ivermectin (not effective against tapeworm)

Further information including dose rates can be found in Holz 2008.

5.2.5 Quarantine procedures

A period of quarantine is recommended when captive Tasmanian devils are moved from

one captive facility to another. Pre- or post-transfer quarantine is undertaken to minimise

Minimum Guideline 6 – Preventative medicine procedures

• Captive facilities housing Tasmanian devils must engage the services of a

suitably qualified and experienced veterinarian, and utilise their expertise for

both preventative medicine and investigation of ill health. There must also be

arrangements for emergency veterinary care of devils.

• All captive Tasmanian devils must be individually identified (e.g. microchip)

• Detailed health records must be maintained for each Tasmanian devil in

captivity

• Tasmanian devils must be weighed and assessed for body condition score at

least every six months, with details recorded

• Tasmanian devils must be monitored on a daily basis

• Tasmanian devils in captivity must have an annual health assessment



the risk of transferring diseases between facilities and to allow animals to adapt to

changed environmental conditions.

Any Tasmanian devil moving from one facility to another presents a potential disease

risk to collection animals at the arrival institution, regardless of DFTD risk. In addition,

DFTD is of considerable concern to captive devil populations. The risk posed by DFTD

may vary from extremely high (movement of recently caught wild animals) to very low

(captive bred animals, two or more generations from the wild, captive facility outside

Tasmania).

Due to the risks associated with DFTD, rigorous quarantine protocols are mandatory for

devils arriving from the wild into captivity. These circumstances apply primarily to

captive institutions within Tasmania and include a categorisation of the DFTD risk in

each case. Details of these protocols may be found in Appendix 1 (Quarantine procedures

for Tasmanian devils in captivity in Tasmania) and in Appendix 2 (Risk Categorisation

Guidelines for relocation of captive Tasmanian devils).

Quarantine protocols for devils moving from one captive facility to another may be

applied to best manage the relative disease risks (including DFTD risk) of the particular

circumstances. In all cases, the general principles of quarantine management should be

applied. These include:

• Written protocols for operating procedures during quarantine period

• Acquisition and review of full health and husbandry records from previous

captive facility

• Physical separation of the newly arrived animal(s) from all resident animals

• A period of isolation appropriate to the individual disease risks

• An ‘all in – all out’ policy (e.g. all animals enter quarantine together, or restart

period of isolation when new animals added; all isolated animals finish quarantine

together or delay departure from quarantine until every animal meets

requirements)

• Separation of work processes and equipment that ensure effective “barrier

keeping” and “barrier nursing” of animals in quarantine (e.g. dedicated cleaning

equipment, foot wear, coveralls if required) or disinfection of such items (e.g.

disinfectant foot baths)

• Restricted access of staff (only those essential for care of animals) to quarantine

facility

• Thorough cleaning and disinfection of facility and equipment at the end of each

quarantine period

• A full health exam of each animal, under general anaesthesia by a suitably

experienced veterinarian during the quarantine period.



A standard quarantine period, often applied as the default for transfer of captive zoo

animals from one facility to another is 30 days.

5.2.6 Post-Mortem examination

It is recommended that a veterinarian or veterinary pathologist performs a post-mortem

examination on all Tasmanian devils that die or are euthanased. This is to:

determine the cause(s) of death or illness

document pathological, physiological and biological findings (not necessarily related to

the cause of death or illness) that may have implications for the management of the

captive population at large

confirm ongoing population freedom from diseases of significance, most notably devil

facial tumour disease.

Significant post-mortem findings (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or change in

presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive devils should be reported to the

Tasmanian devil Species Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.

General recommendations for the post-mortem examination of Tasmanian devils:

• Bodies should be refrigerated as soon as possible after death and post-mortem

examination conducted as soon as practical (ideally within 24 hours). Bodies

should only be frozen if there will be a delay of more than 72 hours prior to post-

mortem examination; freezing damages tissues and can make post-mortem

examination more difficult, though valuable information can still be obtained.

