2010 PASOS21Special_1.pdf

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ISSN 1695-7121

Volumen 8, Nmero 3, 2010

PASOSRevista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural


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www.pasosonline.org

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

Revista cuatrimestral gratuita de distribucin en webhttp://www.pasosonline.org E-mail: [email protected]

Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)

COMIT EDITORIAL

DIRECTOR:Agustn Santana TalaveraI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Coordinadores Book Review:Ral Hernndez MartnDpto. Economa AplicadaUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Luisa Andreu SimDpto. Comercializacin e Investigacin de

MercadosUniversidad de Valencia (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

Editor adjunto: Eduardo Parra LpezDpto. Economa y Dir. EmpresasUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Vocal: Jos Pascual FernndezI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

Vocal: Alejandro Alvarado HerreraUniversidad de Quintara Roo (Mxico)

E-mail: [email protected]

Secretaria: Carmen Vera EstvezI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

EDICIN: Varadero Informtica

CONSEJO CIENTFICO ASESOR

Alenka Verbole. Education de velopmentcoordinator (OSCE)Alessandro Simonicca. Univ. La Sa pienza diRoma (Italia)lvaro Lpez Gallero. Univ. de la Rep blica(Uruguay)Anya Diekmann. Univ. Li bre de Bruxelles(Blgica)Artur Cristovao. Univ. de Trs-os-Montes e AltoDouro (Portugal)Aurora Pedro Bueno. Uni v. de Va lencia(Espaa)Christou Evangelos. Aegen Univ. (Grecia)Dallen J. Timothy. Brigham Young Univ. (USA)Daniel Hiernaux. Univ. Autnoma Metropolitana(Mxico)

Davis Gruber Sansolo. Univ. Anhembi-Morumbi(Brasil)Diego Medina Muoz. Univ. de Las Palmas deGran Canaria (Espaa)Dimitrios Buhalis. Univ. of B ournemouth(Inglaterra)Elizabette Tamanini. IELUSC Jo inville/SantaCatarina (Brasil)Elisabeth Kastenholz. Univ. de Avei ro(Portugal)Enrique Bigne Alcaiz. Univ. de Va lencia(Espaa)Francisco Calero Garca. Univ. La Laguna(Espaa)

Gemma McGrath. Univ. of the A rts Lo ndon(Inglaterra)Julio Grande. Asesor de Proyectos, Sepinum(Espaa )Lloren Prats i Canalls. Univ. de B arcelona(Espaa)Margaret Hart Univ. de Las Palm as d e GranCanaria (Espaa)

Margarita Barretto. Fund. Univ. Reg. Blumenau(FURB) Univ. Fed. Santa Catarina (UFSC) (Brasil)

Mara D. lvarez. Bogazici University (Turqua)Marianna Sigalas. Aegen Univ. (Grecia)Michael Riley. Univ.of Surrey (Inglaterra)Raoul Bianchi. Univ. of East London (R einoUnido)Regina Schlter. Centro de I nvestigaciones yEstudios Tursticos (Argentina)Richard W. Butler. Univ. o f Strath clyde(Escocia)Rosana Guevara Ramos. Univ. A utnomaMetropolitana (Mxico)Thomas George Baum. Univ. of Stra thclyde(Escocia)Vicente Monfort Mir. Univ. Jaume I (Espaa)Yolanda Bethencourt. Univ. de La L aguna(Espaa)

Detalles de filiacin institucional enpasosonline.org


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PASOS. REVISTA DE TURISMO Y PATRIMONIO CULTURAL

GUA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORESRevista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract



PASOS.RevistadeTurismoyPatrimonioCulturalesunapublicacin en web que se especializa en el anlisisacadmicoyempresarialdelosdistintosprocesosquese desarrollan en el sistema turstico, con especialinters a los usos de la cultura, la naturaleza y elterritorio, la gente, los pueblos y sus espacios, elpatrimonio integral. Desde una perspectiva inter ytransdisciplinarsolicitayalientaescritosvenidosdesdelascienciasylaprcticaadministrativoempresarial.Suobjetivoescumplirconelpapeldeforodeexposicinydiscusin de metodologas y teoras, adems de ladivulgacin de estudios y experiencias. Pretendecontribuiraotrosesfuerzosencaminadosaentenderelturismo y progresar en las diversas formas deprevencin de efectos no deseados, pero tambinperfeccionar la manera en que el turismo sirva decomplementoalamejoraydesarrollodelacalidadde

vidade

los

residentes

en

las

reas

de

destino.

PERIODICIDAD:ENERO;ABRIL;OCTUBRE

Estilo: Para simplificar el proceso de revisin ypublicacinsepidealoscolaboradoresqueseajustenestrictamente a las normas editoriales que acontinuacinseindican.Entrega de originales: los trabajos debern serremitidos a la direccin [email protected] indicando en el Asunto (alremitirelcorreo):PARAPUBLICACINIdioma:Lostrabajossernpublicadosenel idiomaenel que sean entregados (espaol, portugus, ingls ofrancs).Mrgenes: Tres centmetros en todos los lados de lapgina.Tipografa:Seutilizarenel texto la letraTimesNewRomanoArial, tamao10, o similar. En las notas seutilizarelmismotipodeletraatamao9.Noutilizardiversidad de fuentes ni de tamaos. Si se deseadestacar alguna palabra o prrafo dentro del textoutilizarlamismafuenteencursiva.Notas: siempre sern situadas al final, utilizando elmismotipodeletraqueeneltexto(TimesNewRomanoArial)atamao9.Ttuloydatosdelautoroautores:El trabajodebe irencabezado

por

su

ttulo

en

minsculas

ynegrita.

Bajo

l se insertar el nombre del autor o autores,indicando su centro de estudio (universidad,departamento, etc.), empresa o administracin,adems de la especialidad y el correo electrnico decontacto. Si se desea pueden ofrecerse ms datosbiogrficos en una nota, no sobrepasando las 60palabrasResumen: se debe insertar un resumen del artculo(110120palabras)enelidiomaenqueestescritoysu traduccin al ingls. Para los artculos escritos eninglsseaportarsutraduccinalespaol.

Palabrasclave:seindicarn57palabrasclavesobreeltemaprincipal.Texto:El textodebe serescritoa1,5deespaciado ycon una extensin de 5.000 a 9.000 palabras paraartculos y de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opiniones yensayoscomoparanotasde investigacin, incluyendoTtulo, Datos Biogrficos de los autores, Resumen,Introduccin,losapartadosqueseestimenoportunos,Conclusin, Agradecimientos (si fuera pertinente) yBibliografa.Cuadros, Grficos e Imgenes: los artculos puedenincluir cualquier grafismo que se estime necesario.Debern estar referidos en el textos y/o situadosconvenientementeyacompaadosporunpieque losidentifique. Pueden utilizarse colores, pero ha detenerse en consideracin la posibilidad de unapublicacinensoportepapelenblancoynegro.

Abreviaciones y acrnimos: debern ser biendeletreados y claramente definidos en su primer usoeneltexto.Citas y Bibliografa: En el texto las referenciasbibliogrficas harn referencia al autor y el ao depublicacin de la obra citada. Por ejemplo: (Smith,2001) o (Nash, 1990; Smith, 2001). Cuando seconsiderenecesariaunacitamsprecisaseindicarelnmero de pgina (Smith, 2001: 34). La listabibliogrfica al final del texto seguir el ordenalfabticodeautores,siguiendoelformato:Smith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann2001 Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:Tourism issuesof the21stcentury.EnSmith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann (Eds.),Hostsandguestsrevisited:Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 114). NewYork:CognizantCommunication.Smith,ValeneL.1998 War and tourism. An American Ethnography.AnnalsofTourismResearch,25(1):202227.Urry,J.1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel incontemporarysocieties.London:Sage.Para otro tipo de publicaciones se har constarsiempre autor, ao, ttulo y lugar de celebracin opublicacin y un estndar para documentoselectrnicos,indicandodireccinyfechadeacceso.

Originalidad:Serequiereelcompromisodelosautorestanto de la originalidad de su trabajo como de noremitirsutextosimultneamenteaotrosmediosparasupublicacin.Derechos de autor y Responsabilidad: los autoressern los nicos responsables de las afirmaciones ydeclaracionesrealizadasensutexto.ElequipoeditorialdePASOSsereservaelderechodeutilizarenedicionescompilatoriassucesivaslosartculoseditados.Trabajossometidosaevaluacinporparesannimosexternos a la revista. Se notificar a los autores elresultadode la revisin realizadamediante una ficharesumendelarbitrio.