Minimum Guideline 7 – Transfer and Quarantine procedures

• Captive Tasmanian devils moving from one facility to another must undergo

a quarantine period immediately upon arrival. The period of quarantine and

stringency of quarantine measures should reflect the disease risk (including

DFTD risk) posed by the arriving animals. The most stringent quarantine

measures should be applied where there is the possibility of previous

exposure to DFTD.

• Animals in quarantine must be isolated from resident devils and receive a full

health check performed by a suitably experienced veterinarian during the

quarantine period.

• All of the individual devil’s records must be provided to the receiving

institution

• Animal must be checked (using the microchip/transponder) to ensure that the

correct animal is sent

• All transfers must be in line with recommendations provided by the species

coordinator

Note: please refer to IATA standards for devils.



• Detailed information on the circumstances surrounding the illness/death of the

animal should be documented to assist interpretation of post-mortem findings. For

example:

o the time and date of death, as accurately as possible

o body weight

o where was the animal found dead?

o was the animal observed to be unwell prior to death? If so, what was the

duration of illness?

o anything unusual (climatic events, food supply issues, aggressive

interactions, recent illness/death in other animals etc) that may have

contributed to the animal’s illness/death

o the proximity of the animal to other devils or other species, and the

current health status of those animals.

• All body systems should be examined during post-mortem examination, with

attention given to the possible presence of common and significant diseases (see

“Known Health Problems”). Ideally, a complete set of tissues should be collected

into 10% buffered formalin for histopathological examination. Consideration

should be given to archiving tissues for possible future testing or research

investigation.

Individual institutions are encouraged to develop protocols for enabling prompt post-

mortem examination of deceased devils.

Minimum Guideline 8 – Post-mortem examination

• Species coordinator and studbook keeper must be notified of the death

immediately

• Detailed records must be maintained of the circumstances surrounding death

of all captive Tasmanian devils

• Any Tasmanian devil dying for unexplained reasons in captivity must have a

full post mortem examination performed by a suitably qualified and

experienced veterinarian

• Significant post mortem findings (e.g. a new occurrence of disease or a

change in presentation or incidence of a known disease) in captive

Tasmanian devils must be reported to the Tasmanian devil Species

Coordinator, via the Zoo and Aquarium Association office.

• At a minimum 10ml whole blood (frozen) and both ears (frozen) must be

obtained before the body is disposed of. Contact the species coordinator for

disposition of the samples once collected.



5.3 Behavioural Notes

5.3.1 Common captive behavioural needs

Captive bred animals display well compared to their captive wild counterparts who are

very elusive and timid. Positive reinforcement reduces timidity and elusive behaviour

towards keepers as well as allowing natural behaviour to develop on display. Institutions

must be aware that all animals in the insurance population have the potential to be

returned to the wild. If animals are selected for release, please refer to the pre-release

guidelines.

Allowing captive devils to participate in their entire range of natural behaviours should

limit the potential of ill health or distress.

5.3.2 Behavioural enrichment activities

Housing devils together provides important behavioural enrichment. Devils that are

housed together and allowed to socialise during feeding are much less likely to

demonstrate stereotypical behaviour. The individuals housed together will cloacal drag to

mark food and water sources as well as establishing a latrine area in the enclosure, all

allowing for more natural behaviours of the animals as well as a good display. Animals

that are housed alone are less active and more inclined to behave 'neurotically'.

Random feeding times can diminish pacing which is exacerbated when devils learn to

anticipate their next meal. Devils that are kept on the light side of peak weight seem to be

much more inclined to demonstrate stereotypical behaviour as they anticipate feeding

times or frantically look for food.

Various forms of enrichment can be used to complement the scheduled weekly feeding

regime. These may be:

• regular replacing or changing of enclosure furniture

• hiding small pieces of food around the enclosure

• feeding whole carcasses rather than daily portions

• attaching meat to ‘bungee’ cords hanging from varying heights, providing

resistance or tug-of-war style feeding (Schaap, 2002)

• spraying or wiping different scents around the enclosure such as blood, herbs and

spices, etc.

• placing old koala browse in the enclosure

• giving the impression that they are not alone, by swapping faeces with other

devils, or other species such as wombats and macropods. Please take care to

assess health of other animals before using this technique

• placing hollow logs between each side of the enclosure to climb through, giving

the illusion of entering a ‘new’ environment



• adding small hollow logs with caps on the ends with holes drilled into and small

dog biscuits inserted requiring increased length of time of food extraction (Schaap

2002)

• providing live insects and even fish where possible

• freezing day old chicks in water, or freezing blood into spheres for hot summer

treats

• planting various species of plants and tussock grasses and replacing these

regularly

5.3.3 Sharing of enclosures

Devils exhibit aggression by various vocalisations (e.g. snorts, coughs, wails and yowling

screams; refer http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-5358KH to hear

an example of devil vocalisation) when sorting dominance at food times and during the

breeding season, particularly between males. On occasions, when vocalisations fail,

fighting may occur but this is rarely harmful. Therefore the time of year and individual

temperament should be taken into account when grouping animals. To prevent fighting,

males should be separated from each other between Feb – May to reduce aggression and

prevent fighting associated with the mating season.

Recommendations for introducing specimens:

• Introductions should be done in the presence of the keeper

• Animals should be allowed to become familiar with each other prior to the actual

introduction by holding the specimens in adjoining areas separated by a partition.

• Using a social /gorge feed when introducing animals will assist in observing

dominance behaviour/aggression and acceptance of animals.

Recommendations for introducing male and female specimens for breeding:

• Introductions are best attempted in a holding area intended for breeding.

• Introductions are done using a slide system so the keeper presence is limited. This

means that both male and female devils can have access to both enclosures and

each other, and can also be sectioned off from each other if necessary (Schaap

2002.).

• If this is not an option, males should be introduced to the female's enclosure so

that she remains 'comfortable' in her own environment or chosen den site. In some

rare cases, the female may be introduced to the male in his enclosure if she is

displaying a high level of dominance over some males. The female should then be

returned to her own enclosure after mating.

• Introductions should be done around the breeding season of February to May and

when the female is coming into oestrous.

• Removal may need to be done if the female is showing no signs of submission, or

the male is causing a health hazard to the female by being too aggressive.



• Once copulation has ceased the male and female should be separated. The

pregnant female should not be returned to a social group.

5.3.4 Handling/physical restraint

A preferred method of handling captive devils is to trap them using a pipe trap, if

feasible, as it avoids negative keeper interaction. An alternative method of handling is to

grasp them by the base of the tail, support them ventrally, and gently lift or walk them

into a large bag being held open by a second person. They should not be carried by the

tail. Adult male devils in good condition are thick bodied and therefore unable to turn and

bite, but females and younger animals are more agile and need to be handled quickly and

with more care.

While restricting the head movement use pressure only equal to that the animal is

exerting on you. Conditioning the animal to be caught in the nest box (by offering food in

the nest box) is recommended to make capture/restraint easier.

Animals may also be captured using sacks or a net. Fishing nets with small hole size

work well and ensure that animal does not get legs tangled in net.

Station-Training devils to a wooden board beneath which scales can be placed, to

enhance ease of monthly weighing while preserving a non-invasive and non-stressful

experience for the devil, and eliminates possibility of physical damage in tailing and

restraint, especially for older specimens.

5.3.5 Trapping.

The recommended method of trapping in group enclosures is using PVC pipe traps as

specified by the DPIPWE. These are better for the welfare of the devil than the traditional

steel traps as they limit exposure and prevent injury. It should be noted that DPIPWE

supports the use of PVC pipe traps for journeys of short duration, particularly for moving

animals between free-range enclosures and DPIPWE facilities in Tasmania.