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GUA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORESRevista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract



PASOS.RevistadeTurismoePatrimnioCulturalumapublicao eletrnica especializada na anliseacadmica e corporativa dos distintos processosrelacionados ao sistema turstico, com interesseespecialpelosusosdacultura,naturezae territrio,agente,ospovoseseusespaos,dizer,opatrimnio

integral. A partir de uma perspectiva inter etransdisciplinar, PASOS solicita e encoraja o envio deescritosvindosdascinciasedaprticaadministrativoempresarial.Seuobjetivocumpriropapelde frumde debates de metodologias e teorias, alm dadivulgaodeestudoseexperincias.PASOSpretendecontribuir, juntamente com esforos oriundos deoutras reas, para a compreenso do turismo eavanar sobre as diversas formas de preveno de

efeitos no desejados, bem como aperfeioarse medida em que o turismo sirva de complemento

melhoriada

qualidade

de

vida

dos

residentes

nas

reas

dedestinoturstico.

PERIODICIDADE:JANEIRO;ABRIL;OUTUBRO

Estilo: Para simplificar o proceso de reviso epublicaopedeseaoscolaboradoresqueseustextosseajustemestritamentesnormaseditoriaisindicadasemseguida.Entrega de originais: os trabalhos devero serenviados para a direo [email protected] indicando PARAPUBLICAOnoespaoAssuntodocorreioeletrnico.Idioma:Os trabalhos seropublicadosno idioma emque forem entregues (espanhol, portugus, ingls oufrancs).Margens: Trs centmetros em todos os lados dapgina.Tipografia: Devese utilizar no texto as fontes TimesNew Roman, Arial tamanho 10 ou similar. A notasdevemapresentaromesmotipodeletra,notamanho9.Noutilizarfontesnemtamanhosdistintosnotexto.Caso pretenda destacar alguma palavra ou pargrafoutilizeamesmafonteemcursiva.Notas:Sempredeveroviraofinaldotexto,utilizandoomesmo tipo de letra deste (TimesNew Roman ouArial),notamanho9.

Ttuloedados

do

autor

ou

autores:

O

ttulo

do

trabalhodeverserredigidoemletrasminsculaseemnegrito. O nome do autor ou autores seguir logoabaixo, indicando a instituio de origem(universidade, departamento, empresa, etc.), aespecialidade e o correio eletrnico para contato.Podese inserir dados biogrficos adicionais em umanotadesdequeestanoultrapase60palavras.Resumo: O artigo deve vir acompanhado de umresumo no idioma em que est escrito (110 120palavras)e sua traduo em ingls (resumo e titulo).Paraosartigosescritosem inglsdeveseacrescentarumresumoemespanhol.

Palavraschave: o texto deve conter entre 5 e 7palavraschavesobreotemaprincipal.Texto:O textodeveserescritocomentrelinhas1,5ecomumaextensoentre5.000e9.000palavrasparaartigos e de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opinies eensaios como para notas de investigao. Os artigos

devem conter ttulo, dados biogrficos dos autores,resumo, introduo, as divises internas que sejulguem necessrias, concluso, agradecimientos (sepertinente)ereferncias.Quadros, Grficos e Imagens: Os artculos podemconter quaisquer imagens que se faam necessrias.Elas devero estar referidas no texto e/ou situadasconvenientemente e acompanhadas por umaidentificao. Podese utilizar imagens coloridas,

embora sedevaavaliarapossibiliddedeutilizlaemformatopapel,embrancoepreto.

Abreviaes

e

acrnimos:Devero

ser

definidos

claramentenoseuprimeirousonotexto.Citaes e Referncia: No texto as refernciasbibliogrficas devem apontar o autor e o ano de depublicaodaobracitada.Porexemplo:(Smith,2001)ou(Nash,1990;Smith,2001).Casosejanecessriaumacitaomais precisa se indicar o nmero de pgina(Smith,2001:34).Alistabibliogrficaaofinaldotextoseguir em ordem alfabtica de autores, de acordocomoseguinteformato:Smith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann2001 Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:Tourism issuesof the21stcentury.EnSmith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann (Eds.),Hostsandguestsrevisited:Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 114). NewYork:CognizantCommunication.Smith,ValeneL.1998 War and tourism. An American Ethnography.AnnalsofTourismResearch,25(1):202227.Urry,J.1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel incontemporarysocieties.London:Sage.Paraoutrostiposdepublicaesdeveseindicarautor,ano, ttulo e local de realizao ou publicao. Paradocumentos eletrnicos, deve haver um padro,indicandoendereoedatadeacesso.Originalidade: Solicitase o compromisso dos autores

quantooriginalidade

de

trabalho

submetido

publicao e quanto ao no envio de seu texto paraotrosperidicosououtrosmeiosenquantoesteestiversobavaliaoemPASOS.Direitos autorais e Responsabilidade: os autores soosnicosresponsveispelasafirmaesedeclaraescontidasemseutexto.AequipeeditorialdePASOSsereservaaodireitodeutilizarosartigosjeditadosemcompilaesposteriores.Trabalhossubmetidosaavaliaoporparesannimos

externosrevista.Osautoresseronotificadossobreo resultado da avalio de seu texto mediante umaficharesumodoavaliador.


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PASOS. JOURNAL OF TOURISM AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

NOTES ON STYLE FOR CONTRIBUTORS


Revista gratuita de distribucin en webhttp://www.pasosonline.org E-mail: [email protected]

Pasos. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Heritageis an i nternet publication dedicated t o the aca-demic and m anagement-based a nalysis o f t hediverse pro cesses in scribed with in th e touristsystem, with a particular emphasis on the uses of

culture, th e en vironment an d territo ry, people,communities a nd spaces, int egral heritage. It en-

courages articles fro m inter and trans-disciplinaryperspectives, f rom bot h sci entific and m anage-ment points of view. Its objective is to prov ide aforum for t he di scussion o f methodologies an d

theories as well as the presentation of case studiesand the results of em pirical research. It hopes to

contribute t o on going de bates sur rounding at -tempts to comprehend the phenomenon of tourismand to develop diverse approaches to the preven-tion of the undesirable consequences of tourism aswell as enhance the quality of life of th e residents

of tourist destinations.

Frequency: January; April; October

STYLE: In order to simplify the p rocess of edit-ing a nd publication contributors a re requested tocomply with the following editorial guidelines:

Submission of original manuscripts: papersshould b e sent to th e following em ail a ddress:

[email protected] i nserting F OR PUB -LICATION in the Subject box.Language: Articles will b e published in t he lan-guage in which they are submitted.

Margins: 3 centimetres on all sides.Font: Times New Roman or Arial, in 10-point or

similar. Th e sam e fo nt shou ld b e used in th efootnotes, bu t in 9 -point. Th ere should be novariation in fonts or text size throughout the text.Highlighted paragraphs or words should be indi-

cated in italics.Notes: These should always be placed at the end

of the article an d written in the same font as themain body ( Times New R oman or A rial) i n 9-point.Title and author note(s): The title o f the articleshould be written in lower case and highlighted in

bold, at the top of t he first page. Thi s should beaccompanied by the aut hor(s) full nam e(s) andtitle(s), indicating clearly their institutional affilia-

tion, specialism and email address. If it is desired,further biographic det ails may be i nserted i n aseparate note, not exceeding 60 words.Abstract: An abstract m ust be include d (m ax.

110-120 words)in the same language as the mainarticle. This should be accompanied by a t ransla-

tion in English, or, Spanish, if the language of thearticle is English.

Key words: A l ist of 5 7 key words should beprovided, which relate to the principal themes inthe article.Text: Articles should be type d, 1.5 s paces apart,

exceeding no m ore than 9,000 words (m ax. 35

pages), including the title, biographic information,abstract, i ntroduction, rel evant ap pendices, co n-clusion, acknowledgements (if rel evant) and bib-liography.Tables, Diagrams and Figures: These ca n beincluded in t he article where neces sary. The y

should be referenced in the main text and/or situ-ated where c onvenient a nd accompanied by anexplanatory sub-heading. Colour graphics can beused.Abbreviations and Acronyms: These sh ould bespelt ou t in full an d clearly d efined wh ere th ey

initially appear in the text.

References and Bibliography: The st andardHarvard sy stem shoul d be use d, i ndicating t heauthor and da te of p ublication of the rel evantwork. For example: (Smith, 2001) or (Nash, 1990;Smith 2001). Where it is necessary to in clude amore p recise citation th e page number should be

included (Smith, 2 001: 34). The bibliographyshould be i n alphabetical order at t he end of thearticle, and written in the following format:Smith, Valene L. and Brent, Mary-Ann2001 Int roduction to hosts and guests revisited:

Tourism i ssues of t he 21st century. In

Smith, Valene L. & B rent, Mary-Ann

(Eds.),Hosts and guests revisited: Tourismissues in the 21

stcentury (pp. 1-14). New

York: Cognizant Communications.Smith, Valene L.1998 W ar and tourism. An Am erican ethnogra-

phy. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1):

202-227Urry, J.1990 The tourist gaze: leisure and travel incontemporary societies. London: Sage

For other ki nds of publications, t he name of theauthor, date of publica tion, title and place of pub-

lication/conference title, should be stated.

Rights and Obligations of the Author: Theauthors are entirely responsible for t he content ofthe article. The editors reserve the right to re-printarticles which appear, in subsequent collections.

All papers are subject to external and anony-

mous evaluation, the results of which shall be

communicated to author(s), so that they heed

observations and recommendations.