5.4 Feeding Standards

5.4.1 Diets and supplements

Devils in captivity should be fed a diet that attempts to mimic their natural diet. The diet

should be well balanced, include all necessary vitamins and nutrients, be approved by a

veterinarian, be varied (where possible) and certainly enriching. Too soft a diet will not

provide enough dental exercise for the animal which is necessary to ensure proper tooth

development and to prevent tartar build-up and subsequent periodontal disease. This is

particularly important for carnivores like the Tasmanian Devil who, as mentioned earlier,

consume not only the flesh and skin coverings from their prey but the bones as well.

Fresh drinking water should be available ad lib. A copy of the DPIPWE (based on

Pemberton et al. 2008) can be found in Appendix 3.



Sub-adult devils, or those up to 2 years-old, require approximately 300g of food per day.

Adults, or those over 2 years, require around 500g per day (based on a veterinary

approved diet and one used by devil breeders in Tasmania (pers. comm. Androo Kelly

2001). This is decreased for devils housed in warmer climates where, depending on the

individual, daily amounts for adults will be around 300g. For older and less active devils,

the diet may have to be reduced to avoid obesity, a condition to which devils are prone.

A “fast day” once a week is recommended, which may consist of pigs ears, bones or a

piece of fruit such as a whole apple or carrot, but no meat. This is to mimic wild

behaviours since most wild carnivores would not usually eat every day but would

opportunistically consume enough food to last them 2 or 3 days.

The following have been fed to captive animals: rabbit, emu, beef, wallaby/kangaroo,

venison, rats, mice, day old chicks/adult chicks, duck and fish.

NB: Chickens less than 10 days-old and newly born rodents do not qualify as “whole”

animals because their small size does not provide sufficient roughage to promote dental

health (Burridge and McKay 2005).

Diets can be changed to allow for variation in seasonal requirements, to encourage

successful breeding and to decrease obesity. A suggested feeding regime which includes

fast and gorge feeds is preferred. See Appendix 3 for examples of zoo diet.

If captive devils are able to consume entire animal carcasses, then there should be no

need for additional supplements. However if whole carcasses are not consistently

available then diets can be supplemented by eggs for protein and raw bones. Eggs need to

be sparingly incorporated into the diet and should be fed no more than once per week as

they have the potential to cause alopecia (A. Kelly, pers. comm.).

Supplements are used by Trowunna Wildlife Park for lactating females or convalescing

individuals. Mothers with young are fed a weekly bowl consisting of grated apple, carrot,

dried kelp extract, “body balance®” (natural vitamin and mineral supplement), an egg,

and milk. This is to promote health of the skin and fur and maintain condition whilst

gravid and weaning young (A. Kelly, pers. comm.).

5.4.2 Presentation of food

It is monotonous for devils to be fed the same food in the same place within the enclosure

every day. Therefore every effort should be made to vary the types of food items being

offered, time of day feeding occurs (so that feeding time does not become overly-

anticipated), and placement of food items.

Minimum Guideline 9 - Feeding

• Tasmanian Devils must be provided with a variety of foodstuffs. This must

include a whole prey item at least weekly.



Recommendations:

• Scatter and hide food items throughout the enclosure to encourage exploratory

and scenting behaviours.

• Once per week offer one very large ration, sufficient to last two days, to mimic

natural gorging behaviour. This should be followed by “fast” day where no

additional food is offered.

• Monitor food intake daily by weighing dietary items to limit weight gain or

dietary imbalances.

• Alternate feeding times to reduce devils learning to anticipate their next meal.

It is beneficial for keepers to NOT feed devils directly at the door/gate of their enclosure

so that keepers can easily enter an enclosure and avoid an aggressive / hungry devil at the

door making access difficult.

Two major considerations for food offered to Tasmanian Devils in captivity are (1)

provide a variety (2) provide entire carcasses where possible, to promote dental health.

5.4.3 Seasonal/breeding changes in feeding requirements

During the two month lead up to the reproductive cycle the female will tend to put on

visceral fat in the tail. As females enter oestrus a gorge feed, or full carcass feed, will

often promote the onset of peak oestrus.

5.5 Breeding Requirements

5.5.1 General behavioural notes; forming new pairs

Introductions must be done in the presence of the keeper and are best attempted in a

holding area intended for breeding. Introductions are done using a slide system so the

keeper presence is limited. This means that both male and female devils can have access

to both enclosures and each other, and can also be sectioned off from each other if

necessary. Introductions should be done around the breeding season of February to May

and when the female is coming into oestrous.

Removal may need to be done if the female is showing no signs of submission, or the

male is causing a health hazard to the female by being too aggressive. Once copulation

has ceased, the male and female should be separated. The pregnant female should not be

returned to a social group.

5.5.2 Nesting/breeding requirements

It is recommended that females are isolated from other devils once mated. Prior

preparations should be made by offering nesting material such as straw, hay, bark and

mulch which are scattered throughout the enclosure. The female devil usually makes her

own nesting area within a den of her choosing.



5.5.3 Requirements of young

Once a female has offspring of approximately 90 days of age, the fat content of the

female’s diet should be increased, examples with mince or egg. By the time the joeys are

150 days old they are eating solids, in addition to the female’s milk, and so there should

be an increase in diet for the female and joeys. By 200 days of age (assuming an average

of 2.5 joeys), feed for female and joeys should be increased so that you are feeding 1.5

adult devils. By 250 days of age, feed for female and joeys should be increased so that

you are feeding 2.5 adult devils. Keep in mind the joeys are still receiving milk from the

female.

5.5.4 Methods of controlling breeding

Throughout January males are cycled through social groupings in order to establish social

bonds with prospective females. Breeding is controlled by removing all males from social

groupings prior to the onset of submissive behaviour of the female in early March.

5.6 Incubation/rearing young

Tasmanian Devil orphan joeys from 10-12 weeks of age have been successfully hand-

raised.

5.6.1 Housing Minimising stress is a major consideration for all native animals taken into care. Suitable

housing should be made available, including

• No access by children or other animals (Jackson 2003).

• Hygienic conditions (Jackson 2003).

• Escape-proofing (Jackson 2003).

• Shelter from wind and noise (Jackson 2003).

• Availability of an artificial pouch made out of non-synthetic fibre.

• Temperature control.

Temperature requirements • Furless joeys – 34 – 36 °C (Jackson 2003)

• Furred joeys – 30 °C (Bellamy 1992)

Minimum Guideline 10 - Breeding

• Only those devils which receive a breeding recommendation from the species

coordinator shall breed

• For those devils housed in large enclosures, only those devils which are suitable to

be paired (as per the breeding recommendations) shall be housed together

• Notification of successful breeding must be provided to the studbook keeper and

the species coordinator within 30 days of the first pouch check



A minimum/maximum temperature gauge with a plastic coated probe should be included

to monitor temperature at all times.

5.6.2 Diet and feeding routine

Milk formula

There are a number of low-lactose milk formulas available for hand-raising marsupials,

for example:

Biolac.

Di-Vetalact.

Animals should be fed between 10 – 20% of their body weight each day (Jackson 2003).

High protein infant cereal can be added once the Joey is finely furred, and when teeth

appear they are also offered pet mince (caution should be taken when feeding human

grade mince as lean mince can lead to vitamin and mineral deficiencies), calcium powder

and small carnivore mix from the Wombaroo manufacturers.

5.6.3 Feeding apparatus

Infant devils can be bottle fed with plastic feeder bottles, 50 or 100 ml, with a special

‘Type C’ teat (Austin 1997). The teat will need to be punctured with a sterile, hot needle.

5.6.4 Feeding routine

The number of daily feeds will change as the Joey develops (Table 3).

Table 3. Feeding Regime of Tasmanian Devils

Age Times per day Comment

Very young, furless joeys 8-12 i.e. throughout 24 hr

When furred 5 Volume increase

Fully emerged from the ‘pouch’ 2-3 Volume increase

First Appearance of teeth Wean onto mince +Ca Powder

Fully developed teeth Entire small rodents and bones to chew

Milk should be fed at approximately 36 °C. It is important to monitor the rate at which

the milk is being swallowed. Too large a hole in the teat can result in the milk formula

entering the mouth more quickly than it can be swallowed by the Joey which can lead to

inhalation pneumonia. A good indication that the formula is being fed too quickly is if a

Joey sneezes and coughs formula out of the nostrils while the drinking.