Journal indexing: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract


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www.pasosonline.org



Volumen 8, Nmero 3 Abril 2010

Special Issue / Nmero Especial

Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural TourismCiudades como espacios creativos para el Turismo Cultural

NDICE

Editorial

Duygu Salman Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism within aCreative Perspective

1

Artculos

$UWtFXORHOLPLQDGRGHOHWHGLWHP

7

Marian Walker Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: APlea for the Con-sideration of History

17

Ebru KuzgunTue GkseliDeniz zalpiBillur SomeriMaria D. Alvarez

Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as aEuropean Capital of Culture

27

Paolo RizziIlaria Dioli

From Strategic Planning to City Branding: SomeEmpirical Evidence in Italy

39

ebnem Gken Dndar Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir,Turkey

51

Elitza Iordanova-KrastevaEugenia WickensAli Bakir

The Ambiguous Image of Linz: Linz09 EuropeanCapital of Cul-ture

67

Hulya Kurgun The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance ofBrand in Cul-tural Destinations

79

Patricia Oom do ValleJlio Mendes0DQXHOD*XHUUHLUR

Sustainable Cultural Events Based on MarketingSegmentation: The Case of Faro Capital of Culture

91

zen Krant YozcuOrhan z

A Model Proposal on the Use of Creative TourismExperiences in Congress Tourism and the CongressMarketing Mix

105

Reseas de publicaciones

Burin Hatipolu Tourism and the branded city: film and identity onthe Pacific rim. (Stephanie H. Donald and John G.Gammack)

115

Dilek nalan Environment and tourism (Andrew Holden) 119


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DDiinnmmiiccaass ddee ttrraannssffoorrmmaacciinn ddeell TTuurriissmmoo eenn eell

ssiigglloo XXXXII

Tenerife (Islas Canarias), 17, 18 y 19 noviembre 2010

Escuela Universitaria de Ciencias Empresariales (Univ. de La Laguna)

C de la Hornera S/N. Edificio de Ciencias Econmicas y Empresariales

NORMAS PARA PRESENTACIN DE TRABAJOS:1. Lascomunicaciones/posters deberntratarsobrecualquieradelostemasrelacionadosconelttulodelcongreso.

ElComitCientficopodrconsiderarlanoadmisindealgntrabajoalconsiderarquenoseadecuaalatemtica

delCongreso.

2. Todas lascomunicacionessernevaluadasdeformaannima,almenos,pordosmiembrosdelComitCientfico

delCongreso.

3. Se establece un premio de 1.000 Euros a la comunicacin (o panel) y poster mejor valorada por el Comit

Cientfico.

4. Fechas para recordar:

COMUNICACIONES PSTERENVIO: 10 de septiembre 2010 ENVIO ABSTRACT: 30 de septiembre 2010ACEPTACIN: 15 de octubre 2010 ACEPTACIN: antes 30 de octubre 20105. TodoslosfirmantesdelostrabajosaceptadosdebernestarinscritoscomoasistentesalXVCongresoAECIT.

6. Laextensinmximadelascomunicacionesdebeserde5000palabras.Laprimerapginadeberincluirelttulo

delacomunicacin,losautores,datoscompletosdecategoraprofesionaleinstitucin,ascomounresumendela

comunicacindeunmximode300palabras. La segundapgina incluirel ttulode la comunicacin sin citar

autoresni institucionesa lasquepertenecen,a findegarantizarelanonimatoenelprocesodeevaluacin.El

formatodebeser:procesadorWord, letraTimesRoman12,coninterlineadodoble,yespaciossuperior,inferior,

izquierdoyderechode2,5.

Laextensinmximade lospsteresserde2pginas.Laprimerapginadeber incluirelttulodelpster, los

autores y datos completos de categora profesional e institucin. El formato del pster ser el siguiente:

mnimo:30x42cm(formatoA3);mximo:50x70cm(formatopster).

7. LostrabajosaceptadosseadjuntarnalahojadeinscripcindesusrespectivosautoresenelXVCongresoAECITa

travsde ladireccindeemaildelXVCongresoAECIT ([email protected]),siendo recibidasdirectamente

porlaSecretaradelXVCongresoAECIT.

8. LascomunicacionesypstersseleccionadassernpresentadasenelXVCongresoAECITypublicadasjuntoconlas

ponencias.

9. Lascomunicacionesaceptadasserneditadas,juntoconlasponencias,enCDROM,olibro,conISBN,queser

publicadodespus

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Congreso,

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podrnserincluidasendichapublicacin.


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Vol. 8(3) Special Issue pgs. 1-5. 2010

www.pasosonline.org

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Editorial

Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism

within a Creative Perspective

Duygu Salman

Boazii University (Turkey)

The last decade has been a period of in-tensive interest for creativity. In fact, it isnot the creativity that is new to human-kind, as people have been creative through-out history. What is new is the rather fre-

quent use of the word creativity to de-scribe a diverse set of areas in our lives.Creative economy (Howkins, 2001), creativeindustries, creative jobs, creative class(Florida, 2002), creative cities and creativetourism (Richards & Wilson, 2006) havebeen some of the areas where the concepthas been utilized to relate the consequentfields to innovation and imagination.

The ever-growing interest with (re)-creation is not without reason. The majorissue almost in all arenas of life today is to

be different. It is the combination of thetwo powerful concepts of our age; competi-tiveness and standardization that callsfor a need to be creative in order to differ-entiate our selves, our products, our jobs,our economies and of course our cities fromthe rest.

The concept of creativity has been intro-duced to the field of tourism relatively re-cently. Acknowledging this new concept ofinquiry, the international conference ofCities as Creative Spaces for CulturalTourism in Istanbul (CCSCT) was organ-

ized to bring together an international

group of scholars to discuss their work andideas about creativity in tourism in orderdeepen the existing knowledge on the topic.

The conference also aimed to integratethe concept of culture with creativity, as it

was mainly organized as a contribution toIstanbul 2010 European Capital of Cultureevent. The aim to include culture in thediscussions of creativity in tourism wastwofold. Firstly, the conference intended tore-present the concept of cultural tourismto discussion in order to understandwhether the terms culture and culturaltourism need to be expanded beyond thecommonly agreed borders and to envisionthe possible influences of this expansion onvarious actors. Secondly, the conference

aspired to address how host cities that har-bour the entire range of cultural heritage,events and actors, can be redesigned andregenerated as creative cultural spacesusing all their tangible and intangible cul-tural assets.

The selection of papers in this special is-sue is skilfully chosen to give you a sense ofthe spirit of the conference. On one hand,there are works of those scholars advocat-ing the regeneration of urban spacesthrough creative cultural practices. Thesepractices do not only regenerate cities

physically, socially, culturally and economi-


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2 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(3) Special Issue. 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

cally, but they also (re)create an image forit, which is a sine qua non for tourism.Thus, discussions of various /contemporaryconcepts of marketing is also a natural andan important part of these papers. On the

other hand, there are papers criticizing andwarning us about the commodification ofculture, creation of fake/induced images forcities, staged authenticities, top-down poli-cies, exclusion of host communities, gentri-fication of culturally diverse neighbour-hoods, and the elitist character of creativecultural practices.

The latter group of papers are writtenby Dogan, Walker and Kuzgun, Gksel,zalp, Somer and Alvarez. They questionthe process and outcomes of creative cul-

tural events /practices. The core idea be-hind these papers is the necessity to honourthe local culture and people as the majoractors in constructing a creative city. Theyall suggest that the efforts towards build-ing a creative city should be linked to theexisting culture.

Among these papers, the one with thestrongest critical tone is by Dogan. Set inthe context of Istanbul, the paper of Dogancritically discusses the commodification ofurban cultures and spaces as a result ofcultural projects that reinvent the imagesof the cities. The author specifically focuseson the nature of the projects within theframe of European Capital of Culture(ECOC). The main purpose is to point outthe fact that these projects should be care-fully planned in order to provide long term,sustainable benefits to its residents.

The paper discusses that although theECOC event can be a valuable opportunityfor the cities, there is also the possibilitythat ECOC projects will create inventedimages by brushing up the visible parts of

the cities for the tourist gaze. The paperis not against the conservation of buildings,however finds it problematic that no inte-gration is built between physical conserva-tion and the host community. It is arguedthat the result is a city left out of its pecu-liarities, its identity and its meaning.

The ideas offered by the paper are dis-cussed through the case of Istanbul, whichis the ECOC for 2010. The author providesan example of Tarlabasi and Sulukule ar-eas where the government plans to clean

up and revitalize through mass displace-

ment of current population for gentrifica-tion purposes and renewal of the historicalbuildings. The article provides these exam-ples in order to discuss that without localpeople the heritage looses its meaning.

Instead of constructing a creative city thenewly renovated buildings end up beingsole theatrical stages of the history. As asolution to this, the article reminds us ofthe importance of community participationand also of Floridas creative triad - Toler-ance, Talent and Technology- (Hospers &van Dalm, 2005) underlining the impor-tance of tolerance to diversity of people inurban spaces.

The paper by Walker focuses on the im-portance of congruency between tourism

image and the tourist product. The authoroffers the consideration of history duringthe branding, imaging and marketing proc-esses of creative tourism projects in orderto protect cultural integrity and authentic-ity of the cities both for the host communityand the tourist. The benefits of using his-tory as a mechanism to prevent culturaldistortion during image formation processis explained to be twofold: On the one hand,if the promotional messages provided dur-ing the image building are linked with his-torical truths, they can be helpful in clarify-ing the transforming reality of the destina-tion, as well as its self-presentation overtime. On the other hand, it will relieve thecommunity members from living up to aninvented destination image to which theydo not subscribe. The paper asks a veryvital question: Whose city, after all, is it?

The final paper of this group is byKuzgun et al. It complements the two for-mer conceptual papers with empirical datacollected from the host community of Istan-bul. The core interest of the paper is to

question whether the Istanbul ECOC pro-gram is successful to link itself with alllayers of the society or whether it only tar-gets people with cultural and monetarycapital. The purpose of the research is todetermine the perceptions of Istanbulslocal community regarding the city as aECOC. The research also proposes a scaleto measure the construct of ECOC.

One important commonality that thispaper has with Dogans, is its understand-ing and appreciation of the local commu-

nity as a highly diversified group. Thus, the


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Duygu Salman 3


authors aim to learn the perceptions oflocal residents with different education andincome levels, and from different districtsof the city, regarding Istanbul as a ECOC.This paper has also a mutual point with

Walkers paper that it perceives the localcommunity as the real owners of the citywho should be a part of creative culturalactivities in order to render sustainability.The research is based on surveys collectedfrom a diverse sample. The results of thestudy show that the perceptions of resi-dents of Istanbul regarding their city as aECOC tend to be positive. However, themajor finding of the study is very impor-tant as it determines that Istanbul ismarked by socio-spatial polarization (Yar-

dimci, 2007) when it comes to the ECOCevent. Thus, better communication of ac-tivities, cultural exchange and recognitionemerges as crucial actions to be taken tobuild the link between social segments

The second group of papers presents ex-amples of creative cultural regenerationprojects. The first one is from Italy, a coun-try which is deeply embedded within theflows of cultural networks. Rizzi and Diolipresent us the case of four major Italiancities -Turin, Genoa, Venice and Piacenza-as examples of how carefully engineeredplanning processes can successfully helpcities regenerate themselves. The secondcase is from Turkey. Gkcen Dndar, pro-vides us with the case of Izmir, a major cityon the Aegean coast of Turkey. It is an ex-ample of a city which carries the potentialand intention to regenerate itself and takepart within the flows of cultural networksbut had hard times right from the planningstage of the process.

The paper by Rizzi and Dioli approachesmarketing as a major policy tool for urban

issues. Thus, they integrate three contem-porary marketing concepts in their paper:Strategic Planning, Place Marketing andCity Branding. The paper discusses thatthrough the holistic use of these three con-cepts cities can renew their image, embedthemselves in knowledge and busi-ness/social networks and increase theircompetitiveness. The authors also suggestthat the successful use of these tools willalso protect the identity of the cities andfight the danger of copy cat reproduction.

Within this framework the paper exam-ines the implications raised in Turin,Genoa, Venice and Piacenza. The paperdiscusses how these cities exploited someevent-based (i.e. 2006 Winter Olympic

Games in Turin, G8 and ECOC 2004 inGenoa, Sensation Carnival in Venice) op-portunities to rebuild and strengthen theiridentity and image, to preserve and trans-mit their heritage and to provide variousforms of artistic expression. It is clearlypictured how successful planning can widenparticipation of the community, eventuallystimulating creativity. In order to analysethe effects of Strategic Planning, PlaceMarketing and City Branding the paperalso provides data on population growth

and attraction of new residents, touristsand visitors, and Foreign Direct Invest-ment (FDI) of these four cities.

While the paper by Rizzi and Dioli ex-hibits accomplished examples of city re-newal projects, the paper of Gkcen Dndarpoints out that those cities like zmir,which seek to establish themselves as com-petitive cities of culture in the global arenashould consider such examples of othernations carefully. However, the author alsounderlines a reality that developing na-tions can go through very different prob-lems during regeneration processes start-ing from the planning stage. The paperprovides us both with the story of zmirsurban development over time and gives usexamples of specific projects as evidences ofIzmirs intention to achieve a culture-ledregeneration. However, as the paper as-serts, the failures of the planning systemconstitutes a major obstacle against anyintention toward a culture-led rise of thecities.

The third group of papers focuses on the

importance of understanding the visitorsboth before and after their experiences in adestination. Having knowledge of visitorimages, expectations, perceptions, opinionsand habits prior to the actual experience isobviously very helpful during the planningstage of events or marketing strategies.Collecting post-data is also a must in un-derstanding whether the previously setgoals are achieved. However, beyond these,it is also very important to note that sinceboth cities and visitors are in a constant

process of transformation, continuous data


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4 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective


collection is very significant to follow thisever-changing process of becoming.

The first article by Iordanova-Krasteva,Wickens and Bakir compares the projectedimage of Linz as a tourist destination pro-

moted by its policy makers with the per-ceived image held by Linzs potential tour-ists in the context of the Linz 2009 ECOC.The main difference between this studyand the monitoring survey conducted bythe policy makers are (1) Instead of closedended questions with predetermined con-structs this study uses open ended ques-tions allowing respondents to share theirfeelings and perceptions of Linz (2) unlikethe study by Linz09 organizers which wasconducted on a mainly Australian sample,

the data of this study was collected from aninternational sample. The results of thestudy suggest a difference between theprojected image of Linz as promoted by theofficials and its perceived image as seen bythe respondents.

The second paper by Kurgun seeks tounderstand the influence of country imageon the destination brand equity. In tryingto understand this relationship the authorconducted a structured survey on 293 for-eign visitors in Izmir. The questions aim toidentify visitors impressions that havebeen effective on their choice of Turkey as avacation destination and to determinewhether there is dependency between theseimpressions and their perceptions aboutIzmir. The results of the study reveal thatthere is a significant and positive relationbetween countrys image and any destina-tions brand equity in the country

Finally, the article by Guerreiro, Oomdo Valle and Mendes aspires to clarify thelink between segmentation and culturalevent management by using the case of

Faro which was designated as the 2005National Capital of Culture by the Portu-guese government. The paper analysessegments of the population that partici-pated in the Faro 2005 event and discussesthe relation between the events successand the degree of satisfaction from partici-pants. The contribution of the paper lies inunderstanding the importance of an ade-quate marketing approach of large-scaleevents, such as cultural events, in order toachieve greater audience appeal/impact, in

order to ensure sustainability. Each par-

ticipant holds a unique set of experiencesand perceptions; more than one productneeds to be made available.

This special issue closes with an articleby Krant Yozcu and cz which brings a

distinct discussion for integrating creativitywith different forms of tourism. The paperdraws attention to the fact that creativetourism activities need not to exist in anisolated fashion from different types oftourism such as congress tourism. Thestudy adapts the 8Ps of tourism marketing-packaging, partnership, people, product,price, promotion, place- to congress tour-ism. A model also illustrates how to inte-grate creative tourism activities to themarketing mix of congress tourism. The

proposed model aims to ensure that theattendants of congress tourism take part increative tourism activities in the destina-tion. The authors suggest that this partici-pation will provide multiple benefits bothfor the tourist and the destination. Thepaper posits that the creative activities willfoster learning the social and culturalstructure of the destination for the tourist,as well as increasing the number of days oftheir stay and contributing to local econ-omy.

Creativity and its relation to culture andurban spaces are very new topics in thefield of tourism. Therefore, further empiri-cal research, both qualitative and quantita-tive is necessary to construct well-established concepts. Thus, it is hoped thatthe selection of papers in this special issuewill not only contribute to existing concep-tual discussions of creative tourism andcreative cultural practices in urban spacesbut also promote further research on thetopic.

ReferencesFlorida, Richard2002 The Rise of the Creative Class. New

York, NY: Basic Books.Howkins, John2001 The Creative Economy. London: Allen

Lane.Hospers, Gert-Jan & van Dalm, Roy2005 How to Create a Creative city? The

Viewpoints of Richard Florida and Jane

Jacobs. Foresight, 7(4):8-12


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Duygu Salman 5


Richards, Greg and Wilson, Julie2006 Developing Creativity in Tourist

Experiences: A Solution to the SerialReproduction of Culture. TourismManagement, 27:1209-1223

Yardimci, Sibel2007 Festivalising Difference: Privatiza-

tion of Culture and Symbolic Exclusionin Istanbul. EUI Working PapersRSCAS 2007/35 Mediterranean Pro-gramme Series.