5.6.5 Specific requirements Particular care of the thermoregulation needs of unfurred, marsupial joeys is important,

since they can become cold very quickly which can affect their feeding efficiency. If the

Joey is cold when it is first brought in for care, then it will need warming up before being

fed to avoid inhalation pneumonia. This can either be achieved by placing the bottle in a



warm bath then drying well, or provided with warm fluids given subcutaneously and

bottle fed later.

The skin of unfurred and slightly furred joeys is prone to becoming dry and cracked. To

keep the skin moist and supple it is recommended that sorbelene cream be applied as

needed (George et al. 1995).

5.6.6 Data recording Most of following information should be recorded on an ongoing daily basis (Jackson

2003):

• Collection origin (if brought into a zoological institution for rehabilitation).

• Date and time.

• Body weight (to nearest gram where possible).

• General activity and demeanour.

• Characteristics and frequency of urination and defecation.

• Amount (gms and ml) and type of food offered.

• Amount (gms and ml) and type of food actually consumed.

• Veterinary examinations and results.

5.6.7 Hygiene Maintaining a high standard of hygiene is critical to the survival of the Joey (Jackson

2003). Carer’s hands must be washed before and after the handling of joeys and any

soiling in the pouch must be cleaned out immediately. Equipment must be washed in

warm, soapy water and sterililized in a suitable, antibacterial solution. The Joey should be

stimulated to toilet before and after feeding and any spilled milk should be immediately

cleaned off the Joey’s skin and bedding.

5.6.8 Behavioural considerations Tasmanian Devils can form a bond with their carers, so if they are to be released, contact

should be minimized between feeding times. They should, where possible, be raised in a

group so that they become familiar with other members of their species as socialising

with other devils is a very important behavioural aspect for a maturing devil.

5.6.9 Guidelines for Assisted Weaning

Assisted weaning should only be undertaken for significant health concerns or when an

animal is to be used in an ambassador role. Please contact the species coordinator for

permission to hand-rear an animal for ambassador roles. This information has been

provided by Androo Kelly pers comm.

Background

Female devils may rear up to four young in a season. Experience to date indicates that

females raising four offspring are unlikely to lose young, and are no more likely to lose



them than females carrying smaller litters. However, females raising four young in one

season may struggle to regain condition in time for the following one.

Removing one or two (post) pouch young, (terminology as they would be actually

permanently out of the pouch at this stage!) towards the end of the weaning period can

help the female to regain condition and to breed successfully the following year.

This document does not deal with hand-rearing of devils from an early development

stage, only with assisted weaning as described here.

The current Husbandry Manual covers hand-rearing. The updated Husbandry Manual

will include the assisted weaning guidelines/protocol.

Which Females?

Not every female that has a litter of 4 will require assistance with weaning.

Once the program reaches capacity, unless animals are immediately required for

reintroduction, reproduction will need to be limited to a total of 2-3 offspring per female;

a second season will rarely be required. Further, four year old mothers can be left to wean

all of their offspring as they will not be expected to breed again.

Assisted weaning is required:

• During periods of the program when it is important to generate large numbers of

animals (e.g. while the population is growing, or to generate animals for

reintroduction);

• To maximize output from genetically valuable females.

The Species Coordinator will provide advice on which females should be considered for

assisted weaning.

When?

Offspring are suitable for assisted weaning when:

• They are approximately 6 months old

• They are already eating solid food (indicated by change in faecal colour from

yellow to black);

• They weigh around 500g.

Which offspring?

Where there is choice:

• Larger offspring rather than smaller (i.e. closer to natural weaning);

• Leave an equal sex-ratio (1:1) with mother.



Assisted weaning does not appear to compromise the future breeding success of either

sex.

How?

This will be determined by each institution’s circumstances with respect to enclosure

design, housing and denning of young and the labour available for the task.

In most cases capture of the mother will be necessary and pulling the den apart may be

the quickest and only real option for accessing all young at once.

The young should be captured by hand and placed in a bag. This provides an opportunity

for a health check and at this point a decision can be made about which individuals to

retain for assisted weaning. Stroking the devils while they are in the bag will calm them.

Weigh them.

At this stage of development the young are not venturing far from the den site if at all, so

they will feel most secure in a fairly small, environmentally stimulating space. Note that

security is an issue; if a rat could escape from the area provided then so could a young

devil! The young animals should remain in this space, the area which should be

increased gradually over time to match the increasing confidence and exploratory range

of the young devils.

There is no need for the young to be moved about or carried on person as described in

hand-rearing protocols.

Diet

It is important to maintain natural routines for the young as far as possible. At this stage

of development the mother would be out and about during the night, leaving the young in

the den to play, dig, nest build, excavate , chew and start adventuring around the den site.

The mother would return in the morning to provide food and drink.

Animals may be fed a diet consisting of:

• 1 solid (preferably morning) feed per day of mice, chicken or kangaroo, (native

animals should be given wherever possible) offered in milk.

• Quantities should range from relatively little to gorge feeding.

• Up to 3 milk feeds per day (20-30mls per feed).

Young 6-7 month old devils will lap/slurp quite readily and can be offered slurry

milk/mince (pet grade not prime lean mince) to balance the more solid meat and

roughage of fur and bone. Initial bottle feeding will assist in bonding that will reduce the

timidity and make it easier to handle the young but it is not absolutely necessary.



The milk supplement should continue until siblings left with mothers have weaned

naturally. The assisted weaning animals generally do not grow as big and fast as those

left with mother, but by 12-15 months of age both pairs are usually equal in weight and

size.

Milk preparation

0.7 Wombaroo (kangaroo milk replacer)

Add 1 pinch of insectivore mix.

See www.wombaroo.com.au

OR

Divetalact (R) Low Lactose Milk Replacer.

Biolac(R)

Note: Devils are messy feeders, so it is important to offer larger volumes than they are

expected to drink.

Problems

From 6 months of age to weaning around 10-12 months, devils can be ferocious little

animals and quick to nip or bite if mishandled- these behaviours can be observed in their

social play and behaviour toward their mothers and siblings. On the other hand they can

be at ease and in total comfort when being held after being handled just a few times.

Security is paramount. Devils at this age are very agile climbers and are able to climb, dig

and find any little nook or cranny to hide in and any tiny hole to escape through.

Socialisation

Socialising animals is important. Whenever possible, animals should be raised with a

littermate and reintroduced to other devils at the earliest opportunity.

It should be possible to introduce them to other members of that years young (cohorts) at

normal weaning time (Dec-Jan).

5.7 Transport Requirements

The requirement for import and export permits will be different for each state and parties

should refer to appropriate State Permitting Authorities for their regulations. Current

information on movement of devils should be sought from the CVO of each state

involved in transfer. It should be noted that DPIPWE supports the use of PVC pipe traps

for journeys of short duration, particularly for moving animals between free-range

enclosures and DPIPWE facilities in Tasmania.

5.7.1 Box design

Transport crates must conform to the Live Animal Regulation Container (International

Air Transport Association (IATA); Transport box number 72.



Recommended crate dimensions:

• Devils < 1yr old: 400mm long x 300mm high x 650mm wide (or double-

compartment crate for 2 young specimens)

• Devils >1yr old: 690mm long x 520mm high x 395mm wide

Note: double boxes are acceptable for joeys (IATA 2002).