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Universit degli Studi di

Milano

Corso di Laurea Triennale in

Mediazione Linguistica e

Culturale

Corso di Laurea Magistrale

in Lingue, Culture per la

Comunicazione e la

Cooperazione Internazionale

Cattedra di Lingua Spagnola

Dipartimento di Lingue e

Culture Contemporanee

Piazza Indro Montanelli, 1

I-20099 Sesto San Giovanni

Congreso Internacional

CONFINES MVILES

Lengua y cultura en el discurso del turismoUniversidad de Miln, Polo di Mediazione interculturale e

Comunicazione, Sesto San Giovanni

10-12 noviembre 2010

El congreso "Confini mobili. Lengua y cultura en el discurso

del turismo" pretende proponer una reflexin interdisciplinaria

sobre el discurso que se ha desarrollado en el mbito del

turismo para responder a los objetivos comunicativos de este

sector profesional. Se pondrn de relieve, especialmente, los

procedimientos lingsticos que configuran la identidad y laimagen de los lugares, tambin desde una perspectiva intercul-

tural e interlingstica. En este marco se presentarn los resulta-

dos del Proyecto de Investigacin de Inters Nacional "El len-

guaje de la comunicacin turstica espaol-italiano. Aspectos l-

xicos, pragmticos e interculturales".

La lengua desempea un papel fundamental en la creacin

del lugar turstico, en la representacin del espacio otro y en la

generacin de expectativas; sin embargo, el anlisis crtico del

discurso turstico no se puede afrontar slo con instrumentos

lingsticos, sino que exige superar las fronteras de la especia-lidad. Por esta razn el congreso se abrir tambin a otras

disciplinas (sociologa, antropologa, geografa, estudios cultu-

rales, etc.) que se ocupan de turismo y tratar, entre otros te-

mas, la diversificacin de la oferta tradicional, la construccin

de nuevas identidades urbanas y el encuentro con el otro en los

espacios multiculturales, as como algunos proyectos vincula-

dos con la EXPO 2015 de Miln.

Se partir de una mirada local, dirigida a las nuevas polticas

del territorio que han transformado una ciudad postindustrial

como Sesto San Giovanni en un nuevo escenario social, antro-polgico, lingstico y cultural, con confines mviles; una ciu-

dad visible, por el patrimonio heredado, que hoy en da es

candidata al reconocimiento de la UNESCO. Pero tambin

ciudad invisible, de difcil lectura, impregnada de valores que

potencialmente se pueden plasmar en grandes eventos, como la

prxima EXPO internacional, y en nuevas formas de turismo.

Comit organizador: Maria Vittoria Calvi, Cristina Bordonaba

Zabalza, Giovanna Mapelli, Javier Santos Lpez, Milin Bonomi.

[email protected]


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Vol. 8(3) Special Issue pgs. 7-16. 2010

www.pasosonline.org


'HOHWHGLWHP


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16



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Vol. 8 Special Issue pgs. 17-26. 2010

www.pasosonline.org


Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A Plea for the

Consideration of History

Marian Walkeri

University of Tasmania (Australia)

Abstract: Cultural tou rism around the wo rld is b ig business. Tou rism stak eholders with in tourismdestinations understandably work hard to develop brands and images that entice cultural tourists to visit.However, when tou rism stak eholders i nvolved i n th is pro cess do not prioritise host co mmunity sel f-knowledge, cultural integrity is co mpromised and cultural distortion inevitably arises. The p urpose ofthis paper is to raise the issue of congruity between tourism brand and tourist experience, and to make a

plea for the consideration of hist ory in the im aging, branding an d in terpretation pro cesses. Theconclusion is that the effective use of local history can illuminate host community self-knowledge for the

benefit of both cultural tourist and host community.

Keywords: Cities; Cultural Tourism; History; Images; Identity; Authenticity.

Resumen: El turismo cul tural es un gra n negocio a ni vel internacional. Las part es interesadas en l osdestinos tursti cos traba jan incansablem ente, com o es de espera r, con el fin de desa rrollar m arcas eimgenes que inciten a la visita a los turistas de cu ltura. Sin embargo, cuando las partes interesadas eneste proceso no dan prioridad al conocimiento de s mismo que t ienen las comunidades receptoras delturismo, se c ompromete la in tegridad cultu ral e in evitablemente su rge un a d istorsin cu ltural. Elobjetivo de este artculo es el de reflexionar sobre la cuestin de la congruencia entre la marca turstica yla expe riencia t urstica, y p edir que l a hi storia se c onsidere e n los procesos de i magen, m arca einterpretacin. Se lleg a a la co nclusin de qu e el uso efectivo de la h istoria pu ede ilu minar el

conocimiento de s mismo que t iene la comunidad receptora, creando beneficios tanto para el turista decultura como para la comunidad.

Palabras clave: Ciudades; Turismo de cultura; Historia; Imgenes; Identidad; Autenticidad.

iPhD., University of Tasmania, Tourism History; E-mail: [email protected].


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18 A Plea for the Consideration of History


IntroductionCultural tourists are infinitely interest-

ed in cultural meaning. Signs and symbols,roles and rituals, buildings and landscapesall manifest as marks of meaning and aretherefore of perennial interest to tourists.This is what cultural tourism is all about(Enzensberger, 1996 [1958]). Most touristsanticipate that when they visit a place toexperience other people's cultures they willencounter the real thing: the authenticreality of what Clifford Geertz described as'webs of significance' (1973: 5). This is,after all, why they are there. Despite mod-ern technology, which allows tourists to

travel virtually more easily than they cantravel physically, they still choose the lat-ter. This is because there is no substitutefor the sensual, emotional and physicalexperience of 'being there'. In a post-modern world, where tourists still want toexperience first hand the semiotics of cul-ture the architecture, literature, art,food, history and mores that link the'webs of significance' together, they, likeGeertz, take culture to be an 'interpretive[science] in search of meaning' (Geertz,

1973: 5).In considering cities as creative spacesfor cultural tourism, this paper makes aplea for the consideration of history in theprojects of both branding and imaging ci-ties, as well as in the interpretation andmarketing of creative tourism projects. Itdiscusses how tourism stakeholders short-change cultural tourists as well as the hostcommunity when the depth of history is notreflected in the tourism images, brands andcultural products that are offered and por-trayed. It defends history as a mechanism

to protect cultural integrity and upholdauthenticity for the sake of the host com-munity as well as for the tourist expe-rience. In so doing it extols the importanceof the city's soul its people.

The purpose of this paper is to demon-strate how, through the consideration ofhistory, the historical depth of organic im-ages already evident within communitiescan reveal notions of cultural identity forthe edification of both tourists and hostcommunities. To this end, it raises three

points for consideration and discussion.

First, in imaging and branding cities orany destination for that matter it arguesthat tourism stakeholders should strive forcongruency between the tourism brand andthe tourist experience by prioritising self-knowledge of the host community. Second,it suggests that the temporal component of'becoming' in host communities should beemphasised because organic images withincommunities frequently underpin tourismimages and brands. Third, in seeking tobrand and image the cultural city, tourismstakeholders are encouraged to considerthe ramifications of imaging and brandingon local citizens at large. Host communitymembers cannot be expected to live up to

the image or brand that is projected ontheir behalf if they do not also subscribe toit. This applies to all tourism destinations,not just cities. Host communities need toown their identities and histories for cul-tural identity to be an effective intangibleasset.

Congruence between City Brand and Tour-ist ExperienceCongruence between the tourism image

and the tourist product is clearly essentialin successful imaging and branding. AsHankinson notes, the success of city brand-ing 'requires consistency between the "in-duced" image-building processes created bypromotional bodies such as tour operatorsand local authorities, and the "organic"processes as portrayed by the mass media.In other words, the destination brand likeany other must deliver the promise' (2001:132). In the never-ending dialogue betweenhosts and guests, however, the essence ofthe image or brand can easily become lost

in translation through ignorance or inten-tion. Tourism stakeholders taking on therole of interpreter may compromise culturalintegrity at the expense of communal truth;cultural webs of significance may be trod-den on in the pursuit of pecuniary interest;business elites within host communitiesmay be tempted to project an image, orbrand that effectively puts culture up forsale, regardless of whether the images orbrand projected are authentic. This is un-derstandable. Cultural tourism is big

business. Cultural tourists frequently


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Marian Walker 19


spend more money than other types of tour-ists and stay longer in tourism destinations(CCNC, 2004). However, these temptationsdo not justify a lack of authenticity in imag-ing and branding or in creative tourism

projects since they only diminish the cul-tural tourism experience.

Although post-modern discourse sees'the paradigmatic approach to authenticitybased on MacCannell's beginnings as in-creasingly less relevant' (Cohen, 2007: 81;see Pearce, 2007; Wang, 1999; MacCannell1976) this paper argues that cultural tour-ism demands a greater emphasis on au-thenticity than ever before. As McKercherand du Cros point out, 'the days have welland truly passed where low-quality expe-

riences can satisfy the gullible tourist'(McKercher & du Cros, 2002: 127). Thisapplies equally to imaging and brandingexercises as it does to all cultural tourismenterprises. Nevertheless, as Ward ob-served, 'typical images still exclude muchthat makes up the reality of place. Or theyappropriate aspects of place in ways thatnarrow meaning' ... 'too often the more im-portant themes are still being badly han-dled. Thus the linking of deeper meaningsof place with promotional imperatives israrely done in a convincing way (Ward,1998: 239-240). This paper suggests that agreater use of local history, and the appli-cation of community self-knowledge in theimage formation and branding processes,can help to ameliorate this situation.

Prioritising Host Community Self-KnowledgeHost community self-knowledge is cru-

cial information if tourism stakeholderswish to authentically project cultural iden-

tity in marketing activities. 'Communityself-knowledge' can be understood as in-tangible heritage which, to use the words ofMcKercher and du Cros, can be describedas soft culture 'the people, their tradi-tions, and what they know' (2002: 83). Ig-norance of community self-knowledge bytourism stakeholders can compromise thecultural authenticity and integrity of localcommunities either by accident or inten-tion. In contrast, prioritising host commu-nity self-knowledge can insure against the

compromising of the cultural tourism prod-

uct by acknowledging community self-knowledge in the imaging and brandingprocess. In this respect the work of histo-rians in providing local history informationis crucial.

As a concept, community self-knowledgeis intricately tied up with local history. Itis, in a sense, the container through whichcommunities understand their history. Allcommunities have histories whether theyare known or unknown to the community inquestion. These histories can be understoodas the record of the evolution of local cul-ture, of evolving local identity, of people'becoming' who they are. It is this recordthat ties the threads in Geertz's 'webs ofsignificance' together. Informing com-

munities about their history and culturalidentity is one of the main contributionsthat academic historians make to society.As Tosh observed 'every situation whichrequires our understanding in the present be it a family feud, a political upheavalor a cultural movement is the outcome oftrends and events, some of them spanningless than a lifetime, others extending backto the distant past' (Tosh, 2008: 42). Justas in the case of individuals, communitiesneed to know who they are. They cannotuphold their values or honour their truthsor prevent other people from defining theirreality if they do not own or comprehend acollective identity. Nor can they upholdtheir identity when a portion of the com-munity is willing to compromise the integr-ity of cultural identity for the sake of pecu-niary advantage. In that case, as critics ofRichard Florida's work point out, culturaltourism may say less about the culture of acommunity and more about the creativeclass that portrays it (Scott, 2006; Daly,2004).

Cultural identity has long been an areaof interest within the discipline of history,as has identification of the role of the intel-ligentsia in defining identity. Historiansknow that identifying local cultural identi-ty is complex and that portraying it au-thentically to the world as an image orbrand is inherently difficult. As Williamsobserved,

Every human society has its ownshape, its own purposes, its ownmeanings. Every human society ex-

presses these, in institutions, and in


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arts and learning. The making of asociety is the finding of commonmeanings and directions, and itsgrowth is an active debate andamendment under the pressure of

experience, contact, discovery, writ-ing themselves into the land (1958:6).

Moreover, the many differences withinall societies militate against cohesiveagreement on social portrayal. Totalagreement requires either exceptional cir-cumstances or an extraordinary level ofsocial cohesion.

For their part, however, although manyhistorians agree that there is never just oneidentity but many, and moreover that iden-

tity is continually being fractured, ques-tioned and redefined (White, 1981: x; Whit-lock & Carter, 1992), others believe thatcommunities do hold general notions ofidentity, particularly if these notions pleasethem or provide for them a sense of belong-ing (Anderson, 1991; Walker, 2008). Thatis why, as Davison points out, 'the historyof towns, suburbs and neighbourhoods con-tinues to flourish': 'Local history, whichlinks our aspirations for community to asense of place, our fragile present to a see-mingly more stable past, has a strong claimon the contemporary imagination' (2000:197). In this respect, the contribution thatlocal history makes to the informing ofcommunity self-knowledge is both manifoldand essential to the upholding of authentic-ity in cultural tourism.

The Temporal Concept of 'Becoming' inHost CommunitiesOne way that history can contribute to

the informing of community self-knowledge

is to elucidate the process of 'becoming' inhost communities and to understand theevolving connection between the image thata country presents of itself over time andthe reality of the place as it is. This mightalso be described as the difference betweenimage and truth. In tourism, of course, thisabstraction always presents its own diffi-culties because, although tourism imagesare portrayed as truths, they are essential-ly subjective truths that may have no rela-tion to authenticity or even contemporary

reality. Hence a paradox persists in tour-

ism because, although tourism is under-pinned above all by considerationsgrounded in reality such as commercialimperatives, there is an imaginative psy-chological dimension to tourism without

which it simply would not exist. In mosttourism destinations, many different tour-ism images, both visual and written, areused to portray the host community overtime, whether or not they are authentic.Finding the key to understanding themeaning and motivation behind the im-ages, and the way they evolve, can shedlight on the identity of the host community.In this respect it is instructive to reviewhow the concept of image works in tourism.

Paying Attention to the Concept of Imagein TourismIn the early 1970s pioneer work was un-

dertaken on the tourism image formationprocess. In 1972 Gunn suggested that im-age formation could be divided into twoessential levels induced or organic (1972:23-26). In his view, organic images ema-nated 'from sources not directly associatedwith any development organisation. Newsreports, movies, newspaper articles andother ostensibly unbiased sources of infor-mation generate organic images of places'(Gartner, 1996:461). These images of aplace can form in peoples minds regardlessof tourism advertising and can developfrom a wide variety of sources such as newsaccounts, export advertising and word ofmouth. They also derive and evolve fromhistorical ideas, myths, memories or anynumber of preconceived imaginings. Theresulting image or images may be eitherpositive or negative since by definition anorganic or 'holistic' image incorporates all

aspects of a place both good and bad. Incontrast to organic images, induced imagesare a function of the marketing or promo-tion efforts of a destination area or busi-ness' (Gartner, 1996: 461). In this sense theterm 'induced image' is synonymous with'tourism image'. Tourism images, however,are invariably positive and can present avery different image of a place from thatwhich might be described as truth.

Invoking Gunn, Gartner suggested thatthe underlying difference between an in-

duced image and an organic image is the


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Marian Walker 21


control that people in the destination areahave over how the image is presented'(1996: 461). When holiday clients tenta-tively consult a travel agent, visit the In-ternet, or approach any other distribution

point to discuss going on a holiday, for ex-ample, they are not actually buying a prod-uct that they can taste, smell, touch or car-ry away with them. What they are buyingis an image that is essentially an idea intheir head. The travel agent, informationofficer, or tourism website acts as a conduitto this idea just as other tourism promo-tional media does. As Gartner makes thepoint, 'since tourism products are anamorphous mass of experiences, producedand consumed simultaneously, with no

opportunity to sample the product prior topurchase, the images someone holds act asa surrogate for product valuation' (1996:456). Such contact points between productand purchase have enormous power in in-fluencing the destination choice of potentialtourists. It is precisely for this reason thattourism images present for the historian arich source of cultural identity. Tourismimages are frequently a confirmation or areaction to organic images and are usuallyinformed by and invested with ideas thatthemselves are the product of memory,myths and mores.

In short, images of a destination are notonly products of the imagination, whetherthey are based on either reality or elementsof reality, they are also products of a de-sired reality, which is perpetrated either bythe supply side (the destination region) orthe demand side (the generating region).This makes tourism images ripe for histori-cal analysis and the possible uncovering ofhitherto unknown notions of cultural iden-tity. Tourism images exist along a spec-

trum of ideas that are only restricted by theknowledge and imagination of the image-maker and are open to manipulation by anyparty or parties who may benefit fromthem. This is the case whether tourismimages are being generated from outsidethe host community or whether they arebeing generated from within the host com-munity. There is, however, a difference.Images generated from outside a hostcommunity are almost always predicatedon commercial imperatives rather than any

concerns driven by issues of identification

with the image.Images generated from within a host

community are frequently predicated notjust on commerce but also issues concern-ing social solidarity and identity. It is

through this process of organic image for-mulation that notions of identity can fre-quently develop. Tensions created in theproduction of tourism images can revealnotions about identity that otherwise maynot have been examined. An authenticimage, for example, can be dissolved overtime if host communities do not identifywith the image or feel that it insufficientlyportrays internalised perceptions of theirsocial identity. Similarly, a lack of authen-ticity in an image initially projected can,

over time, become authentic if sufficientpeople have a large enough investment inthe image. Clearly, authenticity is a cru-cial concept to consider in the connectionbetween image and identity in the imageformation process since these images them-selves have a history, which are the directresult of the process of culture. This propo-sition can further be explicated through anunderstanding of the historical depth of theconcept of image.

The Historical Depth of the Concept of Im-ageIn understanding that images have their

own history, the work of eminent twentiethcentury economist, Kenneth Boulding(1956), is illuminating and informative.Boulding's work helps to illustrate thecomplexity of culture but also the complexprocessof culture, which is so often lost inbranding and imaging and tourismprojects. In this respect it helps us to un-derstand the historical depth of the concept

of image. In tourism, when we talk aboutthe concept of image, we usually see it in aone-dimensional sense, for example, a pho-tograph of a palm tree fringing a whitesandy beach. However we can invoke it ata much deeper level. In contrast, to how itis frequently invoked in tourism, Bouldinginterprets the concept of image in a tem-poral sense. In Boulding's analysis theconcept of image is understood as a socialtranscript that moves through time. Theimage is built up as a result of all past

experience of the possessor of the image.