5.7.2 Crate furnishings

Shredded paper, oaten hay or other similar materials may be provided to absorb waste

(urine) during transit and can also provide insulation against heat and cold. Please note

that there have been some instances of long “grass” wrapping around the limbs of

animals; ensure that crate furnishings are of short length. When the specimen is being

transported interstate or overseas it is advisable to contact the state or country of the

recipient institution to obtain guidance on their quarantine regulations. For example,

Western Australia does not allow hay or straw to cross into their state, so shredded paper

is used (IATA 2002).

5.7.3 Water and food

If the journey is less than 24hrs, the animal does not need additional feeding or watering

(IATA 2002). If feeding is required, the animal must be provided with pieces of raw

meat, a little fish or dog food and milk or water (IATA 2002).If animals are being

transferred in warmer temperatures please ensure water is available.

5.7.4 Animals per box

One animal per box unless the box is a double and is built for joeys, refer 7.5.1 (IATA

2002).

5.7.5 Timing of transportation

Transport should occur either early in the morning or overnight to reduce devils

becoming overheated and to prevent capture myopathy. Transport should be started

straight after capture or after clearance has been given by the attending veterinarian. The

time an animal is captured and transported to its destination should be minimized.

5.7.6 Release from box

Recommendations:

• Release from the crate should be done as quickly as possible and preferably out of

the public eye.

• Release from the crate should be done in an open area of the enclosure, similar to

that when releasing an animal from a catching bag.

• It is advisable that some sort of mechanical protection, such as a broom, is placed

close by when devils are released to protect staff from any aggression displayed

by devils.



• It is possible to allow the animal to remove itself from the crate when it feels

comfortable doing so. The crate should remain open within the enclosure to

provide added refuge for the released devil.

6 RECORD KEEPING

6.1 Individual records

Routine or daily data collection is recommended for all species held within an institution

although required information may vary between species. The data collected for devils

should include:

• Weight.

• Births and deaths of specimens.

• Dates (or sensible date estimates) of births and deaths.

• Identities of parents where a birth has occurred.

• Sex of any offspring.

• Amount food fed vs. amount eaten.

• Behavioural changes, including unusual behaviours.

• Significant interactions between individuals (where applicable).

• Medical observations.

• Reproductive status.



6.1.1 End of breeding season reports

At the end of breeding season, the species coordinator shall contact each institution with

a breeding recommendation to ask for the breeding success spreadsheet to be completed.

This is in addition to the taxon reports provided to the studbook keeper.

Minimum Guideline 11 - Record Keeping.

• An individual record must be maintained for every Tasmanian devil ever

held at your institution. This record must include the following

information:

o Individual identifiers , transponder numbers)

o Sex (if known)

o Identity of Parents (if known)

o Origin (if wild caught; e.g. exact location)

o Birth date or estimated date

o Arrival date at your institution

o Departure date from your institution (if applicable).

o Death date and cause of death (if applicable)

o Weights

o Notes on when samples were taken and the results.

o Notes on health problems and treatments offered (if applicable).

o Important behavioural notes

• Any specific information required for the advancement of the program

must be supplied.

• Any changes must be reported to studbook keeper (within 30 days).

• For the efficiency of record keeping all transfers will be “ownership” but

animals will still be owned by state of Tasmania.



7 References Austin. M.A. (1997). A Practical Guide to the Successful Handrearing of Tasmanian Marsupials. Regal

Publications, Melbourne.

Attwood, H. D. & Wooley, P.A. (1982). Histopathology of captive dasyurid marsupials. In D.D. Evans

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CSIRO Publishing, Victoria, Australia, pp 53-98.

Bellamy, T. (1992). Marsupial handrearing. In L. Voglenest, D. Spielmasn, T.Bellamy, M. Messer & D.M.

Walker (Eds) Urban Wildlife. Proceedings 204. Post Graduate Committee in veterinary Science.

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Burridge, M. & McKay, J. (2005). Abridged Husbandry Manual For Tasmanian Devil. Unpublished:

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8 Appendices

Appendix 1 - Quarantine procedures for Tasmanian devils in captivity in Tasmania

Appendix 2 - Risk Categorisation Guidelines for relocation of captive Tasmanian devils

Appendix 3 – Zoo diets

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