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Part of the image is the history of the im-age itself (1956: 6). For Boulding impres-sions have a history. They are investedwith ideas that inform the image. Bouldingmakes this point when he says:

The mind of man is a vast storehouse offorgotten memories and experiences. Itis much more than a storehouse, howev-er. It is a genuine image affecting ourconduct and behaviour in ways that wedo not understand without consciousmind (1956: 53).The essential point about Boulding's

meaning of image is that it is not staticbutdynamic. It is in fact a 'transcript' passeddown from one generation to another:

The basic bond of any society, culture,

subculture or organisation is a publicimage,' that is, an image the essentialcharacteristics of which are shared bythe individuals participating in thegroup. ... A public image almost invaria-bly produces a 'transcript'; that is, arecord in more or less permanent formwhich can be handed down from genera-tion to generation (1956: 64).In 'primitive, non-literate societies the

transcript take the form of verbal rituals,legends, poems, ceremonial and the like,the transmission of which from generationto generation is always one of the principalactivities of the group' (1956: 64-65). Inmodern, technological societies, however,the transcript is more sophisticated involv-ing the camera, the tape recorder, and thecomputer. Nevertheless, despite the ad-vantage of technology in developing thetranscript, 'we are still unable, at least todate, to record touch, taste and smell. Wehave no direct means of transcribing sensa-tions, emotions, or feelings except throughthe crowded channels of symbolic represen-

tation' (1956: 65).When we understand the concept of im-

age as a social transcript, we can appre-ciate the temporal importance of images.Images are always informed by and in-vested with ideas that themselves are theproduct of memory, myths and mores. Inthis sense tourism images, and the waysthat they manifest, are the end product ofcultural identity not the beginning. This iswhy the historical depth of images alreadyevident within communities can reveal

notions of cultural identity that can inform

community self knowledge and by exten-sion imaging and branding and creativetourism enterprises. Explication of thispoint can be demonstrated by using theexample of the historical interplay between

organic images and tourism images inTasmania. Although a region rather than acity, this example nevertheless demon-strates how historical analysis can contri-bute to a greater understanding of the in-terplay between organic images and tour-ism images and their effect on culturalidentity.

The Historical Depth of Images Tasma-nia as an ExampleFor the first fifty years of its settlement

in the nineteenth century the Island ofTasmania, then known as Van Diemen'sLand, was variously known around theBritish Empire as the 'Dunghill of Eng-land'. This colloquial and derogatory ex-pression, described the island's organicimage as a repository for some of the worstcriminals in the British Empire since itsbirth as a penal colony in 1803. Through-out this period the burden of bearing theimage caused the free settlers of Van Di-emen's Land considerable consternation.The shame attached to such an appallingorganic image drove them to consider howthey could improve the 'impressions' thatoutsiders held about them. Soon they dis-covered that a vehicle tailor-made for thepurpose of removing and creating'impressions' could be found in immigrationand tourism promotion. Once discovered,various interested bodies and individualswho in some way stood to benefit employedthis vehicle. For middle-class bourgeoisTasmanians it became a particularly potent

tool and offered important opportunities.Behind their efforts to promote Tasmaniawere always two great motives. The firstwas to remove the 'hated stain' of convict-ism and achieve social and moral redemp-tion from the shame that accompaniedtheir initial image as a penal colony. Thesecond was to promote Tasmania as awholesome and attractive destination tomuch-needed emigrants and touriststhroughout the British Empire and theworld. Because the second motive was to

some extent dependent on the first, both


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Marian Walker 23


motives were inextricably intertwined.In reaction to their organic image as the

'Dunghill of England', many different im-ages, both visual and written, were used toportray Tasmania whether they were au-

thentic or not (Walker, 2008). The themesof Englishness, scenery, fertility and cli-mate that were ubiquitous in their immi-gration and tourism images speak to thisfact as Tasmanians embellished them tocounteract their negative organic image.As a result Tasmanians began to identifywith these themes and over time developeda peculiar attachment to 'place' and to thepromotion of nature over culture, whichendures even today. In short, Tasmaniansbegan to believe and identify with their

own rhetoric. The more the images wereused to promote Tasmania to the widerworld, the more Tasmanians subscribed tothem and the more authentic they becameover time. By the late nineteenth century,Tasmanians had a huge investment inidentifying with the contemporary positivemeanings inherent in the immigration andtourism images they projected.

Because of their unique and remarkablebeginnings social redemption and positiveimage building were a necessity for earlysettler Tasmanians. As a result, in Tas-mania, the image-imagination spectrumwas heavily biased toward the imaginationas Tasmanias image oscillated between thevisitor-generating region and the visitor-destination region, and a consciousness ofhow best to portray Tasmania against anorganic image that was anything but posi-tive. Much of the rhetoric surroundingtourism in Tasmania, therefore, developedfrom the rhetoric produced to entice immi-grants to Tasmanias shores and from thedisjuncture between the colony's holistic

image and the images those interested indeveloping a positive image wished to por-tray. A corollary was that this situationunavoidably impacted on a Tasmanianidentity, first through the exercise of pro-moting nature over culture as a way ofameliorating the hated stain, and secondthrough the mechanism of the 'social tran-script' whereby succeeding generationsimbibed the images projected to counter the'hated stain' as part of their identity. Con-sequently, over time, Tasmanians changed

their image from being a colony where the

inhabitants had to be vindicated to a statein which having been 'redeemed' they livedin a place, at least in their own eyes, thatwas like no other country in the world(Burn, 1840; TTPC, 1960).

Without doubt the image formationprocess in Tasmania played a central rolein the development of a Tasmanian identityand is still reflected in Tasmanian societytoday. Few contemporary Tasmanian tour-ism stakeholders, however, are cognisant ofthe deeper meanings behind the inheritedimages and brands that they project. Thefirst reason for this is that community self-knowledge about the history of the inter-play between organic and tourism imagesthat Tasmanians have owned over time is

generally not well known. Another is thatmany tourism stakeholders do not see it astheir job to enquire into the deeper mean-ings behind the images that they have in-herited. Consequently they frequentlyadopt and apply images without question-ing their deeper meaning or realising that afuller explanation for tourists could onlyenhance their cultural tourism products.This is likely to be a situation replicated inother tourism destinations. As Hankinsonmakes the point, 'while there is a consider-able body of research into the developmentof induced and complex destination images,little attention appears to have been givento the significance of images formedthrough organic processes despite theirrecognised significance to destination mar-keting' (2004: 7). It makes sense, therefore,for the work of historians to be integratedmore significantly into the imaging andbranding process as well as creative tour-ism projects. Historians are perhaps theonly practitioners who can effectively un-cover the deeper meanings within the his-

torical image formation process. Throughtheir contribution greater credence can begiven to authenticity over invention whenconsidering the stories that inform the im-ages and brands that tourism destinationsproject, as well as the creative tourism ven-tures that are offered.

The Ramifications of Imaging and Brand-ing on Local CitizensThis paper has stressed the centrality of

the concept of 'becoming' in imaging and


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branding cultural cities and has argued forgreater attention to be paid to the historicaldepth of the concept of image as well as theorganic processes that inform the tourismimages that host communities project. It

has suggested that tourism stakeholdersneed to be cognisant of local history andcommunity self-knowledge when they im-age, brand and interpret cultural productsfor both the benefit of cultural tourist andhost community. In tourism, culture is fre-quently reduced to an activity or an image.Hence we have the branding and imageprocess and now renascent tourism ven-tures such as creative tourism. However,tourism stakeholders need to be aware thatreducing culture to an image or an activity

does not make it any less complex. Nordoes creating a tourism venture in order toportray culture make it any less so. Cul-tures, as anthropologists know, are in aconstant state of 'becoming' a factor veryoften lost in the branding and imaging oftourism destinations and in tourismprojects generally. In this respect it mustbe remembered that tourism imagesrepresent a process rather than an end inthemselves and that therefore the authen-tic interpretation of their meaning becomesessential to tourists.

This paper suggests that the ramifica-tion of not prioritising host community self-knowledge in imaging and brandingprojects is that images may be developedand projected that are incongruent withlocal culture. In this event they distortreality at the expense of the host communi-ty. While branding and imaging a city canunite a community under one banner, itcan also divide communities that lack acohesive social story. Host communitymembers cannot be expected to live up to

an image or brand that is projected on theirbehalf if they do not also subscribe to it. Inthis respect tourism stakeholders need toconsider the ramifications on tourists aswell as local citizens. Host communitiesneed to own an investment in their ownimage if they are to live up to the image orbrand that is projected on their behalf.They need to be a partner to it. In the caseof cities, for example, the question becomes'whose city, after all, is it?' Strategically,and in every way, it makes more sense for

tourism stakeholders to project an image

that already reflects authentic culture.Clearly, cities, and their host communi-

ties have a greater chance of authenticallycultivating creative places for cultural tour-ism if the integrity of their own local cul-

ture is honoured. As Holcomb points out,the wrong kind of 'packaging and promot-ing the city to tourists can destroy its soul.The city is commodified, its form and spiritremade to conform to market demand notresidents' dreams' (Holcomb, 1999: 68).Attention to what is important to the hostcommunity is central to its success as acreative city (Florida, 2002; see Scott,2006). According to Florida this is, afterall, the reason why cultural tourists enjoytravelling there and why the creative class

is attracted there. Evidence corroboratesthis. In surveys undertaken in both Lon-don and New York tourists were attractedto these cities not by individual attractionsbut 'by qualities of place and culture "architecture", "people", "food", "culture","diversity''' (Maitland, 2007: 30). Whilethese qualities represent a diverse mixture,elements that attract the cultural touristapproximate best to a 'sense of identity andplace'. As Evans notes in quoting Pratt, 'acreative city cannot be founded like a ca-thedral in the desert: it needs to be linkedto and be part of an existing cultural envi-ronment. We need to appreciate complexinterdependencies, and not simply use oneto exploit the other' (Evans, 2009: 1031;Pratt, 2008: 35; see Ashworth & Tun-bridge, 1990). In being aware that imagesthemselves have a history that is owned bythe host community, historical thinkingand analysis can help uncover these com-plex interdependencies for the benefit ofboth host community and cultural tourist.

ConclusionIn conclusion, the main contribution of

this paper has been to highlight the impor-tance of history in the tourism imaging andbranding process. Because all host com-munities own organic images which them-selves have a history, historical analysiscan not only contribute to community self-knowledge, which is its brief, but concomi-tantly to the depth of meaning in the tour-ism imaging and branding and interpreta-

tion processes. The aim was not to propose


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Marian Walker 25


ways, for example, as to how tourism prac-titioners could improve a bad destinationimage this is a subject for a differentpaper but rather to highlight how anunderstanding of the image formation

process within communities can inform anunderstanding of cultural identity for thebenefit of cultural tourism. It is suggestedthat if the concepts of culture and culturaltourism are to be expanded to accommodaterenascent cultural tourism ventures suchas creative tourism, then this expansionmust also pay homage to the intangibleconcepts of social identity, integrity andauthenticity that have developed historical-ly. In other words imaging and branding ofcontemporary cultural tourism products

needs to incorporate a temporal componentthat allows for the complexity of culture tobe conveyed as understood by social theor-ists like Klukhohn (1949) and Williams(1958) as well as the historical and contem-porary reality of the host community asthis can only enhance cultural tourismproducts. In considering cities as creativespaces for cultural tourism, then, this pa-per makes a plea for the consideration ofhistory in maintaining authenticity in tour-ism images and brands as well as in crea-tive tourism projects. It defends history asa mechanism to uphold authenticity andprotect against cultural distortion.

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on the Origin and Spread of National-

ism. London: Verso.Ashworth, Gregory & Tunbridge, John1990 The Tourist-Historic City. London:

Belhaven Press.Boulding, Kenneth E.1956 The Image: Knowledge in Life and

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Burn, David1840 Vindication of Van Diemens Land in

a Cursory Glance at her Colonists as

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CCNC

2004 Cultural Tourism. Creative City

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2007 "'Authenticity' in Tourism Studies:Aprs la Lutte". Tourism RecreationResearch, 32(2):75-82.

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Glasses". Grantmakers in the ArtsReader. Summer 2004. Available atwww.anndalyconsulting.com/articles/florida.html (accessed 14 July 2009).

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tory. St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin.

Enzensberger, Hans Magnus1996 [1958] "A Theory of Tourism". New

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ceton: Harper Collins.Gunn, Clare A.1972 Vacationscape: Designing Tourist

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Hankinson, Graham2004 "The Brand Images of Tourism Desti-

nations: A study of the saliency of or-ganic images". The Journal of Product

and Brand Management, 13(1):6-14.Hankinson, Graham2001 "Location Branding: A study of the

branding practices of 12 English cities".Journal of Brand Management, 9(2):127-142.

Holcomb, Briavel1999 "Marketing Cities for Tourism". In

Judd, Dennis R. and Fainstein Susan S.(Eds.): The Tourist City. New Havenand London: Yale University Press.

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1949 Mirror for Man. New York: McGraw-


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Hill.MacCannell, Dean1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the

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of New Tourism Areas in Cities". InSmith, Melanie K. (Ed.): Tourism, Cul-ture and Regeneration. Wallingford:CABI.

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Between Tourism and Cultural Heritage

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2007 "Persisting with Authenticity: Glean-ing Contemporary Insights for FutureTourism Studies". Tourism RecreationResearch, 32(2):86-89.

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Recibido:

Reenviado:

15/09/2009

20/12/2009

Aceptado: 23/02/2010

Sometido a evaluacin por pares annimos


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Vol. 8 Special Issue pgs. 27-37. 2010

www.pasosonline.org


Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as a European

Capital of Culture

Ebru KuzguniTue GkseliDeniz zalpiBillur Someri

Maria D. AlvareziiBoazii University (Turkey)

Abstract: Istanbul has been declared the European Capital of Culture in 2010, due to its past as thecradle of many civilizations and host to various cultures. Today, Istanbul still includes a variety ofcultures, ethnic backgrounds, religions and socio-cultural levels. People with different origins,languages, beliefs and traditions are living together in the city. As Istanbul has received in recent yearslarge numbers of migrants from other parts of Turkey, the gap between the lifestyles of residents haswidened. Therefore, this research aims to determine the perceptions of Istanbuls inhabitants, who have

highly diversified identities and lifestyles, regarding the city as a European Capital of Culture. A scale tomeasure the construct of European Capital of Culture is also proposed.

Keywords: European; Capital of Culture; Istanbul; City; Local Perceptions.

Resumen: Estambul ha sido declarada Capital Europea de la Cultura para el ao 2010, debido a su pa-sado como cuna de diferentes civilizaciones y duea de diversas culturas. Hoy Estambul incluye an unagran variedad de culturas, etnias, religiones y niveles socioculturales. Gente de diversos orgenes, len-guas, creencias y tradiciones viven juntos en la ciudad. Debido al gran nmero de inmigrantes de otraspartes de Turqua que Estambul ha recibido en los ltimos aos, la diferencia entre los estilos de vida de

los residentes se ha incrementado. Por lo tanto, esta investigacin aspira a determinar las percepcionesde los habitantes de Estambul que gozan de diversas identidades y estilos de vida, en relacin a esta

ciudad como Capital Europea de la Cultura. Tambin se propone una escala para medir el concepto deCapital Europea de la Cultura.

Palabras clave: Europea; Capital de la Cultura; Estambul; Ciudad; Percepciones de los lugareos.

iGraduates of Boazii University, Dpt. of Tourism Administration, [email protected],

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Associate Professor Dr. Maria D. Alvarez, Dpt. of Tourism Administration, Boazii University, [email protected]


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28 Perceptions regarding Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture


IntroductionIstanbul has been the meeting point of

various cultures and has been hosting dif-ferent civilizations for centuries. With itsrich historical and cultural heritage, aswell as its culture and art life, Istanbul hasbeen attracting the attention of the world.Istanbul has also achieved an increasinglyimportant financial position as the econom-ic hub of Turkey, drawing investmentthrough its strategic location. In recentyears, a rapidly increasing number of cul-tural activities, such as international musicand film festivals, biennials, and exhibi-tions of world famous artists, provide rec-

ognition to the city in the internationalculture arena. Economically, Istanbul isremarkable from various aspects, includingits large potential manpower, increasingforeign investments and stock exchange.Finally, Turkeys temporary membership inthe United Nations Security Council andthe ongoing negotiations with the Euro-pean Union render the country politicallycrucial. As such, Istanbul, the most famouscity of Turkey, gets its share from this pop-ularity through international submissions

and congresses at high level politics. As aresult of this increasing fame and its an-cient roots in history, Istanbul has receivedthe title of European Capital of Culture forthe year 2010 (ECOC 2010) and culturalactivities in the city have accelerated be-cause of this event.

Istanbul is highly diversified in terms ofeconomic, social and political structures.Especially in spatially-segregated areas,cultural exchange and recognition is crucialto prevent disconnection between socialsegments (Yardimci, 2007). Yardimci (2007)

states that if diverse identities and culturesdo not form a combined urban culture,there would be multiple cities rather thanmultiplicity, which would result in frag-mentation and polarization. This statementis also true for Istanbul, considering thehighly secured luxury villas next to varo(the Turkish term for slum areas) regionsor the rising skyscrapers right opposite thegecekondu (the Turkish term for illegallyconstructed shanty houses). Considering allthese, it can be questioned whether the

scope of ECOC 2010 Istanbul is broad

enough to cover all layers of society, orwhether it is just targeting a limited seg-ment of residents with its upscale and ad-vanced-artistic activities. The ECOC pro-gram, to be suc

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